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Journal of Research in Rural Education, Summer 1991, Vol. 7, #3, pp. 3-14

Community Schools in The National Context:The Social and Cultural Impact of EducationalReform Movements on American Rural Schools

Alan J. DeYoungUniversity of KentuckyPaul TheobaldTexas A & M UniversityABSTRACT

This paper discusses how historical influences have transformed community schools, both rural andurban, through the decades.. The s ~ c i a l a n cultural impacts of educational reform movements and how theyh a ~ e affected rural schools I exammed, With emphasis being placed on the importance of understanding thevenous roles a school holds in a rural community.

INTRODUCTIONMany historians and social scientists have ob-servedandwritten about howrural,agriculturally based,and locally oriented social andpolitical institutions intheU.S. have been transformed during the past century

and a half into something quite different (e.g., Cremin,1977; Perkinson, 1976; Collins, 1979). Like transfor-mations in the American economy, the family, thechurch, health care delivery systems, etc., there havealso been dramatic changes in the ideology of school-ing, itscurriculum, andorganization. Specifically, sinceAmerican education was historically just as decentral-ized as many of our other social institutions, the storyabout how twentieth century schooling practices haveemerged into a "system" to fit pattems approximatingmore modern economic and social systems has been acomplex, interesting and occasionally painful one forvarious American communities. And this is particularlytrue for rural communitieswhose economic transforma-tion has not kept pacewith those of the larger nation; forit is in just these locations where both the human costsof social change, as well as some of its advantagesstand forth in full relief.

What follows isan attempt to sort out the political,social, and economic variables that have historicallyplayed a role in rural resistance to educational reform'and complex nature of these variables make it q U i t ~clear that rural school "reform" ismore than a technicalexercise.Modern forms of production and consumptionfrequently precede changes in existing political andsocial institutions; and just as frequently, resistance tothe emerging logic underlying economic change ismore pronounced in those communities where suchchanges appear less advantageous. Thus, for ex-ample, defenders of local schools have traditionallyargued that local government (including school govern-ance) is a cornerstone of American democracy; thatlocal control of schools is an essential legacy of ourheritage; and that the needs of local communities oughtto bethe focus of local schools. Meanwhile, the national

ideology of contemporary schooling (Le.,what itmeansto be educated; what schooling "is good for;" who iscompetent to teach the children; how the state holdsschools "accountable," etc.) has continuously changedand challenged "community based" arguments sincethe early nineteenth century. Thus, struggles over"traditional" vs. "modern" definitions of education (l.e.,AlB,! J. DeYoung is a Professor in the Department of Education, Policy Studies and Evaluation, University ofKentuckyLeXington, Kentucky 405060001 . . ',P a ~ 1 Th.eobald is A s s i s ~ a n t Professor in the Department of Educational Curriculum and Instruction, TexasA& MUniversity, College Station, Texas 77843.

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DeYoung and Theobald

who should get it; for how long; and toward what ends,etc.) have frequent ly been, and cont inue to be, contested betweenconstituent groups in local communitiesand spokespersons for national (and now international)agendas.For example, at the national level the new objective of education (which has actually been heard before)is increasingly championed as an essential componentfor "globalizing" our economy by "developing our human resources" for impersonal and far-flung "information age" occupations in an ever changing internationaleconomy (DeYoung, 1989). Defining adequately educated children as those prepared to work in an international, information age environment is a far cry fromdefiningchildren as educated ifthey are able to readthebible, and thus foil Satan'sdesignupon their souls. Thislatter objective, of course, was the first formal "community based"educational aim specified by a local government in the new world (Perkinson, 1976).Americans like to talk about the impact of socialchange on traditional societies as if such topics onlyapplied to other exotic, primitive and far away places.However, this essay suggests that such dynamics havegreat utility in explaining both the "evolution" of American society and its social institutions, aswell as understanding where and how continued resistance to suchtrends can be seen. In an effort to outline how locallyoriented educational institutions have continually beenconfronted, sometimes embattled, and usually alteredby national schooling trends, we briefly trace several ofthe historical, cultural, and social themes involved inmany rural school and community confrontations withnational education reform movements. Importantly, wewill argue, the seeds of current local versus nationalschooling issues (for example, over such topics as the"liberal" school curriculum and school consolidation)are rooted in the past. We intend to demonstrate theutility of analyzing historical developments in order tocome togrips with many, if not most, contemporary ruraleducation issues and debates.

A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVESchooling in the U.S. before the Civil War was atbest a voluntary and haphazard undertaking, with avariety of different educational experiences present invarious regions of the country. For the most part,educational settings were informally arranged, andeducational activitieswere orchestratedby families andcommunities with shared religious orientations. Thefew childrenwho were formally educated outside of thefamily orthe church during the late eighteenth and early

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Educational Reform

nineteenth centuries primarily attended private academies. And these too were typically subsidized bywealthy families specificallyfor theirown children, incooperation with various sorts of denominational support(Cremin, 1977; Tyack & Hansot, 1982).Before the Civil War, almost all educationalundertakings were oriented toward creating a pious and Godfearing citizenry among the common folk, and mostschool curriculafor colonial children were dominated byProtestant teachings. Education for occupationalmobility was available for only a select few. Buildinggood character for farm children and apprenticeshipopportunities for artisans and future merchants werethe accepted norm for "career" preparation of adults.Yet, as meager as such schooling opportunitieswere by contemporary standards in the Northeast andMiddle Atlantic states, it is clearly the cast that educational opportunities for children in the South and on thewesternfrontierwere far fewerand lesswell developed.Inthe South, large plantation ownersdid in fact providetutorial services for their own children, but for thegrowing slave population, disseminatingthe skill to readand write was legally forbidden. And, of course, thecivilizing influences of established churches on thefrontier continued to be luxuries in typically isolateddemographic contexts which hampered the systematicprovision of "services" sometimes available in morecivilized locales of the original thirteen colonies.In general, two social and demographic factorsappear related to the popularity of the common schoolmovement which became significant by the 1830s and1840s. On the one hand, many leaders of the newnation were convinced that civic participation had to befostered in America, and that such participation required systematic instruction in democracy and democratic thought. No longer, argued some, could voluntary denominational efforts at instilling Protestant pietyinto future Americans serve as a "system"of education(Cremin, 1977; Tyack & Hansot, 1982).It is significant that Massachusetts became thefirst state to create a centralized system of publicinstruction. Boston received thousands of Irish immigrants yearly in the late 1830s and early 1840s. TheIrish, of course, were Roman Catholics and the acceptance of the common school concept coincided with thegrowth of anti-Catholic sentiment, symbolized by thespread of the American party and Know-Nothingism.Thus, itwas during this period when the possibilities ofsystematic instruction in the requirements of Americancitizenship began togain acceptance as aneducationalideal.Symbolizing anemerging concern forthe nationalbenefits of formal schooling, the Northwest Ordinance

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of 1787 mandated (among other things) that each newstate to join the Union would have to dedicate specificproperties (or proceeds from the sale of state properties) to locally defined schooling efforts. Freqently, thisfederal initiative established subsidies for previouslyvolunteer or subscription schools originated at thecommunity level. Yet, because this legislation helped tofoster the notion that government could or should intervene in the private affairs of citizens, and because in anumberofstates lands put upforsaleundertermsof theOrdinance were frequently already occupied by"squatters," early tensions between some rural communitiesand national development trends are probably traceable back at least this far (DeYoung, 1991).On the otherhand,while the Northwest Ordinance(andsimilar intiatives sponsored bymany frontier states)helped to subsidize some local and community schoolsthroughout the rural U.S., developments in America'sgrowing urban areas set into motion important dynamics that would soon undercut even these voluntary andcommunity based educational experiments found inthecountryside. Specifically, many relatively stable Villageand small town environments in the Northeast weresubstantially transformed inthedecadesbetween 1840and 1860 by the influx of former rural citizens and newimmigrants seeking employment opportunities madeavailable by the industrial revolution.Between 1840 and 1860, the number of "cities"containingmorethan 5,000inhabitants increasedsixfold;going from 22 in 1840 to 136 by 1860 (Tyack, 1974).Furthermore, the total number of Americans living inmetropolitan areas in 1840 was fewer than sevenhundred thousand; but by 1860, more than six millioncitizens lived in cities. Not surprisingly, state and localpolitical leaders were greatly alarmed by such a demographic transformation, and throughout the remainderof the nineteenth century institutionalizing various sortsof urban social services became a virtual passion ofmany civic leaders (Perkinson, 1976; Katz, 1971).Indeed, Orestes Brownson, a contemporary and criticof Horace Mann, argued that the system of publiceducation put in place inMassachusetts was littlemorethan "an arm of the general police" that served to keep"the rich secure in their possessions" (Rodriquez, 1990).Public schools were an important institutionalconcern of urban school reformers who argued thatsystematic and simultaneous instruction in citizenshipskills, English, patriotism, and good charactertraits hadto be the cornerstone of urban schooling. Furthermore,it was believed by many urban school reformers of themid and late nineteenth centuries that the voluntary andhaphazard conditions perceived in surrounding rural

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Educational Reform

comunities of the U.S. could not serve as institutionalmodels for the "one best system."In order to be successful, most city school advocates claimed, education had to be compulsory; teachers needed training and supervision; and the entiresystem required the direction of professional schooladministrators. None of these factors, it was claimed,described the decentralized, voluntarily attended, laycontrolled and understaffed rural schools of the U.S.even where they did exist. And these observationswere in essence correct, for many states had specifically encouraged the provision of education in rurallocales by urging and partially subsidizing decentralized, voluntarily attended, lay controlled and minimallystaffed institutions. Such rural schooling initiativeswere frequently supported instate legislaturesbecausemany rural citizens remained skeptical throughout thenineteenth century of centralized government andcompulsory education. And only by placing local citizens in charge of local schools could concerned stateleaders insure any form of formal instruction in thecountryside (McVey, 1949;Tyack, 1974:Cremin, 1977).The common school concept was viewed as asolution to urban problems. Thus the progression ofeducational control moved outward from cities into therural areas. Still,while itwas generallyagreed that ruralneighborhoods ought to have common schools, howthey were run was of little concern. Consequently,throughout most of the nineteenth century, schoolmenin small local districts had Wide-ranging powers. Thefirst break in this pattern occurred when city governments became convinced that uniform schooling experiences could not be achieved within local wards orneighborhoods composed of different ethnic groupsand controlled by local political bosses. Thus, animportant precedent was set: consolidating neighborhood schools into city-wide school districts under thedirection of a city school board. Many began to wonderifthis sort of centralization might be applied to the countryside as well.The next significant school control reform occurred in many cities when school superintendentsemerged asadministratorsanddecisionmakers, ratherthan remaining as clerks for city school boards hardpressed to administer an increasingly overburdenedschool system. As the ideology of public schooling forparticipation in the national and metropolitan culturesbecame increasingly accepted, professional educatorstrained inschool administrationand leadershipbecamethe norm inmany states. And, in states where industrialization occurred first and where city populationsbecame significant, the city model of reorganizing localdistricts and professionalizing school leadership began

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to be advocated at the state levels as well as at themetropolitan ones. Yet, even this transformation occurred relatively slowly in less industrial southern andwestern states,as relinquishingpoliticalcontroltoexpertsand professionalswas often resisted by rural residents.An angry trustee from rural Rock County, Wisconsin,wrote to the state superintendent in 1852demanding toknow why they were directed to keep a record oftardiness. He complained that "in large schools wherepupils are entering at all hours, which they have anundeniable right to do, it is certainly a severe task, andinjurious to the school for the Teacher to be obliged todrop all business and betake himself to his Register, inorder to enter therein, every instance of tardiness"(Theobald, 1990b, 140; original emphasis). And, onlyas state superintendents began to have formal powersand the right tomake rural schools accountablefor stateeducational subsidies (typically after the turn of thetwentieth century), were systematic pressures put onrural schools to conform to state guidelines. For example, bonus school funds were frequently granted todistricts agreeing tomake certain school improvements.In the early years of this century the installation ofheating andventilating equipmentor plumbing systemswere often required of districts eager to maximize statesupport. (Theobald,1990b).While state control andsupervisionof ruralschoolsbegan to affect some educational operations in theNortheast by the late nineteenth century, rural schoolson the western frontier and inthe South lagged behindchanges found in older communities in the east andnorth. Furthermore, southern and border states' entirestate education systems were seriously affected by theCivil War and its aftermath. Not having urban basedeconomies in the Midwest until (at the soonest) late inthe nineteenth century madethe claimed advantages ofbureaucratized public instruction even harder to see onthe frontier (Fuller, 1982; Theobald, 1990a).Inthe South, ruralwhites typically perceived publiceducation as charity institutions (or "pauper schools")when orchestrated by state governments, and therefore marginal farmers greatly resisted the stigma ofbeing labeled poor by refusing to engage in "public"education. In perceiving public education as an intrusion on local community school control, many parts ofthe deep south, central Appalachia and the lower Midwest clearly resisted many national schooling initiativesemanating from urban centers asbesttheycould (Fuller,1982; Link, 1986).In addition, the Civil War destroyed most of theagricultural economy of the South, thus making taxmonies available for education a low priority in many

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state legislatures. Public educational initiatives sponsored by reconstruction governments throughout thesouth were frequently ignored when possible, and thephilanthropic efforts of various ''Yankee'' trusts and theFreedman's Bureau, caused many in these locales toview "public" schools asoutpostsof anoccupyingforce.And, even when public schooling became sociallyacceptable in many southern states by the end of thenineteenth century, inequality of educational opportunity for blacks effectively excluded up to one-half ofsouthern citizens of the U.S. (Perkinson, 1976; Link,1986; Anderson, 1988).Compulsory schooling for all children, paid for outof local and state taxes, instructed by credentialedteachers, supervisedbycareer administrators, removedfrom laycommunitycontrol, dedicatedto Americanizingand providing character traits deemed desireable in anexpanding urban economy for (primarily) thechildren ofthe urban poor and working class became the norm bywhich most metropolitan education was defined by theend of the nineteenth century. Yet, as child labor lawstook hold in many urban centers, and as actual writtenand mathematical skills (rather than sound charactertraits or democratic values) became prerequisite forentry into many emerging large scale businesses, thepress for further education beyond common schoolscaptured the attention of various civic, professional andbusiness groups (Katz, 1971; Perkinson, 1976; Trow,1961).A battle over the form and content of the secondary school curriculum in the U.S. occupied centerstage among educators and the nation's civic leadersduring thefirst several decadesofthe twentiethcentury.Inessence, four separate "movements"were incontention overthe curriculum andstaffingofAmerican schoolsduring this period; none of which related well withtraditional emphases of rural American institutions; andsome were directly antithetical to existing norms ofschools and communities in many rural settings (Kliebard, 1986).One movement with designs upon the secondaryschool curriculum was begun by professors and administrators at universities who sought to make secondaryschools preparatory to the university, and hoped toestablish a primarily academic course of study for allAmericans seeking education beyond the commonschool. A second and perhaps more powerful movement created in order to structure the curriculum ofnewly emerging high schools received its impetus frombusiness groups such as the National Association ofManufacturers. In this view, the future of internationaltrade was at stake, and industrial education similar to

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that seen in Germany was seen as a desirable focus ofurban high schools (Lazerson&Grub, 1974). As well,the powers behind this movementwere convinced thatstreamlining school programs to make themmore costeffective and efficient was necessary to deal with geometrically escalating numbers of children in urban settings (Callahan. 1962).The two other pedagogical movements popularamong different groups in early twentieth centuryAmerica involved various "scientific"perspectives. Fewschool leaders doubted the importance of scienti ficunderstanding as a guide to school improvement by the1920s, even if the findings from such inquiries frequently contradicted each other. On the one hand,psychologists were convinced that somewhere in thedivergent but emerging research on individual differences, developmental stages, inherited mental abilities, etc. there was an answer to how best to structureschoolingexperiences inaccord with the differentneedsof children. In the extreme, various claimants of progressivism suggested that tradition, religion, and individual character training (the cornerstones of muchrural education) were archaic remnants of a pre-scientific culture that stood inthe way of 'the new education."While these four early twentieth century schoolreform groups typical ly found little common ground,interesting urban school directions were forged in theyears before (and after) the great Depression whichappear to have met some objectives of more than one.For example, under such slogans as 'probable destiny"and "social efficiency," pupil placement programs wereinst ituted that sought to locate and train students foroccupational "slots" in emerging American industries.As the readerwill note, such an emphasisdependedonboth a belief in the value of rational future planning andupon cost effectiveness. So too, the notion of comprehensive high schools, where both an industrial and precollege curriculum could be taught in the same institution, appears to have reconciled the divergent interestsof college presidents and business leaders (Kliebard,1986: Trow, 1961: Ravitch, 1983).Without specifically profiling the multiple education disputes, nor other curricular compromises of urban school reformers in the early twentieth century, itappears clearly the case that multiple school reformefforts of this period all pointed out problems or calledfor solutions eitherirrelevant or in opposition to policiesand practices of most remaining rural schools. Forexample, whi le Col lins (1979) argues that some colleges inthe U.S.were strongly supported by small townleaders inthecountryside, strong populistbeliefs amongother rural Americans no doubt engendered skepticism

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over the desirability of defining rural secondary schoolsas feeders to even further education, paying additionaltaxes torthelr support, and accepting CarnegieUnits ascornerstonesof the rural high school curriculum. Whichmay help to explain why many rural high school attendance rates, even intwentieth century America, laggedbehind those in metropolitan areas.It is important to note that where local economiesdid enable the rise of a small town merchant andprofessional class, there were more positive perceptions about the utility of expandingthe town high school.As in America's urban areas, it appears likely that ruralelites were able to use local high schools to fosterupward social mobility for thei r children (as did theurban middle class), but the limited evidence we havesuggests that many farm children did not use rural highschools in this manner (Hollingshead, 1975; Theobald,1990a).Thus, many rural cit izens probably viewed withsome suspicion the two increasingly accepted curricular foci of metropolitan inspired secondary school:academic preparation (i.e., a concentration on foreignlanguages, philosophy, algebra, etc.) and training in"industrial arts." Whi le there exist few discussionsabout which communities or regions of the U.S. morereadily accepted the instrumentalityof schooling for cityoccupationsor advanced education, it seems likely thatready acceptance of this instrumental view of schoolingdepended on the perceived uti li ty of such "traininq" forlocally available occupations. And where local economies remained at "pre-modern" levels (e.g., in extractive industriesand subsistanceagriculture),localschoolsand communitieswere probablymore reluctantto acceptemerging instrumental views of schools and their possibilities.The twentieth century transformationof educationtoward secular curricular content and scientific pedagogic assumptions also affected rural school andcommunity relations. Many rural schools, for example,were closely related to local churches in the nineteenthcentury, especially in the South, Appalachia, and theMidwest (DeYoung, 1990; Link, 1986: Fuller. 1982).Furthermore, the common school movement was infused with Protestantism and given respectability outside of urban areas because itwas linkedto the nationalSunday School movement of the early nineteenth century (Tyack & Hansot, 1982).Yet, the liberal sentiments of many nineteenthcentury school reformers probably offended some ofthe more conservative church leaders in rural communities, and certainly the twentieth century scienti ficconvictions and learnings of the various "progressive"

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educational reformers conflicted with both the socialand educational philosophies of many rural communities. For example, the 1925Scopes trial took place overteachings in a biology class in rural Tennessee, andother state legislatures in the rural South and theMidwest saw battles in the 1920s and 1930s betweenrural legislators and representatives from metropolitanregions over teaching the theory of evolution in theirlocal public high schools (Ginger, 1958; McVey, 1949).The Country Life movement, begun by PresidentRoosevelt's Country Life Commission in 1908, flourished briefly in the first two decades of the twentiethcentury. Its supporters were infused with enthusiasmfor an agricultural way of lifethat was perceived asall torapidly disappearing. Agreeing with some sentimentsof many rural residents, Country Lifers (many of whomwere from the city) believed that if the beauty of natureand the proud (but romanticized) notions of an agrariansociety could be reinforced via institutions like theschool, while at the same time the rural infrastructurecould be enhanced (via electricity, roads andwater projects), then fewer rural residents would abandon theirfarms for the "attractions" of city life.

Of course, the major factor undermining agriculture in rural areas was not the attractiveness of the city,but rather the mechanization of agriculture and development of national commodity distribution systems.Such developments both reduced rural farm labor requirements and forced former rural residents to seekwork in off-farm occupations. Thus, most rural residents were pushed off their farms for economic reasons, not social ones. Yet, Country Lifers underestimated the power of market forces in their programs tostem the cityward flight of rural Americans.Efforts to consolidate the smallest and most inefficient schools were frequently viewed as desireable byCountry Lifers, and they greatly favored formally organizing community events. Inmany cases, of course, theinefficiencyof small schools was not a prime concern ofcommunities surrounding one and two room schoolhouses, and certainlywas not important enough tohavethe state government remove neighborhood children tosome other location. Nor was formally establishingprojects, groups, and timetables received enthusiastically in some rural locales; rather more traditionalinformal, spontaneous, and socially oriented functionsremained the preference of many rural communities(Fuller, 1982; Theobald, 1990a).In essence, the Country Life movement appearsto have lost steam because many in the country remained continually confused about its intent, and whythose from the city appeared to be leading it. Further-

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more, other educators were convinced that countryschools had little long term utility for the nation, as thefuture of America depended on its industrial and metropolitan future, not on its agrarianpast (Cubberly, 1914).Even John Dewey, whose educational philosphy wasfrequently championed by Country Lifers in education,suggested that science, technology, and solving theproblems of industrial lifeought to be the primary aim ofschool reform forthe twentieth century, not romanticallycalling for a return to pastoral values of the countryside.Still, like the former one and two room schoolsbefore them, rural high schools increasingly becamethe focus of community social and sports activitiesthroughout the twentieth century. In an era precedingtelevision and movie houses, and in locales wherecompetition between community churches was frequent, many rural high schools functioned to fill thesocial void created in early and mid twentieth centurysmall town life. Rural high schools sponsored athleticteams, plays, parades, public dances, and sports clubactivities. Frequently, town identification appears tohave been associated with the success of the localbasketball, football, or baseball team; a success whichbecame known statewide through annual state tournament activities. And just as frequently, it appears asthough many high school PTAs ran and were encouraged to run many if not most of the non-instructionalactivities of rural high schools (Moss, 1980; Peshkin,1978).Other extra-local initiatives besides state schooling subsidies, recognized athletic activities, and federalVo-Ag programs appear to have strengthened thestatus and prominence of rural high schools before thecold war period. For example, many Depression eraprograms like the Works Progress Administration andthe National Youth Administration appear to have instituted community improvement projects in the countryside, and school building improvements appear to havebeen favorite New Deal projects throughout the nation(DeYoung, 1991). Later, efforts to recycle metals, growvegetables, and sell savings bonds to help the war effortappear to have been targeted at many local communities through their rural high schools. Vo-Ag teachers inrural high schools, for example, appear to have beenseen as important agents for teaching students andtheir parents in small towns about how to tend andharvest their ' 'victory gardens" during WWII (Moss,1980). Finally, continuing education opportunities foradults occasionally became attractive in some rurallocales, and various "community education" advocatesaggressively championed formally expanding the already multiple functions of rural high schools in the

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1950s (Butterworth & Dawson, 1952; Olsen, 1954).Thus, under the sponsorship of local communities,state departments of education, state athletic associations, and various federal programs; small schools andespecially small community high schools attained animportant measure of status in rural America. Importantly, while curricular strength was not unimportant,the social and community based functions of suchschools was perhaps the key to their acceptance andpopularity in the countryside. As David Tyack argues:During the twentieth century . . . the small-townhigh school, like its predecessor the one-roomschool, became "a new focus of community lifeand ritual." There residents came to social andathletic events, listened to debates and orationsin which contestants recited speeches which theyhad brought ready-made for the occasion, andattended graduation ceremonies which becamerites of passage into a wider world. As "symbolsof community 'modernity'," the town high schoolsgave local people the feeling that they hadaccess to a mass society while they still enlistedlocal loyalties and integrated rural people insocial networks. Thus they became institutionsvalued in themselves, quite apart from the goal ofteaching students certain skills and knowledge(1974: 25-26, emphasis added).The focus of educational reform inthe U.S. during

the past four decades has been upon maximizing theteaching of "skills and knowledge," required for anurban based national economy, while at the same timereducing costs. Thus, providing a cultural and socialsite for rural communities (which Tyack emphasizesabove) has not concerned academically oriented professional educators. In fact, the data suggests thateliminating the identification of rural schools with ruralcommunity concerns became a favorite target of schoolreformers since the late 1950s.Faced with growing pressures to become evenmorecosteffective followingtheDepression,the numberof school districts in the U.S. continued to declinebetween 1930and 1980 from 128,00 to 16,000districts.During the same period, the actual number of schoolsalso declined from over 238,00 to 61,000; which is allthe more surprising given the geometric explosion ofschool attendance figures in the U.S. throughout thetwentieth century (USDE,1984, p.62). Significantly,changes in both the national infrastructure and educational ideology brought about the possibility and per-

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ceived desirability of these dramatic school consolidation figures.While efficiency advocates had argued continuously during the first three decades of the twentiethcentury for school consolidation, many rural schoolswere still so isolated as to be impossible to close(DeYoung and Boyd, 1986; Sher and Tompkins, 1977).Yet, following WWII, state and federal highway buildingprojects, and lower gasoline, rubber and automobileprices increasinglymade transportation acost effective"solution" to maintaining dozens and dozens of smallone and two room schools inmany rural school districts(Fuller, 1982; DeYoung and Boyd, 1986). Parenthetically, of course, the emerging era ofthe automobile andthe trucking industry continued to undermine manylocal economies at just the same time.Yet, the penetration of modem transportationsystems and the increasing dependence on a moderncash economy (including the acceptance of cost-effectiveness as a rationale for institutional maintenance)were factors still less dominant in many more isolatedruralAmerican communities. Increasingly, for example,improving school physical structures to bring them intoaccord with state building codes required the replacement of local parent volunteer efforts with paid staffs.Simultaneously, of course, efforts at keeping maintenance costs down (by, for example, hiring fewer maintenance personnel) meant the desirability of fewerdistrict schools on the part of administrators at thecentral office.Not surprisingly, this cost-effective, modern logicconflicted (and still conflicts) with a logic of local community control. That is, as local communities acceptedand became further enmeshed in a cash driven economy rather than one based on barter and exchange ofservices, they atthe sametime lostcontrol oftheir abilityto retain institutions they may originally have built andmaintained. And this isparticularly true in rural districtswith comparatively less taxable property. Thus, most ofthe available historical and contemporary literature onrural school consolidation profiles state school boardsand county superintendents cost-effectiveness arguments against local citizen groups more concernedabout a school's location than about its "modem"amenities or curricular offerings (e.g., Peshkin, 1983;Dunne, 1977; DeYoung and Boyd, 1986).While struggle and debate over ever expandingefforts toconsolidate rural schools increased, anequallyimportant assault on localand community school curricula was seen in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Thelaunching of Sputnik by the Soviet Union, coupled withthe failure of the U.S. to match this feat, ushered in a

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new wave of school reform even more explicitly identifying children as "national resources" in the race forspace and international preeminence. In particular,teachers and school administratorswhowere identifiedas "Progressives" (including advocates of "communityschools") were vilified either as ineffective, or as knowncomplicitors in the rise of social ism (Kliebard, 1986;Ravitch, 1983).Whichever the interpretation, cold-war schoolreformers were convinced that national pride and leadership could only be facilitated if the community-basedand liberal teachings of former educators could bereplaced with an emphasis on a pre-college and scientific school curriculum: a curriculum only partially emphasized in smaller rural high schools.The pressure to further consolidate remainingsmall high schools reached virtual crescendo proportions following Conant's (1959) analysis of the ills ofAmerican secondary education (Mason, 1972; Sher,1987; Spring, 1990). Significantly, Conant was thenpresident of Harvard University; and once again aspokesperson from both an urban setting and fromhigher education articulated a position very differentfrom earlier rural viewpoints on the utility of advancededucation.In essence, Conant was one of many academicsand emerging policy-makers convinced that the identification and training of a national pool of talent ought tobe the aim of public education. And in his study ofschools achieving academic "excellence," Conant argued that only high schools with at least one hundredstudents in each senior class could possibly qualify, asonly a school of such size could offer enough collegepreparatory courses for advanced education.One increasingly popular strategy for "improving"schooling in the 1960s was to follow Conant's suggestion and further consolidate small high schools withfewer than four or five hundred students. Importantly,~ n relevant to themes traced in this essay, the emergIngconventional wisdomcontinued to champion schoolconsolidation on both cost effectiveness and curriculargrounds. In essence, the argument for large highschools was that community based education andsecondary school programswith vocational agriculturalemphases diverted youngsters away from more rigorous academic undertakings. Furthermore, it wasclaimed, school teachers themselves were weak academically. Attempting to provide primarily local careertraining, in even the best rural high schools, meant thatadvanced college preparatory courses were probablynot available; likely existed in a climate that was notconducive to advanced academic instruction; andwould

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Educational Reform

not urge local youth to develop their talents for careersin science and technology which were useable in distant labor markets (Ravitch, 1983; DeYoung, 1989).SCHOOLS AND MODERNITY

Most of the preceding discussion has attemptedto suggest important shifts in the form and content ofAmerican education during the past 150 years using aloosely historical rubric. Implicit to most of this discussion has been the suggestion that changing values andattitudes toward schooling have been an importantcategory underlying the story of this educational transformation. Also, much of the previous discourse hassuggested that formenters of modernist perspectivesonhow rural schools shouldbeorganized andwhattheyshould teach either came from urban areas, or represented anemerging national consensus on the missionof public schooling.Given the current national climate to reformpublicecducation by concentratingon curricular excellence, itis important to note that only three decades ago manysociologists and economists were celebrating the perceived strengths of modern American schooling. Thatis, since at least the 1960s and up until most recently,American economists and sociologists have beenconvinced that public schooling in the U.S. is responsible for both our high national Gross National Productand the modern values which are purported to underlayit. The notion that public institutionsought to engageinthe advanced training of local talent of jobs existing infar-flung communities is a "modern" one, where individuals are perceived ascareer oriented and inquest ofcomfortable "lifestyles" in cosmopolitan places. Suchreasoning very clearly conflicts with older rural American notions ofthe importance ofplace, local and lifelongcommuity interaction, local kinship attachments, andintergenerational stability (Perkinson, 1976; DeYoung,1989).

Some "Human Capital Theorists" have beenconvinced that our modern schooling practices andemphases ought to be exported around the world asthemodel upon which other nations should develop theireconomies. Prominent sociologists like Talcott Parsons (1959) and Robert Dreeben (1968) articulated aninterpretationof contemporary modern schools asfunctional to the larger American society in both curricularand values transmission. In much of this work, sociological interpretations of the personal requirementsnecessary for Americans to participate inmodern mass

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society were detailed, and these works articulated howcontemporary education inthe U.S. helped to foster themodern personality traits, values, and norms suchauthors found paramount.Dreeben, in particular, gave a detailed presentation of how the modern American school system socialized children into an impersonal occupational world;dominated by individual independence, driven to achieveto external standards of excellence; subject to universalistic occupational performance criteria; and focusedon constantly changing topics in which the rules forattention and reinforcement were contextually defined.Importantly, Dreeben argued that were it not for themodern school, dependence, ascription, particularism,and diffuseness (i.e., traditional and family norms)would underlay the socialization ofAmerican youth. For

our purposes, most of these latter norms are frequentlythe ones which have been criticized by generations ofeducational reformerswho have targeted "problems"ofmany rural schools; and they were explicitly identifiedby Dreeben and Parsons as inappropriate for modernnation building.Taking functionalist sociologists one step further,modernity theorists of the 1960s and 1970s perceivedthe unfolding of human social life as one inthe processof modernization, and one inwhich modern institutionsplayed a crucial role. Social scientists who worked inthis areaclaimed that the modern public schoolwas oneof the most important formal institutions for bringingabout the individual modernity demanded for sociocultural and political progress. In addition to exposure tothe form and content of formal schooling, other modernizing influences included the mass media, living in ornear cities, and work in a factory or other complex organization (Inkeles & Smith, 1974; Black, 1966).A representative working list of modern personality characteristics ostensibly related to individual modernity and contributed to by participation in formalschooling is available inworks like those of Alex Inkelesand his colleagues (e.g., Inkeles &Smith, 1974; Inkeles& Holsinger,1974). For example, Inkeles et. al. arguethat "modern" individuals are (among other things):open to new experie nce; accepting and ready for socialchange; able to reflect on issues and form independentjUdgements; interested in acquiring information andfacts; oriented toward the future asopposed to the past;have a sense of mastery overthe environment; believein the value of future planning; have an appreciation oftechnical skills; and have high educational and occupational aspirations.According to those who argue for the utility ofindividual modernity perspectives, persons locked into

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Educational Reform

more traditional societies are typically less interested innew experiences; uninterested in social change; morelikely to form and hold opinions based on the beliefsheld by others in the tribe and or kinship systems;uninterested in acquiring knowledge for its own sake;value the past more than the future; are more fatalisticthan optimistic regarding the human ability to controlfuture events; place less value on occupational specialization and competence; and have low educational andoccupational aspirations. Inkelesand his colleagues, ingeneral, agreed with Dreeben and Parsons: the contemporary model American school represents a modern institution much concerned with, and effective in,helping children to transcend their personal and localcommunity worlds along the way to full participation inmodern American society.

For the most part, the combination of modemschooling practices, mass media influences, expandedoccupational opportunities and proximity to metropolitan areas appears to have renderedmootwhat we havedescribed as the contradictions between older tradl- .tional, decentralized, religious and agriculturally basedlifestyles of rural America versus contemporary metropolitan American and what various sociologists andanthropologists have outlined as the norms and valuesit requires. Significantly, even though rural schoolingpractices and the perceived traditionallifestles of theirsurrounding communities were frequently criticized foralways being "behind the times," rural schools continuously been reformed during the twentieth century; andhave apparently "successfully" socialized most ruralchildren with the skills, norms, information and valuesrequired for modern metropolitanoccupations and civicparticipation.Migration patterns out of rural America slowedduring the past several decades,even reversing temporarily during the early 1980s. Although 1990 censusdata reflect that outmigration is again occurring at arapid rate, rural schools have not disappeared; and infact almost half of all U.S. school districts can beclassified as rural. Furthermore, even though ruralschool districts are typically smaller than metropolitanones, and even though many of these rural districts lieclose to metropolitan areas, between twenty and fortypercent of American children currently attend schoolsclassified as "rural" (Stephens & Perry, 1990).The observation that rural schools continue toexist, however, is probably not the reason that recentscholarship on their occasionally difficult situations isavailable. Rather, in many cases state and federalpolicies have increasingly placed higher accountabilitystandards on such districts at the same time that local

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ability to pay for increased programsupport has eroded(Stephens & Perry, 1990; State Research Associates,1988). In otherwords, school reform remains ongoing;and resistance to the ever encompassing logics ofcurricular instrumentality andcost effectiveness remainvisible in some rural communities where other interpretations of the place of local schools is still alive. Furthermore, in some rural locales, poverty and isolationmake school reform issues and concerns increasinglyproblematic. That is, in rural communities where thestructure of opportunities and the beliefs of local community leaders appearconsistent with modern views onthe instrumental utility of schooling, resistance to thetwentiethcentury school reform appears relatively mild.Yet, poor and isolated communities and school systemsare frequently sites of debate and concern over modernschooling practices; and battles to reform such ruralschools often have multiple dimensions.

CONCLUSIONMost educators and academics interested in theplight of rural schools in the U.S. assume that understanding and "improving" rural educational opportunities rests primarily on providingeducational equity (e.g.

Sher&Tompkins, 1977; Stephens and Perry, 1990). Inmany respects this is true, for as school fiscal andacademic accountability mandates increase, most ruralschool systems are unable to pay for increased costsfrom local resources. Particularly in depressed orisolated communities (or counties), local bond issuesand efforts to expand required educational services isdifficult when local property and use taxes are all that isavailable to generate additional income (DeYoung,1991; WVDE, 1989; VEA, 1990).However, as we have taken great pains to pointout inthis essay, an important and related complexity tounderstanding the "problems" of rural education in theU.S. has to do with understanding, addressing, andbuilding upon some ofthe decentralizedcultural factorsthat remain important in many rural American communities. The "data" suggests that all rural communitieshave not disappeared, and that many of their needshavenot been addressedbynational education reformsinsensitive to their existence. The degree of ruralschool reform (and resistance to such reforms) mayalso be explained by how and when the communitiesthey are part of have been affected bytwentieth centuryeconomic, political, and social developments; and relatedly, towhat extent local communities havebeen drawninto the national culture.

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.Educational Reform

Historically, one room schools, small gradedschools, and later community high schools providedsocial activities, meeting places, venues for celebratinglocal rites of passage, and opportunities to exercisesocial solidarity in the face of larger impersonal organizations in other regions, other states, or the nation atlarge. Typically, underlying values in small and decentralized rural American communities emphasized religious piety, family and community importance, intergenerational stability, and attachments to place.Continuing throughout the late nineteenth andtwentieth centuries, pressures to reform the mission oflocal schools have explicitly emphasized cognitive skilltraining within acost/effective setting. At the sametime,ofcourse, emphasizinghowincreased knowledge couldlead to better occupational possibilities outside of localcommunities implicitly undermined more traditional"teachings"of families and, frequently, churches in ruralAmerica.While localist,Protestant,agricultural,placebound,and kinship oriented values have been replaced inmany rural schools, in other places they have not. Wesubmit, places where older traditions and values openlyconflict with national and modern ones are those placeswith long-term histories of economic depression and/orisolated communities only partially reached by othersocialization institutions of the national culture. Contrary to the opinions of some, the tragedy of ruralschools in such places is not just financial, it is alsocultural: for manydepressed and isolated communitiesand schools are surrounded by images of a nationalculture only marginally available to them; and a localculture which relies on a national economicand politicalstructure which views them as archaic and outdated.If rural school improvement is to be seriouslypursued, particularly in depressed or isolated communities, more in-depth understandings of the cultural andsocial functions of schools in such places needs to beseen in those who would improve (not just "reform")them.

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