BAGIAN KETIGA: MANAJEMEN PADA ABAD KE 21

BAGIAN KEDUA: THE MANAGEMENT PROCESSPENGANTAR MANAJEMENMATRIKULASI PRGRAM PASCA SARJANA STIE INDONESIA BANJARMASINHj. NIRZA MARZUKI HUSIEN, SE, MSi

Copyright by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 12The Management ProcessOrganizingDetermining howbest to groupactivities andresourcesControllingMonitoringand correctingongoing activitiesto facilitate goalattainmentPlanning andDecision MakingSetting the organiza-tions goals anddeciding how bestto achieve themLeadingMotivating membersof the organizationto work in the bestinterests of theorganizationFigure 1.2Copyright by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 13Management in OrganizationsInputs from the environmentHuman resourcesFinancial resourcesPhysical resourcesInformation resourcesPlanningand decisionmakingLeadingOrganizingControllingGoals attainedEfficientlyEffectivelyFigure 1.14GeneralEnvironmentGeneralEnvironmentGeneralEnvironmentSocioculturalGlobalTechnologicalPolitical/LegalDemographicEconomicThe External EnvironmentIndustryEnvironmentThreat of new entrantsPower of suppliersPower of buyersProduct substitutesIntensity of rivalryCompetitorEnvironment5External Environmental AnalysisA continuous process which includesScanning: Identifying early signals of environmental changes and trendsMonitoring: Detecting meaning through ongoing observations of environmental changes and trendsForecasting: Developing projections of anticipated outcomes based on monitored changes and trendsAssessing: Determining the timing and importance of environmental changes and trends for firms strategies and their management56External Environmental AnalysisStrategic IntentStrategic MissionThe ExternalEnvironmentAnalysis of general environmentAnalysis of industry environmentAnalysis of competitor environmentThe ExternalEnvironmentCopyright by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 77The Planning ProcessStrategic goalsStrategic plansTactical goalsOperational goalsOperational plansThe organizations missionThe Environmental ContextPurposePremisesValuesDirectionsTactical plansFigure 7.1Copyright by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 78Contingency PlanningOngoing planning processAction point 1Action point 2Action point 3Action point 4Develop plan,consideringcontingency eventsImplement plan andformally identifycontingency eventsSpecify indicatorsfor the contingencyevents and developcontingency plans foreach possible eventSuccessfully completeplan or contingencyplanMonitor contingency event indicators andimplement contingency plan if necessaryFigure 7.3Copyright by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 79Developing and Executing Tactical PlansDeveloping tactical plansRecognize and understandoverarching strategic plansand tactical goalsSpecify relevant resource andtime issuesRecognize and identify humanresource commitmentsExecuting tactical plansEvaluate each course of actionin light of its goalObtain and distributeinformation and resourcesMonitor horizontal and verticalcommunication and integrationof activitiesMonitor ongoing activities forgoal achievementFigure 7.4Copyright by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 710Types of Operational Plans

Table 7.1Copyright by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 711Barriers to Goal Setting and Planning

Table 7.2Copyright by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 712Formal Goal-Setting ProcessStartingthe formalgoal-settingprogramEstablishmentof organiza-tional goalsand plansCollaborativegoal settingand planningCommunicat-ing organiza-tional goalsand plansMeetingVerifiablegoals andclear plansCounselingResourcesPeriodicreviewEvaluationFigure 7.5Copyright by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 813SWOT AnalysisStrengthsWeaknessesOpportunitiesThreatsMissionAn organizations fundamental purposeGood StrategiesSWOT AnalysisTo formulate strategies that support the missionThose that support the mission andexploit opportunities and strengthsneutralize threatsavoid weaknessesInternal AnalysisStrengths(distinctivecompetencies)WeaknessesThreatsExternal AnalysisOpportunitiesFigure 8.1Copyright by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 1014Structure of Entrepreneurial Organizations (contd)Identifying a Genuine Business OpportunityWho are my customers?Where are they?At what price will they buy my product?In what quantities will they buy?Who are my competitors?How will my product vary from those of my competitors?

Copyright by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 815Porters Generic Strategies

Table 8.1Copyright by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 816The Miles and Snow Topology

Table 8.2Copyright by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 817The Product Life CycleIntroductionTimeStagesGrowthMaturityDeclineHighLowSales VolumeFigure 8.2Copyright by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 818Related Diversification

Table 8.3Copyright by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 819The BCG MatrixRelative market shareCash cowsDogsHighLowHighLowQuestionmarksStarsMarket growth rateFigure 8.3Source: Perspectives, No. 66, The Product Portfolio, Adapted by permission from The Boston Consulting Group, Inc., 1970.Copyright by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 820The GE Business ScreenCompetitive positionLowWinnerMediumHighGoodCompetitive position1.Market share2.Technological know-how3.Product quality4.Service network5.Price competitiveness6.Operating costsIndustry attractiveness1.Market growth2.Market size3.Capital requirements4.Competitive intensityPoorMediumWinnerProfitproducerWinnerAveragebusinessLoserQuestionmarkLoserLoserIndustry growth rateFigure 8.4Source: From Strategy Formulation: Analytical Concepts, by Charles W. Hofer and Dan Schendel. Copyright 1978 West Publishing. Used by permission of South-Western College Publishing, a division of International Thomson Publishing, Inc., Cincinnati, Ohio, 45227.Copyright by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 921Decision-Making ConditionsLevel of ambiguity and chances of making a bad decisionLowerHigherModerateCertaintyUncertaintyRiskThe decisionmaker facesconditions of...Figure 9.1Copyright by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 922The Classical Model of Decision MakingWhen faced with adecision situation,managersshould......and end up witha decision that bestserves the interestsof the organization.obtain completeand perfect informationeliminate uncertaintyevaluate everythingrationally and logicallyFigure 9.2Copyright by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 923Steps in the Rational Decision-Making Process

Table 9.1aCopyright by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 924Steps in the Rational Decision-Making Process (contd)

Table 9.1bCopyright by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 925Evaluating Alternatives in theDecision-Making ProcessIs the alternativefeasible?Eliminate fromconsiderationIs the alternativesatisfactory?Are the alternativesconsequencesaffordable?Retain for furtherconsiderationYesYesYesEliminate fromconsiderationEliminate fromconsiderationNoNoNoFigure 9.3Copyright by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 926The Administrative Model of Decision MakingFigure 9.4When faced with adecision situationmanagers actually...and end up with adecision that may or maynot serve the interestsof the organization.use incomplete andimperfect informationare constrained bybounded rationalitytend to satisficeCopyright by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 927Advantages and Disadvantages ofGroup and Team Decision Making

Table 9.2PlanDescription

Single-use planDeveloped to carry out a course of action not likely to be repeated in the future

ProgramSingle-use plan for a large set of activities

ProjectSingle-use plan of less scope and complexity than a program

Standing planDeveloped for activities that recur regularly over a period of time

PolicyStanding plan specifying the organizations general response to a designated problem or situation

Standard operating procedureStanding plan outlining steps to be followed in particular circumstances

Rules and regulationsStanding plans describing exactly how specific activities are to be carried out

Major BarriersInappropriate goalsImproper reward systemDynamic and complex environmentReluctance to establish goalsResistance to changeConstraints

Overcoming the BarriersUnderstanding the purposes of goals and planningCommunication and participationConsistency, revision, and updatingEffective reward systems

Strategy TypeDefinitionExamples

DifferentiationDistinguish products or servicesRolex (watches)Mercedes-Benz (automobiles)Nikon (cameras)Cross (writing instruments)Hewlett-Packard (hand-held calculators)

Overall cost leadershipReduce manufacturing and other costsTimexHyundaiKodakBicTexas Instruments

FocusConcentrate on specific regional market, product market, or group of buyersTag HeuerFiat, Alfa RomeoPolaroidWaterman PensFisher Price

Strategy TypeDefinitionExamples

ProspectorIs innovative and growth oriented, searches for new markets and new growth opportunities, encourages risk takingAmazon.com3MRubbermaid

DefenderProtects current markets, maintains stable growth, serves current customersBiceBay.comMrs. Fields

AnalyzerMaintains current markets and current customer satisfaction with moderate emphasis on innovationDupontIBMYahoo

ReactorNo clear strategy, reacts to changes in the environment, drifts with eventsInternational Harvester(in the 1960s and 1970s) Joseph Schlitz Brewing Co. W. T. Grant

Basis of RelatednessExamples

Similar technologyPhillips, Boeing, Westinghouse, Compaq

Common distribution and marketing skillsRJR Nabisco, Phillip Morris, Procter & Gamble

Common name brand and reputationDisney, Universal

Common customersMerck, IBM, AMF-Head

StepDetailExample

1.Recognizing and defining the decision situationSome stimulus indicates that a decision must be made. The stimulus may be positive or negative.A plant manager sees that employee turnover has increased by 5 percent.

2.Identifying alternativesBoth obvious and creative alternatives are desired. In general, the more important the decision, the more alternatives should be considered.The plant manager can increase wages, increase benefits, or change hiring standards.

3.Evaluating alternativesEach alternative is evaluated to determine its feasibility, its satisfactoriness, and its consequences.Increasing benefits may not be feasible. Increasing wages and changing hiring standards may satisfy all conditions.

StepDetailExample

4.Selecting the best alternativeConsider all situational factors, and choose the alternative that best fits the managers situation.Changing hiring standards will take an extended period of time to cut turnover, so increase wages.

5.Implementing the chosen alternativeThe chosen alternative is implemented into the organizational system.The plant manager may need permission from corporate headquarters. The human resource department establishes a new wage structure.

6.Following up and evaluating the resultsAt some time in the future, the manager should ascertain the extent to which the alternative chosen in step 4 and implemented in step 5 has worked.The plant manager notes that, six months later, turnover has dropped to its previous level.

AdvantagesDisadvantages

1.More information and knowledge are available.

2.More alternatives are likely to be generated.

3.More acceptance of the final decision is likely.

4.Enhanced communication of the decision may result.

5.Better decisions generally emerge.1.The process takes longer than individual decision making, so it is costlier.

2.Compromise decisions resulting from indecisiveness may emerge.

3.One person may dominate the group.

4.Groupthink may occur.