pengantar ilmu ekonomi edy suandi hamid (lectures note)

© 2002 Prentice Hall Business Publishing© 2002 Prentice Hall Business Publishing Principles of Economics, 6/ePrinciples of Economics, 6/e Karl Case, Ray FairKarl Case, Ray Fair

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Prepared by: edy suandi Prepared by: edy suandi hamidhamid

Pengantar Ilmu EkonomiPengantar Ilmu Ekonomi

edy suandi hamidedy suandi hamid(lectures note)(lectures note)


ReferensiReferensi

1.1. Karl E. Case dab Ray C. Fair, Principle of Karl E. Case dab Ray C. Fair, Principle of Macroeconomics, cetakan ke-5 (atau terakhir), 1999Macroeconomics, cetakan ke-5 (atau terakhir), 1999

2.2. P.A. Samuelson and William D Nordhaus, Economics, P.A. Samuelson and William D Nordhaus, Economics, cetakan ke-16, McGrawhillcetakan ke-16, McGrawhill

3.3. Boediono, Ekonomi Makro, BPFE YogyakartaBoediono, Ekonomi Makro, BPFE Yogyakarta

4.4. Aried wijaya, Ekonomika MakroAried wijaya, Ekonomika Makro

5.5. Ace Partadireja, Perhitungan Pendapatan Nasional, Ace Partadireja, Perhitungan Pendapatan Nasional, LP3ESLP3ES

6.6. Sadono Sukirno, Pengantar Teori Makro Ekonomi, UI Sadono Sukirno, Pengantar Teori Makro Ekonomi, UI PressPress

7.7. Lain-lain yang relevan!!Lain-lain yang relevan!!


Munculnya Ekonomi ModerenMunculnya Ekonomi Moderen

• Ditandai dgn Buku Adam Smith (1776) berjudul Ditandai dgn Buku Adam Smith (1776) berjudul “An Inquiry into the Nature of the Wealth of the “An Inquiry into the Nature of the Wealth of the Nations”Nations”

• Buku ini memfokuskan pada Ekonomi Mikro Buku ini memfokuskan pada Ekonomi Mikro AS: penggagas dari Ekonomi Mikro: AS: penggagas dari Ekonomi Mikro: membahas prilaku unit ekonomi individual membahas prilaku unit ekonomi individual (pasar, perusahan, rumahtangga, faktor (pasar, perusahan, rumahtangga, faktor produksi, harga, dsb)produksi, harga, dsb)


• Perkembangan teori ekonomi moderen sangat Perkembangan teori ekonomi moderen sangat pesat setelah munculnya tulisan AS tsb. Ini pesat setelah munculnya tulisan AS tsb. Ini ditandai dari artikel dan buku2 yg ditulis oleh ditandai dari artikel dan buku2 yg ditulis oleh Alfred Marshall, David ricardo, JM Mills, Karl Alfred Marshall, David ricardo, JM Mills, Karl Marx, Wlaras, JM Keynes, dsb.Marx, Wlaras, JM Keynes, dsb.


Apa yg dipelajari oleh Ekonom?Apa yg dipelajari oleh Ekonom?

• Aspek yg dipelajari: Uang, produksi, konsumsi, distribusi Aspek yg dipelajari: Uang, produksi, konsumsi, distribusi brg dan jasa, pembangunan, dsb-nya.brg dan jasa, pembangunan, dsb-nya.

• Mempelajari bgmn harga tanah, modal dan tenagakerja Mempelajari bgmn harga tanah, modal dan tenagakerja terbentuk dlm perekonomian, dan bgmn harga tsb terbentuk dlm perekonomian, dan bgmn harga tsb mengalokasikan sumberdayamengalokasikan sumberdaya

• Menyelidiki prilaku pasar uangMenyelidiki prilaku pasar uang

• Manganalisis akibat dari kebijakan pemerintah pada Manganalisis akibat dari kebijakan pemerintah pada efisiens pasarefisiens pasar

• Menganalisis distribusi pendapatanMenganalisis distribusi pendapatan

• Menganalisi dampak pengeluaran pemrthMenganalisi dampak pengeluaran pemrth

• Menganalisis pola perdagangan dsbnya.Menganalisis pola perdagangan dsbnya.


Pengertian Ilmu EkonomiPengertian Ilmu Ekonomi

1.1. Ilmu yg mempelajari bagaimana manusia Ilmu yg mempelajari bagaimana manusia mengalokasikan sumberdaya yg langka utk mengalokasikan sumberdaya yg langka utk menghasilkan komoditi yg diinginkan, dan menghasilkan komoditi yg diinginkan, dan mendistribsikannya ke masyarakat.mendistribsikannya ke masyarakat.

2.2. Ilmu yg mempelajari tingkah laku manusia dalam Ilmu yg mempelajari tingkah laku manusia dalam mengalokasikan sumber2 alam secara efisienmengalokasikan sumber2 alam secara efisien

3.3. Ilmu yg mempelajari tindakan/aktivitas manusia yg Ilmu yg mempelajari tindakan/aktivitas manusia yg ditimbulkan karena keterbatasan sbrdaya dan adanya ditimbulkan karena keterbatasan sbrdaya dan adanya kegunaan alternatif sbrdaya tsb, utk memenuhi kegunaan alternatif sbrdaya tsb, utk memenuhi kebutuhan manusia agar dicapai kepuasan optimalkebutuhan manusia agar dicapai kepuasan optimal


Three Basic QuestionsThree Basic Questions


Gambar tsb menunjukkan bgmn pasar menjawab Gambar tsb menunjukkan bgmn pasar menjawab tiga pertanyaan dasar ekonomi.tiga pertanyaan dasar ekonomi.

1.1. Apa yg akan diproduksi? Apa yg akan diproduksi?

Ditentukan oleh penilaian konsumen atas barang Ditentukan oleh penilaian konsumen atas barang yg diminta (demand) dibandingkan dg yg diminta (demand) dibandingkan dg penawarannya (opportunity cost)penawarannya (opportunity cost)

Apabila permintaan barang tsb lebih besar Apabila permintaan barang tsb lebih besar dibandingkan penawaran dibandingkan penawaran DiproduksiDiproduksi


Bagaimana Menghasilkan Barang tsb?Ini ditentukan oleh prilaku produsen•Produsen akan mencari metode produksi yg paling rendah biayanya sehingga bisa meningkatkan keuntungan•Adanya persaingan menyebabkan harga tidak terlalu jauh menyimpangdari biaya produksinya


Untuk siapa komoditi dihasilkan?Untuk siapa komoditi dihasilkan?

• Barang yg dihasilkan dialokasikan utk konsumen Barang yg dihasilkan dialokasikan utk konsumen yg mau membayar pada harga yg ditetapkanyg mau membayar pada harga yg ditetapkan

• Krn daya beli berbeda Krn daya beli berbeda pasar akan pasar akan menimbulkan ketidakmerataan dalam distribusi menimbulkan ketidakmerataan dalam distribusi barang/jasabarang/jasa


Ekonomi Normatif dan PositifEkonomi Normatif dan Positif

• Ilmu Ekonomi Positif: membahas ttg apa dan Ilmu Ekonomi Positif: membahas ttg apa dan bagaimana senyatanya masalah2 ekonomi bagaimana senyatanya masalah2 ekonomi dipecahkan.dipecahkan.

• Menjelaskan fakta-fakta ekonomiMenjelaskan fakta-fakta ekonomi

• Menjelaskan: apa yg terjadi; apa yg akan Menjelaskan: apa yg terjadi; apa yg akan terjadi; apa implikasi kebijakan pemerintahterjadi; apa implikasi kebijakan pemerintah

Misal: Inflasi akan lebih dari 10%; pengangguran Misal: Inflasi akan lebih dari 10%; pengangguran akan meningkat; Jika pajak meningkat, akan meningkat; Jika pajak meningkat, konsumsi akan turunkonsumsi akan turun


IE NormatifIE Normatif

Mempelajari ttg apa yg seharusnya terjadi, atau Mempelajari ttg apa yg seharusnya terjadi, atau bgmn seharusnya masalah ek rakyat bgmn seharusnya masalah ek rakyat dipecahkandipecahkan

Menyangkut masalah etika dan nilaiMenyangkut masalah etika dan nilai

Misal: pemerataan hrs ditingkatkan;Misal: pemerataan hrs ditingkatkan;

Pemerintah hrs menurunkan inflasi; kebijakan Pemerintah hrs menurunkan inflasi; kebijakan pemerintah hrs memperkecil pengangguranpemerintah hrs memperkecil pengangguran


Cabang Utama EkonomiCabang Utama Ekonomi

• Secara grs besar ada 2 cabang IESecara grs besar ada 2 cabang IE

1.1. Ilmu Ekonomi Makro: Mempelajari aktivitas ek Ilmu Ekonomi Makro: Mempelajari aktivitas ek secara keseluruhan (nasional, global) secara keseluruhan (nasional, global) agregatifagregatif

Misalnya: pertumbuhan ek; inflasi; neraca Misalnya: pertumbuhan ek; inflasi; neraca pembayaran; investasi dsbnyapembayaran; investasi dsbnya


• 2. Ilmu Ekonomi Mikro: mempelajari aktivitas 2. Ilmu Ekonomi Mikro: mempelajari aktivitas prilaku ekonomi individual, atau bagian atau unit prilaku ekonomi individual, atau bagian atau unit kecil perekonomian: permintaan dan penawaran kecil perekonomian: permintaan dan penawaran individual atau perusahaan individual atau perusahaan

• Harga mobil; penawaran minyak; permintaan Harga mobil; penawaran minyak; permintaan tenaga kerja dsbnyatenaga kerja dsbnya


MacroeconomicsMacroeconomics


The Roots of MacroeconomicsThe Roots of Macroeconomics

• The The Great DepressionGreat Depression was a was a period of severe economic period of severe economic contraction and high contraction and high unemployment that began in 1929 unemployment that began in 1929 and continued throughout the and continued throughout the 1930s.1930s.


The Roots of MacroeconomicsThe Roots of Macroeconomics

• Classical economists applied Classical economists applied microeconomic models, or “market microeconomic models, or “market clearing” models, to economy-wide clearing” models, to economy-wide problems.problems.

• The failure of simple classical models The failure of simple classical models to explain the prolonged existence of to explain the prolonged existence of high unemployment during the Great high unemployment during the Great Depression provided the impetus for Depression provided the impetus for the development of macroeconomics.the development of macroeconomics.


Recent Macroeconomic HistoryRecent Macroeconomic History

• In 1936, John Maynard Keynes published In 1936, John Maynard Keynes published The The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and General Theory of Employment, Interest, and MoneyMoney..

• Keynes believed governments could intervene Keynes believed governments could intervene in the economy and affect the level of output in the economy and affect the level of output and employment.and employment.

• Fine-tuningFine-tuning was the phrase used by Walter was the phrase used by Walter Heller to refer to the government’s role in Heller to refer to the government’s role in regulating inflation and unemployment.regulating inflation and unemployment.


Macroeconomic ConcernsMacroeconomic Concerns

• Three of the major concerns of Three of the major concerns of macroeconomics are:macroeconomics are:

• InflationInflation

• Output growthOutput growth

• UnemploymentUnemployment


InflationInflation

• InflationInflation is an increase in the overall price level. is an increase in the overall price level.

• HyperinflationHyperinflation is a period of very rapid is a period of very rapid increases in the overall price level. increases in the overall price level. Hyperinflations are rare, but have been used to Hyperinflations are rare, but have been used to study the costs and consequences of even study the costs and consequences of even moderate inflation.moderate inflation.


Output GrowthOutput Growth

• The The business cyclebusiness cycle is the cycle of short-term is the cycle of short-term ups and downs in the economy.ups and downs in the economy.

• The main measure of how an economy is doing The main measure of how an economy is doing is aggregate output:is aggregate output:

• Aggregate outputAggregate output is the total quantity of goods and is the total quantity of goods and services produced in an economy in a given period.services produced in an economy in a given period.


Output GrowthOutput Growth

• A A recessionrecession is a period during which is a period during which aggregate output declines. Two aggregate output declines. Two consecutive quarters of decrease in consecutive quarters of decrease in output signal a recession.output signal a recession.

• A prolonged and deep recession A prolonged and deep recession becomes a becomes a depressiondepression..

• The size of the growth rate of output The size of the growth rate of output over a long period is also a concern of over a long period is also a concern of macroeconomists and policy makers.macroeconomists and policy makers.


UnemploymentUnemployment

• The The unemployment rateunemployment rate is the percentage of is the percentage of the labor force that is unemployed.the labor force that is unemployed.

• The unemployment rate is a key indicator of the The unemployment rate is a key indicator of the economy’s health.economy’s health.

• The existence of unemployment seems to imply The existence of unemployment seems to imply that the aggregate labor market is not in that the aggregate labor market is not in equilibrium. Why do labor markets not clear equilibrium. Why do labor markets not clear when other markets do?when other markets do?


Government in the MacroeconomyGovernment in the Macroeconomy

• There are three kinds of policy There are three kinds of policy that the government has used to that the government has used to influence the macroeconomy:influence the macroeconomy:

1.1. Fiscal policyFiscal policy

2.2. Monetary policyMonetary policy

3.3. Growth or supply-side policiesGrowth or supply-side policies


Government in the MacroeconomyGovernment in the Macroeconomy

• Fiscal policyFiscal policy refers to government refers to government policies concerning taxes and policies concerning taxes and expenditures.expenditures.

• Monetary policyMonetary policy consists of tools used consists of tools used by the Federal Reserve to control the by the Federal Reserve to control the money supply.money supply.

• Growth policiesGrowth policies are government policies are government policies that focus on stimulating aggregate that focus on stimulating aggregate supply instead of aggregate demand.supply instead of aggregate demand.


The Components of the MacroeconomyThe Components of the Macroeconomy

• Everyone’s Everyone’s expenditures go expenditures go somewhere. Every somewhere. Every transaction must transaction must have two sides.have two sides.


The Three Market ArenasThe Three Market Arenas

• Households, firms, the government, and the rest of the Households, firms, the government, and the rest of the world all interact in the goods-and-services, labor, and world all interact in the goods-and-services, labor, and money markets.money markets.



• Households and the government purchase Households and the government purchase goods and services (goods and services (demanddemand) from firms in ) from firms in the the goods-and services marketgoods-and services market, and firms , and firms supplysupply to the goods and services market. to the goods and services market.

• In the In the labor marketlabor market, firms and government , firms and government purchase (demand) labor from households purchase (demand) labor from households (supply).(supply).

• The total supply of labor in the economy The total supply of labor in the economy depends on the sum of decisions made by depends on the sum of decisions made by households.households.



• In the In the money marketmoney market—sometimes called —sometimes called the the financial marketfinancial market—households purchase —households purchase stocks and bonds from firms.stocks and bonds from firms.

• Households Households supplysupply funds to this market in funds to this market in the expectation of earning income, and also the expectation of earning income, and also demanddemand (borrow) funds from this market. (borrow) funds from this market.

• Firms, government, and the rest of the world Firms, government, and the rest of the world also engage in borrowing and lending, also engage in borrowing and lending, coordinated by financial institutions.coordinated by financial institutions.


Financial InstrumentsFinancial Instruments

• Treasury bonds, notes, and billsTreasury bonds, notes, and bills are promissory notes issued by the are promissory notes issued by the federal government when it borrows federal government when it borrows money.money.

• Corporate bondsCorporate bonds are promissory are promissory notes issued by corporations when notes issued by corporations when they borrow money.they borrow money.


Financial InstrumentsFinancial Instruments

• Shares of stockShares of stock are financial are financial instruments that give to the holder a instruments that give to the holder a share in the firm’s ownership and share in the firm’s ownership and therefore the right to share in the therefore the right to share in the firm’s profits.firm’s profits.

• DividendsDividends are the portion of a are the portion of a corporation’s profits that the firm corporation’s profits that the firm pays out each period to its pays out each period to its shareholders.shareholders.


Economic GrowthEconomic Growth

• To increase the production To increase the production of one good without of one good without decreasing the production of decreasing the production of the other, the PPF curve the other, the PPF curve must shift outward.must shift outward.

• From point D, the From point D, the economy can choose any economy can choose any combination of output combination of output between F and G.between F and G.

• Outward shifts of the Outward shifts of the curve represent curve represent economic growth.economic growth.


Economic GrowthEconomic Growth

• Not every sector of the Not every sector of the economy grows at the economy grows at the same rate.same rate.

• In this historic example, In this historic example, productivity increases productivity increases were more dramatic for were more dramatic for corn than for wheat over corn than for wheat over the 50-year period.the 50-year period.


The Economic ProblemThe Economic Problem

• The economic problem:The economic problem: Given scarce resources, Given scarce resources, how, exactly, do large, complex societies go about how, exactly, do large, complex societies go about answering the three basic economic questions?answering the three basic economic questions?

• Economic systemsEconomic systems are the basic arrangements are the basic arrangements made by societies to solve the economic problem. made by societies to solve the economic problem. They include:They include:

• Command economiesCommand economies

• Laissez-faire economiesLaissez-faire economies

• Mixed systemsMixed systems


The Economic ProblemThe Economic Problem

• In a In a command economycommand economy, a central government either , a central government either directly or indirectly sets output targets, incomes, and directly or indirectly sets output targets, incomes, and prices.prices.

• In a In a laissez-faire economylaissez-faire economy,, literally from the French: literally from the French: “allow (them) to do,” individual people and firms “allow (them) to do,” individual people and firms pursue their own self-interests without any central pursue their own self-interests without any central direction or regulation. The central institution of a direction or regulation. The central institution of a laissez-faire economy is the laissez-faire economy is the free-market systemfree-market system..

• A A marketmarket is the institution through which buyers and is the institution through which buyers and sellers interact and engage in exchange.sellers interact and engage in exchange.


Laissez-Faire Economies:Laissez-Faire Economies:The Free MarketThe Free Market

• Consumer sovereignty Consumer sovereignty is the idea that is the idea that consumers ultimately dictate what will be consumers ultimately dictate what will be produced (or not produced) by choosing what produced (or not produced) by choosing what to purchase (and what not to purchase).to purchase (and what not to purchase).

• Free enterprise:Free enterprise: under a free market system, under a free market system, individual producers must figure out how to individual producers must figure out how to plan, organize, and coordinate the production plan, organize, and coordinate the production of products and services.of products and services.


Laissez-Faire Economies:Laissez-Faire Economies:The Free MarketThe Free Market

• The The distribution of outputdistribution of output is also determined is also determined in a decentralized way. The amount that any in a decentralized way. The amount that any one household gets depends on its income one household gets depends on its income and wealth.and wealth.

• The basic coordinating mechanism in a free The basic coordinating mechanism in a free market system is price. market system is price. PricePrice is the amount is the amount that a product sells for per unit. It reflects what that a product sells for per unit. It reflects what society is willing to pay.society is willing to pay.


Mixed Systems, Markets, and Mixed Systems, Markets, and GovernmentsGovernments

Markets are not perfect, and governments play a Markets are not perfect, and governments play a major role in all economic systems in order to:major role in all economic systems in order to:

• Minimize market inefficienciesMinimize market inefficiencies

• Provide public goodsProvide public goods

• Redistribute incomeRedistribute income

• Stabilize the macroeconomyStabilize the macroeconomy

• Promote low levels of unemploymentPromote low levels of unemployment

• Promote low levels of inflationPromote low levels of inflation


The Method of EconomicsThe Method of Economics

• Normative economicsNormative economics, , also called policy also called policy economics, analyzes outcomes of economic economics, analyzes outcomes of economic behavior, evaluates them as good or bad, and behavior, evaluates them as good or bad, and may prescribe courses of action.may prescribe courses of action.

• Positive economicsPositive economics studies economic studies economic behavior without making judgments. It behavior without making judgments. It describes what exists and how it works.describes what exists and how it works.


Economic PolicyEconomic Policy

Criteria for judging economic outcomes:Criteria for judging economic outcomes:

• EfficiencyEfficiency, or allocative efficiency. An efficient , or allocative efficiency. An efficient economy is one that produces what people want at economy is one that produces what people want at the least possible costthe least possible cost..

• EquityEquity, or , or fairness of economic outcomes.fairness of economic outcomes.

• GrowthGrowth, or , or an increase in the total output of an an increase in the total output of an economy.economy.

• StabilityStability, or the condition in which output is steady , or the condition in which output is steady or growing, with low inflation and full employment or growing, with low inflation and full employment of resources. of resources.


Ekonomi PembangunanEkonomi Pembangunan

pengantar ilmu ekonomi edy suandi hamid (lectures note)

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