produksi dan penjadualan proyek - gunadarma...

Produksi dan PenjadualanProyekProyek

DR. Mohammad Abdul Mukhyi, SE., MMA

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Project OrganizationWorks Best When

• Pekerjaan dapat digambarkan denganPekerjaan dapat digambarkan dengansuatu batas waktu dan tujuan spesifik

• Pekerjaan adalah unik atau sedikit• Pekerjaan adalah unik atau sedikitbanyaknya tidak familier pada organisasiP k j b i i t li b h b• Pekerjaan berisi tugas saling berhubungankompleks yang menuntut ketrampilankhkhusus

• Proyek adalah temporer tetapi kritiskepada organisasi

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Project Planning, Scheduling,d C t lliand Controlling

Project Planning1. Setting goals Time/cost estimates

Budgetsg g2. Defining the project3. Tying needs into timed project

activities4. Organizing the team

BudgetsEngineering diagramsCash flow chartsMaterial availability details

Project Scheduling1. Tying resources to specific

activities2 R l ti ti iti t h th

CPM/PERTGantt charts

2. Relating activities to each other3. Updating and revising on a regular

basis

Project Controlling

Milestone chartsCash flow schedules

Project Controlling1. Monitoring resources, costs,

quality, and budgets2. Revising and changing plans3 Shifting resources to meet demands

Reports• budgets• delayed activities

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3. Shifting resources to meet demands

During projectBefore project

Project PlanningProject Planning• Penetapan sasaran hasilPenetapan sasaran hasil• Penjelasan proyek• Menciptakan strukturMenciptakan struktur

uraian pekerjaan• Menentukan sumber dayaMenentukan sumber daya• Pembentukan organisasi

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Work Breakdown StructureWork Breakdown Structure1. Project1. Project2. Major tasks in the

projectp j3. Subtasks in the major

tasks4. Activities (or work

packages) tobecompleted

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Project SchedulingProject Scheduling• MengidentifikasiMengidentifikasi

hubungan yang lebihtinggi

• Aktivitas yang berkaitan• Menentukan aktivitas

waktu& biaya-biaya• Penaksiran kebutuhan

material dan pekerja• Menentukan aktivitas kritis

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Project Management TechniquesProject Management Techniques

• Gantt chartGantt chart• Critical Path

Method (CPM)Method (CPM)• Program Evaluation

& R i& Review Technique (PERT)

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Gantt ChartGantt Chart

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PERT and CPMPERT and CPM• Teknik jaringanj g• Dikembangkan tahun 1950• CPM dengan Dupont untuk bahan kimia (1957)• PERT oleh Booz, Allen& Hamilton dengan angkatan laut,

U.S. untuk Polaris proyektil (1958)Mempertimbangkan hubungan yang lebih tinggi dan• Mempertimbangkan hubungan yang lebih tinggi daninterdependencies

• .. Masing-Masing penggunaan [adalah] suatu perkiraan g g p gg [ ] pwaktu aktivitas [yang] berbeda

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Milwaukee General Hospital’s Activities andP dPredecessors

Activity Description ImmediatePredecessors

A Build internal componentsB Modify roof and floorC Construct collection stack AD Pour concrete and install frame A,BE Build high temperature burner CE Build high-temperature burner CF Install pollution control system CG Install air pollution device D, EH Inspect and test F. G

A

A C F

START E H

B D GB D G

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Critical Path AnalysisCritical Path AnalysisProvides activity informationy

• Earliest (ES) & latest (LS) start• Earliest (EF) & latest (LF) finish• Slack (S): Allowable delay

fIdentifies critical path• Longest path in network• Shortest time project can be completed• Shortest time project can be completed• Any delay on critical path activities delays project• Critical path activities have 0 slackCritical path activities have 0 slack

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Latest Start and Finish StepsLatest Start and Finish Steps

• Begin at ending event and work backwardBegin at ending event and work backward• LF = Maximum EF for ending activities

LF i l t t fi i h EF i li t fi i h– LF is latest finish; EF is earliest finish• LS = LF - Activity time

– LS is latest start• LF = Minimum LS of all successors for

non-ending activities

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PERT Activity TimesPERT Activity Times• 3 time estimates

Optimistic times (a)– Optimistic times (a)– Most-likely time (m)

P i i ti ti (b)– Pessimistic time (b)• Follow beta distribution• Expected time: t = (a + 4m + b)/6• Variance of times: v = (b - a)2/6Variance of times: v (b a)2/6

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PERT Probability ExamplePERT Probability Example• suatu perencana proyek umumsuatu perencana proyek umum• Dinamika. Suatu proyek kapal selam

mempunyai waktu penyelesaian yang p y p y y gdiharapkan 40 minggu, dengan suatusimpangan baku 5 minggu.

• Apa mungkin dapat menyelesaikan dalamwaktu 50 minggu atau lebih sedikit?

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Converting to Standardized VariableConverting to Standardized Variable

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Obtaining the ProbabilityObtaining the Probability

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Variability of Completion Time for NoncriticalP thPaths

• Variabilitas aktivitas pada noncritical alur harusVariabilitas aktivitas pada noncritical alur harusdipertimbangkan manakala menemukankemungkinan penyelesaian di dalam suatuwaktu yang ditetapkan.

• Variasi dalam noncritical aktivitas bisamenyebabkan perubahan dalam alur kritis

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Steps in Project CrashingSteps in Project Crashing• Menghitung biaya crash setiap periode waktu. Karena biaya-

biaya crash diasumsikan liniear dari waktu ke waktu:

• Penggunaan aktivitas waktu sekarang, temukan jalur kritis• Jika ada hanya satu jalur kritis, kemudian memilih aktivitas

pada• jalur kritis yang dipotong, dan mempunyai paling biaya crash

setiap periode. Catatlah bahwa aktivitas tunggal boleh secarap p ggumum lebih dari satu jalur kritis

• Membaharui semua aktivitas waktu.

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P d /S iProduct/ServiceDevelopment and Design

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Stages of a Product’s Life CycleStages of a Product s Life Cycle

AutomobileAutomobileVideo RecorderVideo RecorderVideo RecorderVideo Recorder

Compact Disc PlayerCompact Disc Player

Fax MachineFax Machine

Cell PhoneCell Phone

Color Laser PrinterColor Laser Printer

B&W TVB&W TVFax MachineFax Machine

Color CopierColor Copier

Introduction Growth Maturity DeclineIntroduction Growth Maturity Decline

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Product Life Cycle & Sales, Cost, and

Net Revenues

rofit

SalesRevenue

Cos

t & P

r NetRevenueLoss

1 2 3 4 5Sale

s, C

Introduction Growth M aturity DeclineTimeTime

Operations Emphasis in Product Life Cycle

Stage Operations Emphasis

Introductory Research Product development Process modification & enhancementSupplier development

Growth Capacity determination/enhancement Maturity High volume production with innovation

Cost control Reduction in optionsReduction in options Paring down of product line

Decline Termination of production if necessary

American Approach to Product Design

R hR h D l tD l tManufacturingManufacturing

ProcessProcessResearchResearch DevelopmentDevelopment ProcessProcessDesignDesign

ManufacturingManufacturing ProductProduct

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Japanese Approach to Product Design

Research, Development, and Research, Development, and Manufacturing Process Design Manufacturing Process Design

ManufacturingManufacturing ProductProduct

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Product/Service Design

• Manakala suatu produk dirancang:

Product/Service Design

Manakala suatu produk dirancang:• Karakteristik terperinci produk yang dibentuk.• Karakteristik produk secara langsungKarakteristik produk secara langsung

mempengaruhi bagaimana produk dapatdiproduksi atau dikirimkan.p

• Bagaimana produk diproduksi atau disalurkanakan menentukan disain dari produksi atausistem saluran.

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Product/Service DesignProduct/Service Design

Desai produk atau jasa secara langsungDesai produk atau jasa secara langsungmempengaruhi:• Mutu produk atau jasa• Mutu produk atau jasa• Biaya produksi atau penyaluran• Kepuasan pelanggan

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Product/Service Design and DevelopmentProduct/Service Design and Development

• Sumber daya produksiSumber daya produksi• Mengembangkan produk atau jasa baru• Menjadikan menjualnya lebih cepatMenjadikan menjualnya lebih cepat• Menginprofe produk atau jasa sekarang• Perancangan untuk mempermudah produksi• Perancangan untuk mempermudah produksi• Perancangan mutu• Merancang dan mengembangkan jasa baru• Merancang dan mengembangkan jasa baru

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Sources of Product/Service InnovationSources of Product/Service Innovation

• PelangganPelanggan• Para manajer• PemasaranPemasaran• Operasional• Rancang Bangun• Rancang-Bangun• Riset dan pengembangan ( R&D)

Riset dasar– Riset dasar– Riset terapan

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Steps in Designing and DevelopingN P d tNew Products

1. studi kelayakan ekonomi dan teknisy2. Disain prototipe3. Test kemampuan prototipe4. Mengevaluasi pasar dan evaluasi ekonomi prototipe5. Perancangan model produksi6. Menguji pasar, pencapaian dan dan proses serta

evaluasi produksi model ekonomi7 Melanjutkan modifikasi model produksi7. Melanjutkan modifikasi model produksi

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Getting New Products to Market FasterGetting New Products to Market Faster

• Kecepatan menciptakan manfaat kompetisiKecepatan menciptakan manfaat kompetisi• Kecepatan menyelamatkan uang• Meningkatkan kecepatan alat:Meningkatkan kecepatan alat:

– Otonomi pengembangan dan disain team– Computer-aided design/computer-aided p g p

manufacturing (CAD/CAM)– Rancang-bangun bersama

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Improving the Designf E i ti P d t /S iof Existing Products/Services

• Fokus dalam meningkatkan pencapaian, mutu, danFokus dalam meningkatkan pencapaian, mutu, danbiaya

• Tujuan adalah memelihara atau meningkatkanpenguasaan pasar kedewasaan produk atau jasa

• Perubahan sedikit dapat menjadi penting• Kecil, peningkatan yang berlanjutan dapat

menambah sampai pada peningkatan jangkapanjang yang besarpanjang yang besar

• Analisis nilai yang diharapkan, corak disain berarti menguji keterkaitan dengan cost / benefit mereka g j g

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Designing for Ease of ProductionDesigning for Ease of Production

Mempermudah Produksip• Spesifikasi informasi tepat tentang karakteristik dari

produk• Toleransi Minimum dan batas maksimum atas suatu

dimensi yang mengijinkan item untuk merancang fungsi• Standardisasi mengurangi variasi antar suatu kelompok• Standardisasi mengurangi variasi antar suatu kelompok

komponen atau produk• Penyederhanaan mengurangi atau menghapuskan

kompleksitas dari suatu produk atau bagian

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Designing for QualityDesigning for Quality

• Unsur kerumitan disain produk dampaknya pada mutup p y p• Mutu ditentukan oleh persepsi konsumen dari derajat

tingkat keunggulan karakteristik produk atau jasa• Prinsip perancangan mutu produk atau jasa

Tiga dimensi disain umum adalah:Tiga dimensi disain umum adalah:• Derajat tingkat standardisasi menyangkut layanan• Derajat kontak pelanggan di dalam mengirimkan jasaDerajat kontak pelanggan di dalam mengirimkan jasa• Campuran barang-barang phisik dan jasa tak terukur

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Process Planningand Design

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Process Planning and DesignInputs:Inputs:

P d /S i I f iP d /S i I f i

Process Planning and Design

•• Product/Service InformationProduct/Service Information•• Production System InformationProduction System Information•• Operations StrategyOperations Strategyp gyp gy

Process Planning & Design:Process Planning & Design:Process Planning & Design:Process Planning & Design:•• Select process typeSelect process type•• Vertical integration studiesVertical integration studies•• Process/Product studiesProcess/Product studies

Outputs:Outputs:•• Process Technology Process Technology

F ili iF ili i•• Process/Product studiesProcess/Product studies•• Equipment studiesEquipment studies•• Production procedures studiesProduction procedures studies

•• FacilitiesFacilities•• Personnel EstimatesPersonnel Estimates

•• Facilities studiesFacilities studies37

Major Factors Affecting Process D iDesigns

• Nature of product/service demandNature of product/service demand• Degree of vertical integration

P d ti fl ibilit• Production flexibility• Degree of automation• Product/Service quality

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Degree of Vertical IntegrationDegree of Vertical Integration• Vertical integration is the amount of the production

and distribution chain that is brought under theand distribution chain that is brought under the ownership of a company.

• This determines how many production processes need to be planned and designed.

• Decision of integration is based on cost, availability f it l lit t h l i l bilit dof capital, quality, technological capability, and

more.• Strategic outsourcing (lower degree of integration) is• Strategic outsourcing (lower degree of integration) is

the outsourcing of processes in order to react quicker to changes in customer needs, competitor actions, and technology.

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Production FlexibilityProduction Flexibility

• Product flexibility -- ability of theProduct flexibility ability of the production (or delivery) system to quickly change from producing (delivering) onechange from producing (delivering) one product (or service) to another.

• Volume flexibility ability to quickly• Volume flexibility -- ability to quickly increase or reduce the volume of product( or service) produced (or delivered)or service) produced (or delivered).

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Degree of AutomationDegree of Automation

• Advantages of automationAdvantages of automation– Improves product quality

Improves product flexibility– Improves product flexibility– Reduces labor and related costs

Di d t f t ti• Disadvantages of automation– Equipment can be very expensive– Integration into existing operations can be

difficult

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Types of Process DesignsTypes of Process Designs

• Product-FocusedProduct Focused• Process-Focused

G T h l /C ll l M f t i• Group Technology/Cellular Manufacturing

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Product-Focused (Production Line)Product Focused (Production Line)• Processes (conversions) are arranged based on

the sequence of operations required to producethe sequence of operations required to produce a product or provide a service

• Two general forms• Two general forms– Discrete unit– Process (Continuous)Process (Continuous)

• Examples– Automobiles– Vacuum cleaners

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Product-Focused ProductionProduct Focused Production22 44

Raw MaterialRaw Material ComponentsComponents22

AssembliesAssemblies Fin. GoodsFin. Goods3311 7755

ComponentsComponents SubassemSubassem..Raw MaterialRaw Material

PurchasedPurchased

Components,Components,1

66

Product/Material FlowProduct/Material Flow SubassembliesSubassemblies1Product/Material FlowProduct/Material Flow

Production OperationProduction Operation

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Process-Focused (Job Shop)Process Focused (Job Shop)• Processes (conversions) are arranged based on

the type of process, i.e., like processes arethe type of process, i.e., like processes are grouped together

• Products/services (jobs) move from department (j ) p(process group) to department based on that particular job’s processing requirements

• Examples– Auto body repair– Custom woodworking shop

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Process-Focused ProductionProcess Focused ProductionCustom Woodworking ShopCustom Woodworking Shop

CuttingCutting AssemblyAssembly SandingSanding FinishingFinishingPlaningPlaning ShapingShaping

11 55 7722 66

33

33

44

22Job AJob A

J b BJ b B

D illiD illi T iT i

33

11 66

44Job BJob B

44 55

DrillingDrilling TurningTurning

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Group Technology/Cellular Manufacturing

• Group technology forms parts with similarGroup technology forms parts with similar processing requirements into part families or groups.

• A manufacturing cell is an arrangement of the processes required to make the parts that make up the group.

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Group Technology/CellsGroup Technology/Cells• Advantages (relative to a job shop)

Process changeovers simplified– Process changeovers simplified– Variability of tasks reduced

M di t t th h th t– More direct routes through the system– Quality control is improved

P d ti l i d t l i l– Production planning and control simpler– Automation simpler

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Group Technology/CellsGroup Technology/Cells• Disadvantages

– Duplication of equipment– Under-utilization of facilities– Processing of items that do not fit into a family

may be inefficient

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Product/Process Design & I P liInventory Policy

• Standard Products and Produce to StockStandard Products and Produce to Stock– Forecast/orders drive production schedule

Maintain pre determined finished goods levels– Maintain pre-determined finished-goods levels– MRP forecast drives material ordering

C t P d t d P d t O d• Custom Products and Produce to Order– Orders set production schedule and drive

t i l d li imaterial deliveries– Design time may be required before

production can be scheduledproduction can be scheduled 50

Process Design in ServicesProcess Design in Services• Quasi manufacturing -- production of

goods takes place along a production linegoods takes place along a production line with almost no customer interactionC t ti i t hi h d f• Customer-as-participant -- high degree of customer involvement in the process of

ti th igenerating the service• Customer-as-product -- service is provided

through personal attention to the customer

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Deciding Among Processing Al iAlternatives

• Batch Size and Product/Service VarietyBatch Size and Product/Service Variety• Capital Requirements• Economic AnalysisEconomic Analysis

– Cost functions of alternativesOperating leverage relationship between a– Operating leverage - relationship between a firm’s annual costs and its annual sales

– Break-even analysis– Break-even analysis– Financial analysis

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Process Design Depends onP d t Di it d B t h SiProduct Diversity and Batch Size

ProductProductF dF dFocused,Focused,DedicatedDedicatedSystemsSystems

ch S

ize ProductProduct

Focused,Focused,BatchBatch

Bat

c BatchBatchSystemSystem

CellularCellularM f t iM f t i

ProcessProcess--Focused,Focused,Job ShopJob Shop

ManufacturingManufacturing

Number of Product Designs 53

Flexible Manufacturing System

GeneralGeneral

ProductsProducts

10001000

GeneralGeneralpurposepurpose

Work cellsWork cellsCIMCIM

100100

CIMCIM

FlexibleFlexibleManufacturingManufacturing

SystemSystemFocusedFocused

1010SystemSystem automationautomation

Dedicated Dedicated automationautomation

1111 1010 100100 10001000 1000010000 100000100000 10000001000000

automationautomation

VolumeVolumeVolumeVolume

Economic AnalysisC t F ti f P i Alt ti• Cost Function of Processing Alternatives– If capital is not a factor, the process design

f d d d d t lpreferred depends upon product volume• Operating Leverage

– Relationship between firm’s annual costs and annual sales

– If high % firm’s costs fixed, then high degree of operating leverageS % %– Small % change in sales drives large % change in operating income

• . . . more55

Economic AnalysisEconomic Analysis• Break Even Analysis

F l f i– Formulas for comparing processes– Cannot incorporate uncertainty, costs

assumed over entire range of values andassumed over entire range of values, and does not take into account time value of moneymoney

• Financial AnalysisIncorporate time value of money net– Incorporate time value of money .... net present value, internal rate of return, etc.

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Cost Functions of Processing AlternativesAlternatives

Annual Cost of Production ($000)Annual Cost of Production ($000)

AutomatedAutomatedAssembly LineAssembly Line

2,0002,000

1,5001,500

CellularCellularManufacturingManufacturing

PreferredPreferred

yyPreferredPreferred

JobJob1,0001,000

1,5001,500

Units Units ProducedProducedPer YearPer Year

PreferredPreferredShopShopPreferredPreferred

500500

100,000100,000 250,000250,00057

Example: Cost Functionsf P i Alt tiof Processing Alternatives

Three production processes - A B and C - have theThree production processes - A, B, and C - have the following cost structure:

Fixed Cost Variable CostProcess Per Year Per Unit

A $120,000 $3.00B 90 000 4 00B 90,000 4.00C 80,000 4.50

What is the most economical process for a volume of 8,000 units per year?

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• Most Economical Process at 8,000 Units,

TC = FC + v(Q)

A: TC = 120,000 + 3.00(8,000) = $144,000 per yearC ( ) $B: TC = 90,000 + 4.00(8,000) = $122,000 per year

C: TC = 80,000 + 4.50(8,000) = $116,000 per year

Process C has the lowest annual cost.

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• Break-Even Points of Processes

Q = FC / (p-v)

A i $6 95 lli i itAssuming a $6.95 selling price per unit:A: Q = 120,000 / (6.95 - 3.00) = 30,380 unitsB: Q = 90 000 / (6 95 - 4 00) = 30 509 unitsB: Q = 90,000 / (6.95 - 4.00) = 30,509 unitsC: Q = 80,000 / (6.95 - 4.50) = 32,654 units

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Deciding Among Processing Al iAlternatives

• Assembly Charts (Gozinto Charts)Assembly Charts (Gozinto Charts)– Macro-view of how materials are united– Starting point to understand factory layout needs, g p y y

equipment needs, training needs• Process Charts

– Details of how to build product at each process– Includes materials needed, types of processes

product flows through time it takes to process productproduct flows through, time it takes to process product through each step of flow

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Wrap-Up: World Class PracticeWrap Up: World Class Practice

• Fast new product introductionFast new product introduction • Design products for ease of production• Refine forecastingg• Focus on core competencies ... less vertical

integration• Lean production• Flexible automation• Job shops move toward cellular manufacturing• Manage information flow ..... automate and simplify!

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