organisasi sosial handout

HandoutOrganisasi Sosial

Materi dari Dosen 2 (Subejo)e-mail: [email protected]

e-learning:www.elisa.ugm.ac.id(Komunitas:Social_Organization)

Organisasi???

Organisasi Sosial ??

Mengapa orang ber-organisasi???

Apa motivasinya???

E-learning for Social Organization

• Materi-materi dalampembelajaran OrganisasiSosial dapat diakses melalui : www.ugm.ac.id

• Nama Komunitas: Social_Organization

• E-mail: [email protected]/[email protected]

Outline Materi PembelajaranOrganisasi Sosial

1. Pengertian, Unsur, Asas dan JenisOrganisasi

2. Studi Organisasi, Perilaku dan EfektifitasOrganisasi (P1)

3. Bentuk-bentuk Organisasi (P2)4. Komunikasi dan Budaya Organisasi (P3)5. Kefeektifan Organisasi (P4)6. Organisasi Petani di Indonesia (P5)7. Social Capital: Studi Kasus Organisasi dan

Institusi Tradisional di Pedesaan Jawa (P6)

References (1):• Sutarto, 2002, Dasar-Dasar Organisasi,

Gadjah Mada University Press• Robbins, Stephen P, 1994, Teori Organisasi:

Struktur, Desain dan Aplikasi, Prentice Hal International dan Arcan.

• Iskak, Aswad, 2003, Komunikasi danOrganisasi, UPFE UMY

References (2):• Munandar, Sinis,……,The Role of Farmers

Organization in Agricultural Technology Transfer and Farmers Education and Training in Indonesia

• Suzanto, Boy, ….,Studi Organisasi danPerilaku Organisasi

• Subejo, 2005, Custom of Mutual Help in Rural Java: A Case Studi of Gotong RoyongPractices in Yogyakarta Province, Proceedings of Seminar, JSPS-DGHE Core University Program in Applied Biosciences

1. Pengertian, Unsur dan Asasdan Jenis Organisasi

A. Pengertian organisasiB. Unsur-Unsur OrganisasiC. Asas OrganisasiD. Jenis organisasi

A. Pengertian Organisasi (1)

• Money (1974): organisasi adalah bentukperserikatan manusia untuk mencapai suatutujuan bersama

• Davis (1951): organisasi adalah sesuatukelompok orang-orang yang sedang bekerjake arah tujuan bersama di bawahkepemimpinan

• Millet (1954): organisasi adalah orang-orangyang bekerjasama dan mengandung ciri-cirihubungan-hubungan manusia yang timbuldalam aktivitas kelompok.

A. Pengertian Organisasi (2)

• Grifith (1959):organisasi adalah seluruh orang-orang yang melaksanakan fungsi-fungsi yang berbeda tetapi saling berhubungan dandikoordinasikan agar supaya sebuah tugas ataulebih dapat diselesaikan

• Massie (1964): organisasi merupakan struktur danproses kelompok orang yang bekerjasama yang membagi tugas-tugasnya diantara para anggota, menetapkan hubungan, dan menyatukan aktivitas-aktivitasnya ke arah tujuan bersama

• Note: definisi organisasi lebih lengkap dapatdilihat pada Sutarto, 2002, Dasar-DasarOrganisasi, Gadjah Mada Univ. Press, Hal 22-43.

What does organization mean? (some key words)

• Sekumpulan orang• Berinteraksi/

bekerjasama• Tujuan bersama• Koordinasi

B. Unsur-Unsur Organisasi1. Organisasi memiliki anggota. Anggota

merupakan asset terbesar yang dimiliki olehsuatu organisasi atau institusi.

2. Terdapat pola hubungan. Pola hubungan berupaaturan-aturan, nilai-nilai yang berlaku dalamberinteraksi antara anggota satu dengan lainnya.

3. Organisasi selalu berada dalam kontekaslingkungan. Organisasi akan menyesuaikan diridengan lingkungan sosialnya (termasukoutputnya).

4. Organisasi memiliki tujuan. Tujuan menjadiacuan dalam melakukan aktivitas bersama.

5. Pemanfaatan teknologi. Teknologi merupakansarana bantu yang dapat mepercepat ataumemperlancar berjalannya proses-proses yang berlangsung dalam organisasi

C. Asas-asas Organisasi (1)

1. Tujuan organisasi harus dirumuskan dengan jelas. Tujuan ini yang akan memandu setiap orang dalamorganisasi. Semakin jelas tujuan yang akan diraihmaka semakin mudah pula organisasi menentukanlangkah yang tepat.

2. Departemenisasi. Penyusunan bagian-bagian yang akan menjalankan tugas-tugas sesuai bidangtertentu. Dapat dilakukan denganmengelompokkan tugas-tugas sejenis.

3. Pembagian kerja. Setelah dilakukandepartemenisasi perlu pengisian aktifitas kerjasesuai dengan bidangnya masing-masing

4. Koordinasi. Koordinasi dimaksudkan untukmencapai keselarasan dalam organisasi.


5. Pelimpahan wewenang. Pelimpahan kewenangandari pejabat yang lebih tinggi ke pejabat yang lebihrendah atau antar pejabat yang setara.

6. Rentang kendali (span of control). Merupakanjumlah bawahan yang dipimpin dengan baik olehseorang pemimpin di atasnya.

7. Jenjang organisasi/hiraki. Menunjukkan adanyatingkatan-tingkatan yang perlu dilewati dalammenentukan sebuah keputusan. (kasus PTPN 5)

8. Kesatuan perintah. Masing-masing pejabat dalamhirarki yang berlaku hanya bertanggungjawabkepada satu atasan tertentu dan hanya menerimaperintah darinya.


9. Fleksibilitas. Organisasi semestinya menyesuaikandiri dengan lingkungan sekitarnya. Perubahantersebut antara lain mencakup revisi tujuan, teknologi, SDM yang spesialis, dll.

10. Berkesinambungan. Organisasi setelah dibentukdiharapkan terus beroperasi dan memenuhikebutuhan stakeholders-nya.

11. Keseimbangan. Bagian atau satuan dalamorganisasi yang memiliki peran yang samapentingnya harus ditempatkan pada level yang sama pula.

• Note: lebih detail dapat dibaca pada Iskak, 2003, Komunikasi dan Organisasi, UPFE UMY, Hal: 17-23

D. Jenis Organisasi

• Menurut Blau dan Scott: (1) organisasi salingmenguntungkan, (2)organsiasi perusahaan, (3) organisasi pengabdian, (4) organisasi pemerintah

• Herbeert Hicks: (1) Organisasi formal:mempunyaistruktur yang dinyatakan dengan baik yang dapatmenggambarkan hubungan wewenang, kekuasaan, akuntabilitas dan tanggung jawab, (2) organisasiinformal:disusun secara bebas, flexible, tak pasti, dan spontan.

• Talcot Parson: (1)organisasi ekonomi, (2) organsasipolitik, (3) Organisasi integratif, (4) organisasipemeliharaan

Jenis Organisasi Menurut Parson

• Organisasi ekonomi: organisasi yang melakukanaktivitas memproduksi dan mendistribusikan barangdan jasa.

• Organisasi politik: organisasi yang melakukanaktivitas utama untuk mencapai pembagiankekuasaan dalam masyarakat

• Organisasi integratif: organisasi yang melakukanaktivitas guna memberikan pelayanan sosial kepadamasyarakat.

• Organisasi pemeliharaan: organisasi yang melakukan aktivitas memelihara kebudayaan, pendidikan dan kesenian.

Teori, Perilaku dan EfektifitasOrganisasi


2. Teori, Perilaku dan Efektifitas Organisasi

Beberapa Teori Organisasi :• 4 Prinsip scientific manajemen (Fayol) dalam

pengembangan organisasi: (1) penggantianmetode pekerjaan secara ilmiah, (2) selekasi danpelatihan secara ilmiah, (3) kerjasama antaramanajemen dan pekerja dilakukan denganmetode ilmiah, (4) pembagian tanggung jawabyang merata

• Max Weber : model struktural sebagai alat yang efisien bagi organisasi : adanya pembagiankerja, hirarki wewenang yang jelas, prosedurseleksi formal, peraturan rinci, hubungan formal

• Organisasi modern/contemporarycenderung memakai pendekatan danmetode ilmiah dan penggunaan teknologi

• Contoh: banyak corporasi besar yang awalnya dikelola kekeluargaan karenasemakin banyak persaingan lalu dikelolasecara profesional -- 1)Toyota Company mengganti managing director-nya denganorang profesional, 2) Bakri Brothers

• Organisasi tradisional dengan anggotasedikit masih mungkin dikelola secaratradisional dan ikatan hubungan sosial

Doglas McGregor: Teori X--Teori Y(Manusia perlu dipertahankan pada

suatu tingkat keseimbangan)

Teori X• Pegawai pada dasarnya tidak menyukai

pekerjaan/berusaha menghindarinya• Sehingga harus pegawai perlu untuk

dikendalikan/dipaksa/ancaman hukuman• Pegawai cenderung mengelak tanggung

jawab/mencari pengarahan formal• Pegawai cenderung mencari rasa aman,

sedikit ambisi

S1

S1 bangan)Subejo, 10/12/2004

Doglas McGregor: Teori X--Teori Y

Teori Y• Pegawai melihat pekerjaan seperti hal-hal

biasa (beristirahat, bermain)• Menentukan arahnya sendiri,

mengendalikan diri dan merasa terikatdengan tujuan

• Kreatifitas, kemampuan untuk berinisiatif, mengambil keputusan untuk kemajuanorganisasi

Perilaku Organisasi

• Perilaku organisasi: merupakanpenelaahaan perilaku, sikap dan prestasimanusia/individu dalam suatu kerangkaorganisasi

• Menggunakan teori, metode, prinispberbagai disiplin ilmu: psikologi, sosiologi, antropologi budaya, dll

• Hal yang dipelajari: persepsi, nilai-nilai, kapasitas belajar, tindakan individu ketikabekerja di dalam kelompok/organisasi

Efektivitas Organisasi

• Organisasi perlu diukur kinerja/performance-nyadengan konsep (1) efisiensi dan (2) efektifitas.

• Efisiensi: melakukan pekerjaan dengan benar(doing thing right)/mengacu pada ukuranpenggunaan sumberdaya yang langka

• Efektifitas: melakukan pekerjaan yang benar(doing the right things) penilaian berkaitandengan prestasi individu, kelompok danorganisasi.

• Tiga macam perspektif kefeketifan organisasi : (1) kefektifan individu, (2) ekefektifan kelompok, dan (3) kefektifan organisasi

• Keefektifan individu: proses evaluasi kinerjaindividu secara rutin, dijadikan dasar bagipromosi, kenaikan gaji, dll

• Keefektifan kel.: kontribusi individu bagi kel.• Keefektifan organisasi: akumulasi individu dan

kefektifan kelompok• Sebab keefektifan individu: kemampuan,

keahlian, pengetahuan, sikap, motivasi, stress• Sebab keefektifan kel: kepaduan, kepemimpinan,

struktur, status, peranan dan norma-norma• Sebab keefektifan organisasi: lingkungan,

teknologi, pilihan strategis, struktur, proses, kebudayaan

Kondisi Pertanian Umum Indonesia

• Sumbangan GDP sektor pertanian 35%• Jumlah tenaga kerja pertanian: 35 juta• Jumlah keluarga tani: 21.605.000• Pemilikan/penguasaan lahan:

a. Petani kecil (25 juta) : 142 juta hab. Perkebunan (2000) : 22 juta ha

• Rerata kepemilikan lahan per keluarga0.3-0. ha (Jawa) dan 1-3 ha (luar Jawa)

Bentuk-bentuk Organisasi


Pertanian Rakyat Berdasar Luas“Penguasaan” Tanah (Mubyarto,1995:19)

100,00100,00Jumlah2,432,14>5,001,401,144,0-4,992,932,343,0-3,997,555,932,0-2,99

19,8818,071,0-1,9925,0324,730,5-0,9940,7845,650,1-0,49

1983 (%)1973 (%)Luas (ha)

Rerata “Penguasaan” Lahan Pertanian Berdasar Pulau (Mubyarto,1995:20)

100,0100,00,990,98Total0,80---Irian0,930,82,642,17Maluku6,676,61,311,41NTT, Bali7,707,71,651,59Sulawesi5,144,82,652,87Kalimantan

19,9519,81,651,53Sumatra58,8160,30,660,67Jawa-Madura

% (83)% (73)Luas/ha (83)

Luas/ha (73)

Pulau

“Pemilikan” Tanah Pertanian Rakyat Tahun1983 (Mubyarto,1995:20)

4,79Tidak punya lahan

28,86> 2,00

14,341,00-1,99

17,210,50-0,99

34,800,1-0,49

% Rumah TanggaLuas (ha)

Jenis Organisasi Petani di Indonesia1. Organisasi petani berdasar lembaga

tradisional2. Organisasi petani yang di dukung

pemerintah3. Organisasi petani yang didukung oleh

proyek pemerintah4. Organisasi petani yang dibuat oleh LSM,

sektor swasta5. Organisasi petani yang dibuat atas

inisiatif petani diluar lembaga tradisional

• Organisasi tradisional: bertujuan untukmemelihara hub antar petani danlingkungan (subak, kel. gotong royong, dll)

• Organisasi yang dibuat atau dimotori olehpemerintah (Kelompok Tani, KUD)

• Organisasi berdasar keproyekan : KelPHT, kel. Pemakai air, kel pemasaran

• Organisasi yang dibuat LSM, swasta: kel. Tani ternak potong, cabai, dll

• Org. atas inisiatif petani: paguyuban petaniapel, paguyuban petani PHT, dll

Organisasi Petani BerdasarTujuan Awal

• Organisasi untuk mendukung informasiteknis dan mengelola sumberdayanasional (P3A, PHT, Org Hutan Kemasy)

• Organisasi untuk mengelola pasca panen, perdagangan dan keuangan/pembiayaan(Koperasi, kel. Pemasaran,)

• Organisasi untuk mendukung pembelaanatau penguatan kepentingan petani (HKTI, KTNA, dll)

• Organisasi dengan multi tujuan/fungsi

Social Capital: Studi Kasus Organisasi dan

Institusi Tradisional di Pedesaan Jawa


Social Capital dalam PembangunanMasyarakat Desa

• Dalam proses pembangunan termasuk didaerah pedesaan, saat ini banyak ahlimenaruh perhatian besar pada peranan“social capital”

• Pada awal tahap pembangunan, capital sekedar dimaknai sebagai (physical capital) modal tidak bergerak misalnya tanah, gudang, dll.

• Selanjutnya muncul “human capital” yang dianggap penting karena dengankemampuan pengetahuan “human” pelakukagiatan yang tinggi akan meningkatkanproduktivitas

• Satu-dua dekade terakhir muncul paradigmabaru bahwa ada jenis capital lain yang sangatpenting yaitu “social capital” yang mencakup: individual talents, accumated knowledges of sociaties, society interactions, organization and culture.

• Social capital dianggap mempunyai peranansentral karena memiliki 3 mekanisme : (1) sharing informasi antar anggota, (2) mengurangi oppotunistic behaviors dan (3) memfasilitasi pembuatan keputusan kolektif.

Shared knowledge, understandings, values, norms, and social networks to ensure the intended results

Dhesi (2000)

Social capital can be considered as an accumulation of various types of intangible social, psychological, cultural, institutional, and related assets that influence cooperative behavior

Uphoff (1999)

Social capital refers to the institutions, relationships, and norms that shape the quality and quantity of a society’s social interactions

World Bank (1998)

The rules, the norms, obligations, reciprocity and trust embedded in social relations, social structure and society’s institutional arrangements which enable members to achieve their individual and community objectives

Narayan (1997)

Features of social organization, such as trust, norms (or reciprocity), and networks (of civil engagement), that can improve the efficiency of society by facilitating coordinated actions

Putnam et.al (1993)

Social capital consits of some aspects of social structures, and they facilitate certain actions of actors--wheter persons or corporate actors--within the structure

Coleman (1988)

Pengertian dan Elemen Dasar dari Social CapitalSumber

Pengertian dan Elemen dasar Social Capital (Subejo, 2004)

• Social capital mencakup: institutions, relationships, attitudes dan values yang mengarahkan dan menggerakan interkasi-interaksiantar orang dan memberikan kontribusi terhadappembangunan sosial ekonomi.

• Elemen social capital : (1) norms, (2) reciprocity, (3) trust dan (4) network

• Social akan tumbuh dan berkembang kalaudigunakan bersama dan akan mengalamikepunahan kalau tidak dilembagakan secarabersama.

• Pewarisan nilai social capital--- proses adaptasi, pembelajaran, serta pengalaman dalam prakteknyata (bukan pewarisan genetik)

Praktek Social Capital di Daerah Pedesaan

• Semangat kerjasama dan saling tolongmenolong merupakan manivestasi “social capital” di daerah pedesaan (secara umumtercakup dalam tradisi “gotong royong”).

• Tradisi dan praktek gotong royong (1) memilikiaturan yang disepakati bersama (norms), (2) pihak terlibat memberikan kontribusi danmendapat manfaat (reciprocity), (3) ada nilaisaling percaya (trust) dan (4) diikat olehpertalian hubungan antar pelaku (network).

Gambar 2. Social Stabilizers and the Institutions for Mutual Help

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Type Characteristics

GerakanJoint activities by community members to maintain public facilities such as mosques, meeting rooms, roads, irrigation channels, springs, graveyards and guardhouses.

Gugur Gunung Joint activities by community members to cope with emergencies such as fires, land slides, house destruction, etc.

Rewang/Layatan Mutual help for ceremonial activities such as funeral, marriage, and circumcision.

Sambatan Mutual help for house construction/repairing, terrace making, wood bringing, etc. (requsted joint works)

Krubutan Exchange labor among small group members for farming operation and domestic works (yearly cycle)

Gantian Simplified type of Krubutan (seasonally cycle)

Prayaan Joint sales of labor to get cash income or to make joint assets for the group.

Hired Labor Hired labor paid in cash or in kind.Source: Interview in 2002.

Table 4. Characteristics of labor institutions

Types of labor institutions

Gambar 3. Categorizing of Human Actions (Berg, 1995)

SpiteCompetition-

AltruismMutualism+

-+

Benefit to actor

Ben

efit

to

reci

pien

t

Type Characteristics

GerakanJoint activities by community members to maintain public facilities such as mosques, meeting rooms, roads, irrigation channels, springs, graveyards and guardhouses.

Gugur Gunung Joint activities by community members to cope with emergencies such as fires, land slides, house destruction, etc.

Rewang/Layatan Mutual help for ceremonial activities such as funeral, marriage, and circumcision.

Sambatan Mutual help for house construction/repairing, terrace making, wood bringing, etc. (requsted joint works)

Krubutan Exchange labor among small group members for farming operation and domestic works (yearly cycle)

Gantian Simplified type of Krubutan (seasonally cycle)

Prayaan Joint sales of labor to get cash income or to make joint assets for the group.

Hired Labor Hired labor paid in cash or in kind.Source: Interview in 2002.

Table 4. Characteristics of labor institutions

Types of labor institutions

Planggok Somokaton Watugajah Jati

Gerakan + + + +Gugur Gunung + + + +Rewang/Layatan + + + +Sambatan + + + +Krubutan + +Gantian (+) (+) +Prayaan + +Hired Labor + + + +Source: Interview in 2002.

Note: + = the continuance of each labor institution (+) = the institution has disapeared

Labor Institutions

Research Sites

Table 5. Types and Continuance of Labor Institutions in the Research Sites

SambatanGugur Gunung

Rewang & Layatan

Gerakan

Buruh upahan/ hired labor

Prayaan

Krubutan and Gantian

Purpose Reciprocity

Stir

ctN

on-s

trict

Labo

r Ins

titut

ions Fo

r Pub

lic P

urpo

ses

For P

rivat

e P

urpo

ses

Compensation

Cas

hLa

bor

Figure 8. Structure of Labor Institutions In Rural Java

3.3. Characteristics of Labor Institutions for Mutual Help

1. Gerakan• Joint activities of community members for

constructing/maintaining public facilities (mosques, meeting rooms, roads, irrigation channels, springs, graveyards and guardhouses)

• Initiated by formal leaders in the community, such as hamlet heads and RW/RT chiefs

• Means of contribution: flexible either through actual participation in the work or contributing food, construction materials or money

• Social sanctions against absent members: strict in hilly areas but relaxed in lowland areas ( high opportunity cost under the expansion of off-farm jobs)

2. Gugur gunung

• Joint activities to cope with emergency needssuch as fires, landslides, house destruction, etc

• The highest priority in the community

• Participation ratio: quite high because of its critical importance

3. Rewang and Layatan• Mutual help for important ceremonies

• Rewang: ceremonial feast for marriages, circumcisions, celebration of pregnancy, etc.

• Layatan: funerals

• Participants’ contribution: sharing labor/costs for the ceremonies and joys/sadness with the host family

• Participants: neighbors and relatives

• Simplified in lowland areas

4. Sambatan

• Mutual help given upon a neighbor's request • Commonly requested to neighbors/relatives when a

client family wants to build/repair his house or cattle/goat shed

• Sambatan can also be called for agricultural operations, wood transportation or terrace construction

• Reciprocal aid among neighbors, but upon a flexible (long-term) basis not expected to give immediate return or strictly equal compensation

• Asymmetrical help: the poor are not required to equally return

• Often users will be criticized by neighbors’ distrust• Replaced by hired labor in lowland areas

5. Krubutan

• Rotational joint work of a small group (five persons)

• Strict type of labor exchange based on the rigid reciprocity

• Separately organized by gender and organized by neighbors/friends/relatives

• Group members work together every day (commonly in the afternoon) and work together for agricultural operations, terrace making, wood bringing, processing of the products, etc.

• Replaced by hired labor in lowland areas

Table 6.Number of Krubutan Group (Watugajah and Jati)

Watugajah Jati Watugajah JatiMen 4 22 13.79 73.33 Women 3 20 10.34 66.67 No. of responden 29 30 100.0 100.0 Sources: Sample household survey in 2002

Number of Group PercentageResponden

Table 7. Number of Krubutan Group Members (Watugajah and Jati)

No. of groupmembers Men Women Men Women

1 0 0 0 02 0 0 0 23 1 0 0 14 0 0 6 45 2 3 14 126 1 0 1 07 0 0 1 18 0 0 0 09 0 0 0 0

Total 4 3 22 20Average numberof membersSources: Sample household survey in 2002

Jati

4.8 5 4.9 4.5

Watugajah

Table 8. Number of Gantian Group (Watugajah and Jati)

Jati Watugajah Jati WatugajahMen 12 41.38 Women 9 31.03 No. of responden 29 100.0 Sources: Sample household survey in 2002

Responden Number of Group Percentage

Table 9. Number of Gantian Group Members in Watugajah

No. of groupmembers Men Women

1 0 02 0 03 3 34 0 05 6 46 2 17 0 08 0 09 1 1

Total 12 9Average numberof membersSources: Sample household survey in 2002

Watugajah

5 4.9

Note: A,B,C,D and E= group members; = working rotation/cycle (whole of year)

Figure 9. Mechanism of Work Rotation/Cycle of Krubutan/Gantian

A B C D

E

A B C D

E

A B C D

E

A B C D

E

A B C D

E

1st Day Host: A 2nd Day

Host: B 5st Day Host: E

3 rd DayHost: C 4th Day

Host: D

Advantages of krubutan/gantian:• Theoretically there is little difference in total labor input between

the group work and family labor: after one rotation, a member's acceptance of total labor is same as his/her contribution to other members.

• Respondents, however, emphasize a positive effect of group work to foster the working spirit among members, which would be very important in the area where farming operation must be finished within strict time limits.

Disadvantages:• Negative effects caused by opportunistic behavior of group

members installed mechanisms which can reduce such disadvantages: close and continuous relationship among few members is likely to prevent members from conducting opportunistic behavior in pursuing their self-interest

• Perception of opportunity costs would develop members’consciousness of the disadvantages

7. Prayaan• Group sale of labor compensated by cash payments• Different from hired labor by its group-oriented

characteristics• Different pricing for members (insiders) and non-members

(outsiders)• Organized separately by gender• Women's groups are mainly for agricultural operations;

men's activities are much broader (agricultural operations, wood and stone collection, terrace making, and plastering works)

• Absent members are required to pay penalties in cash• Net income of each group is calculated once a year and

divided to members according to their labor contribution• Almost all groups have a rule to separate a certain portion

of income for group benefits, such as loan funds to members, kitchenware for leasing, etc. group-oriented characteristics of prayaan

Table 10. Wages of prayaan activityUnit: Rp/man-day

Men Women Men WomenFor members 500-2,000 300-2,500 2,500-5,000 1,000-4,000For non-members Same RT 1,500-2,000 1,500-2,000 3,000-5,000 3,000-5,000 Same hamlet 5,000 3,500-5,000 4,000-7,000 3,000-7,000 Same village 7,000 7,000 7,000-10,000 7,000

Source: Interview in 2002.Note: A meal is to be given to workers.

Watugajah Jati

Table 11. Rules of Wage Payment for Employing Prayaan Labors

Men Women Men Women

Source: Sample household survey in 2002

Wage must be paid after using group labor (in cash)N

on-

mem

ber/

O

utsi

der

Wage can be paid before distributing to the members

Wage can be paid before distributing to the members

Wage can be paid during 1 to 7 months after using group labors

Wage must be paid after using group labor (in cash)



Jati WatugajahStatus

Mem

ber/

In

side

r Wage can be paid during 1 to 7 months after using group labors

Table 12. Fine or Penalty Systems to Absent members

Men Women Men Women

Source: Sample household survey in 2002

Absent member have to pay twice amount of one member wage O

ther

pr

ivat

e pu

rpos

es Absent member have to pay twice amount of one member wage

Absent member have to pay twice amount of one member wage

Absent member have to pay twice amount of one member wage

Reason Jati Watugajah

Sick

ness Absent member have to pay the same amount of one member wage

Absent member have to pay the same amount of one member wage



Family Krubutan Gantian Sambatan Prayaan HiredLand preparation 62.8 1.4 15.8 2.0 0.0 18.0 100.0 13.2Seeding/Transplanting 54.9 1.3 9.0 1.5 28.6 4.7 100.0 15.9Fertilizer/Pesticide application 86.3 0.0 0.9 0.0 0.0 12.8 100.0 4.5Irrigation/Watering 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 15.9Weeding 85.4 1.0 1.7 0.2 4.6 7.1 100.0 15.4Harvesting/Threshing/Drying 79.0 1.6 3.1 0.0 3.5 12.8 100.0 29.9Packaging/Transportation 90.7 0.4 0.0 0.0 7.6 1.3 100.0 1.6Others 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 3.6

Total 78.6 1.0 4.8 0.5 6.4 8.6 100.0 100.0Land preparation 46.6 36.0 0.0 0.0 15.3 2.1 100.0 19.5Seeding/Transplantation 77.9 13.8 0.0 0.3 6.5 1.5 100.0 9.8Fertilizer/Pesticide application 94.8 1.7 0.0 0.0 3.5 0.0 100.0 3.7Irrigation/Watering 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.2Weeding 51.5 35.9 0.0 0.0 8.1 4.6 100.0 23.6Harvesting/Threshing/Drying 88.4 5.7 0.0 1.1 3.5 1.3 100.0 40.5Packaging/Transportation 76.2 0.7 0.0 23.2 0.0 0.0 100.0 1.4Others 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 1.3

Total 70.7 19.2 0.0 0.8 7.1 2.2 100.0 100.0

Source: Sample household survey in 2002.

Total

Wat

ugaj

ahJa

ti

3.4. Function of Labor Institutions for Farming OperationTable 12. Labor Input for Farming Operations in Jati and Watugajah

4. Conclusion

Function of the labor institutions for mutual help

• Social stabilizers in isolated rural communities by :– reducing the necessity of cash expenditure– strengthening the resistance against a

sudden change of the outer economy– easing labor constraints of individual

peasant

Principles of the mutual help

• Conducted and maintained under a reciprocal principle

• Ways of applying the reciprocal principle to actual cases have been quite flexible: narrowly-defined reciprocity within a shorter time frame is required in exchange work like krubutan or gantian, but the time scale for realizing reciprocity is quite long (sometimes throughout generations) for sambatan or slametan

• Poor families are not required to return an equivalent amount to whom they owe the support asymmetry between give and take can be accepted with generosity

Factors contributing to the maintenance of the labor institutions (in particular, the strict type)

1. The motivation to reduce the cash economyunfavorable accessibility to markets for labor and agricultural products requires people to reduce cash expenditure as much as possible

2. Hard geographical conditions construction of terraced fields requires continuous investment of communal labor over a long period

3. Need to input large amounts of labor in a short period rain-fed agriculture, farmers have only a narrow timeframe for farming operations advantages of group work outweigh its disadvantages

Mechanisms to prevent opportunistic behavior

1. Limited membership of a group2. Close daily contact among neighbors3. Overlapping of kinship and neighborhood

relations4. Penalties on those who violate the rule

1. Sustainable rural development in developing countries needs well-organized communities for social stability.

2. The structure of rural communities and the relationship among community members are closely related to the performance and stability of economic/social development.

3. The market economy is likely to weaken the function of rural community as a stabilizer.

4. But the process will be more complicated: people in Jati invented prayaan by combining the principle of market economy with that of non-cash economy.

5. Customs of mutual help in rural Java should be (will be) maintained and can still serve a positive function.

Social capital and the sustainable rural development

organisasi sosial handout

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