tugas prinsip stratigrafi

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Prinsip Stratigrafi

Tugas ini ditujukan untuk memenuhi Uts matakuliah Prinsip stratigrafi

Disusun oleh :

Mahasinul Fathani 2701101000!

"elas #

Uni$ersitas Padjadjaran

Fakultas Teknik %eologi

201&


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Table of contents

1' the histor( of the s)ien)e of geolog( and stratigraph( de$elopment'''''''''''''''''''''''''*

1'1 de$elopment of geologi)al s)ien)es'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''*1'2 re$olution geologi)al s)ien)es: plate te)toni) and stratigraphi) se+uen)e''''''''''!

2' stratigraphi) elements: )lassifi)ation of ro)ks'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''&

2'1 Sedimentar( ro)ks''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''&

2'2 ,gneous ro)ks'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''&&

2'* Metamorphi) ro)ks''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''70

*' traditional prin)iples of stratigraph(''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''!*

*'1 superposition'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''!*

*'2 -riginal hori.ontalit(''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''!*

*'* /ateral )ontinuit(''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''!

*' ross)utting'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''!

*'& Uniformitarism''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''!

*' atatrophism'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''!

*'7 Faunal su))ession''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''!7

*'! Strata identified 3( fossils'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''!7

' modifi)ation of the traditional )on)ept to modern'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''!4

'1 Superposition $s #edding )on)ept''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''!4

'2 /ateral )ontinuit( $s /ateral termination''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''40

'* -riginal hori.ontalit( $s linoform''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''41

' 5erti)al a))umulation $s /ateral a))umulation'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''42

'& Un)onformit( $s Stratal dis)ontinuit(''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''4*

' ()li)it( of strata $s stratigraph( )lassifi)ation''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''4*

'7 Traditional $s' deposition se+uen)e stratigraph(''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''4 3i3liograph('''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''4&


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1. the history of the science of geology and stratigraphy

development

1.1 development of geological sciences

#ut6 for that matter6 the entire su3je)t of histori)al geolog( is one that had 3ut the 3arest

3eginning 3efore our )entur(' Until the paleontologist found out the ke( to the earths

)hronolog(6 no one not e$en 8utton )ould ha$e an( definite idea as to the true stor( of the

earths past' The onl( )onspi)uous attempt to )lassif( the strata 9as that made 3( erner6 9ho

di$ided the ro)ks into three s(stems6 3ased on their supposed order of deposition6 and )alled

primar(6 transition6 and se)ondar('

Though erners o3ser$ations 9ere )onfined to the small pro$in)e of Sa;on(6 he did not hesitate

to affirm that all o$er the 9orld the su))ession of strata 9ould 3e found the same as there6 the

)on)entri) la(ers6 a))ording to this )on)eption6 3eing arranged a3out the earth 9ith the regularit(

of la(ers on an onion' #ut in this erner 9as as mistaken as in his theoreti)al e;planation of the

origin of the


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strata6 9hi)h )rop out from 3eneath ne9er ro)ks in restri)ted areas in #ritain6 are spread out into

3road6 undistur3ed sheets o$er thousands of miles in )ontinental Curope and in Bmeri)a' /ater

on Mur)hison studied them in Aussia6 and des)ri3ed them6 )onjointl( 9ith 5erneuil and 5on

"erserling6 in a ponderous and )lassi)al 9ork' ,n Bmeri)a the( 9ere studied 3( 8all6 =e93err(6

hitne(6 Dana6 hitfield6 and other pioneer geologists6 9ho all 3ut anti)ipated their Cnglish

)ontemporaries'

The ro)ks that are of still older formation than those studied 3( Mur)hison and Sedg9i)k

?)orresponding in lo)ation to the 3ut the( are no9 more

generall( regarded as on)estratified deposits metamorphosed 3( the a)tion of heat'

hether


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Moreo$er6 it must 3e understood that the


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e;plored understanding al9a(s that there must 3e no s)rupling a3out a latitude of a fe9

millions or perhaps tens of millions of (ears here and there'

Aegarding our o9n )ontinent6 for e;ample6 9e learn through the resear)hes of a multitude of

9orkers that in the earl( da( it 9as a mere ar)hipelago' ,ts )hief island the 3a)k3one of the

future )ontinent 9as a great 5shaped area surrounding 9hat is no9 8udson #a(6 an area 3uilttip6 perhaps6 through denudation of a (et more an)ient polar )ontinent6 9hose e;isten)e is onl(

)onje)tured' To the southeast an island that is no9 the Bdironda)k Mountains6 and another that is

no9 the erse( 8ighlands rose a3o$e the 9aste of 9aters6 and far to the south stret)hed pro3a3l(

a line of islands no9 represented 3( the #lue Aidge Mountains' Far off to the 9est9ard another

line of islands foreshado9ed our present Pa)ifi) 3order' B fe9 minor islands in the interior

)ompleted the ar)hipelago'

From this 3are skeleton the )ontinent gre96 partl( 3( the deposit of sediment from the

denudation of the original islands ?9hi)h on)e to9ered miles6 perhaps6 9here no9 the( risethousands of feet@6 3ut largel( also 3( the deposit of organi) remains6 espe)iall( in the interior

sea6 9hi)h teemed 9ith life' ,n the Silurian ages6 in$erte3rates 3ra)hiopods and )rinoids and

)ephalopods 9ere the dominant t(pes' #ut $er( earl( no one kno9s just 9hen there )ame

fishes of man( strange forms6 some of the earl( ones en)losed in turtlelike shells' /ater (et6

large spa)es 9ithin the interior sea ha$ing risen to the surfa)e6 great marshes or forests of strange

t(pes of $egetation gre9 and deposited their remains to form )oal3eds' Man( times o$er su)h

forests 9ere formed6 onl( to 3e destro(ed 3( the os)illations of the land surfa)e' Bll told6 the

strata of this Paleo.oi) period aggregate se$eral miles in thi)kness6 and the time )onsumed in

their formation stands to all later time up to the present6 a))ording to Professor Danas estimate6

as three to one'

To9ards the )lose of this Paleo.oi) era the Bppala)hian Mountains 9ere slo9l( uphea$ed in

great )on$oluted folds6 some of them pro3a3l( rea)hing three or four miles a3o$e the seale$el6

though the tooth of time has sin)e gna9ed them do9n to )omparati$el( pun( limits' The

)ontinental areas thus enlarged 9ere peopled during the ensuing Meso.oi) time 9ith multitudes

of strange reptiles6 man( of them giganti) in si.e' The 9aters6 too6 still teeming 9ith

in$erte3rates and fishes6 had their +uota of reptilian monsters> and in the air 9ere fl(ing reptiles6

some of 9hi)h measured t9ent( fi$e feet from tip to tip of their 3atlike 9ings' During this era

the Sierra =e$ada Mountains rose' =ear the eastern 3order of the forming )ontinent the strata

9ere perhaps no9 too thi)k and stiff to 3end into mountain folds6 for the( 9ere rent into great

fissures6 letting out floods of molten la$a6 remnants of 9hi)h are still in e$iden)e after ages of

denudation6 as the Palisades along the 8udson6 and su)h ele$ations as Mount 8ol(oke in 9estern

Massa)husetts'

Still there remained a $ast interior sea6 9hi)h later on6 in the tertiar( age6 9as to 3e di$ided 3(

the slo9 uprising of the land6 9hi)h onl( (esterda( that is to sa(6 a million6 or three or fi$e or


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ten million6 (ears ago 3e)ame the Ao)k( Mountains' 8igh and ere)t these (oung mountains

stand to this da(6 their sharp angles and ro)k( )ontours $ou)hing for their (outh6 in strange

)ontrast 9ith the shrunken forms of the old Bdironda)ks6 %reen Mountains6 and Bppala)hians6

9hose lo9ered heads and rounded shoulders attest the 9eight of ages' ,n the $ast lakes 9hi)h

still remained on either side of the Ao)k( range6 tertiar( strata 9ere slo9l( formed to the

ultimate depth of t9o or three miles6 en)losing here and there those $erte3rate remains 9hi)h

9ere to 3e e;posed again to $ie9 3( denudation 9hen the land rose still higher6 and then6 in our

o9n time6 to tell so 9onderful a stor( to the paleontologist'

Finall(6 the interior seas 9ere filled6 and the shore lines of the )ontinent assumed nearl( their

present outline'

Then )ame the long 9inter of the gla)ial epo)h perhaps of a su))ession of gla)ial epo)hs' The

i)e sheet e;tended south9ard to a3out the fortieth parallel6 dri$ing some animals 3efore it6 and

destro(ing those that 9ere una3le to migrate' Bt its fulness6 the great i)e mass la( almost a mile

in depth o$er =e9 Cngland6 as attested 3( the s)rat)hed and polished ro)k surfa)es anddeposited errati)s in the hite Mountains' Su)h a mass presses do9n 9ith a 9eight of a3out one

hundred and t9ent(fi$e tons to the s+uare foot6 a))ording to Dr' rolls estimate' ,t )rushed and

ground e$er(thing 3eneath it more or less6 and in some regions planed off hill( surfa)es into

prairies' reeping slo9l( for9ard6 it )arried all manner of de3ris 9ith it' hen it melted a9a( its

terminal moraine 3uilt up the nu)leus of the land masses no9 kno9n as /ong ,sland and Staten

,sland> other of its deposits formed the and it left a long6 irregular line of ridges of


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1.2 revolution geological sciences: plate tectonic and stratigraphic

sequence

1'2'1 Plate te)toni) ?Blfred egener6142@

Blfred egener6 a %erman geoph(si)ist and meteorologist6 9as not satisfied 3( this

e;planation' 8is ideas dre9 on the 9idel( re)ogni.ed fa)t that Bfri)a and South Bmeri)aappeared to fit together like jigsa9 pu..le pie)es' 8e )olle)ted paleo)limate data6 or information

a3out 9hat the )limate 9as like in the geologi) past as re)orded in ro)ks6 from the )ontinents on

3oth sides of the Btlanti) ?Figure 1@' 8e re)ogni.ed that 3elts of )oal6 9hi)h forms in tropi)alregions6 )rossed from =orth Bmeri)a in Curope and Bsia6 far north of the modern tropi)s' 8e

also found e$iden)e that an i)e sheet had on)e ad$an)ed from southern Bfri)a and ,ndia ?see

Figure 1@6 a phenomenon that 9as impossi3le to e;plain in the modern arrangement of the

)ontinents'

Figure 1: egeners map of paleo)limate data from his 141& pu3li)ation6 sho9ing the

)ontinents joined together and the 3ands of similar ro)k t(pes that )rossed the o)eans ?egener6

142@'To e;plain these data6 egener proposed the theor( of )ontinental drift in his 3ook The -rigins

of the ontinents and the -)eans6 pu3lished in %erman in 141& and in Cnglish in 142

?egener6 142@' 8is theor( stated that all of the )ontinents had originall( 3een joined togetherduring the time period )alled the ar3oniferous ?no9 kno9n to 3e a3out *00*0 million (ears

ago@ in a super)ontinent )alledPangaea ?see Figure 2 for his depi)tion@' #( the Co)ene ?a3out &0

million (ears ago@6 9hen ne9 fossilspe)ies 9ere present that 9ere not as 9idel( distri3uted6 the)ontinents as 9e kno9 them toda( had 3roken apart and 9ere far enough apart that spe)ies )ould

not easil( migrate from one to the other ?see Figure * for his depi)tion@'

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Figure 2: egeners depi)tion of Pangaea ?egener6 142@' The dotted areas 9ould ha$e 3een9arm6 shallo9 seas' egener pro$ided the presentda( outlines and the ri$ers for the purpose of

identifi)ation onl('


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Figure 3: Bdditional images from egeners pu3li)ation6 sho9ing ho9 the )ontinents GdriftedH

through time ?egener6 142@'

Driving the drift

hen egeners 3ook 9as translated into Cnglish6 Fren)h6 Spanish6 and Aussian in 1426 he 9as9idel( ridi)uled for his suggestion that the )ontinents had mo$ed' -ne of the main pro3lems9ith his theor(9as that he did not propose a dri$ing me)hanism for the motion of the )ontinents'

hat 9as the for)ethat mo$ed the )ontinentsI here did it )ome fromI 8o9 mu)h for)e 9as

needed to mo$e a )ontinentI

The dri$ing me)hanism6 an important ke( to the )ontinental drift theor(6 la( out of rea)h until

the 140s' egener had made his )laims 3ased on data from the )ontinents6 3ut the o)eans )o$er70 per)ent of Carths surfa)e J a $ast area hidden from his $ie9 under kilometers of 9ater' #ut

the first and se)ond orld ars 3rought major te)hni)al and s)ientifi) de$elopments that

allo9ed s)ientists to ?1@ map the o)ean floor and ?2@ measure the magnetism of seafloor ro)ks in

detail' These t9o sets of data pro$ided geologists 9ith additional e$iden)e for the pro)ess of)ontinental drift'

ontinental Drift and PlateTe)toni)s Theor(

Sour)e: U'S' Dept' of the ,nterior6 %eologi)al Sur$e(

B))ording to the theor( of )ontinental drift6 the 9orld 9as made up of a single )ontinent through

most of geologi) time' That )ontinent e$entuall( separated and drifted apart6 forming into these$en )ontinents 9e ha$e toda(' The first )omprehensi$e theor( of )ontinental drift 9as

suggested 3( the %erman meteorologist Blfred egener in 1412' The h(pothesis asserts that the

)ontinents )onsist of lighter ro)ks that rest on hea$ier )rustal materialKsimilar to the manner in

9hi)h i)e3ergs float on 9ater' egener )ontended that the relati$e positions of the )ontinents are

not rigidl( fi;ed 3ut are slo9l( mo$ingKat a rate of a3out one (ard per )entur('

B))ording to the generall( a))epted platete)toni)s theor(6 s)ientists 3elie$e that Carths surfa)e

is 3roken into a num3er of shifting sla3s or plates6 9hi)h a$erage a3out &0 miles in thi)kness'

These plates mo$e relati$e to one another a3o$e a hotter6 deeper6 more mo3ile .one at a$erage

rates as great as a fe9 in)hes per (ear' Most of the 9orlds a)ti$e $ol)anoes are lo)ated along or near the 3oundaries 3et9een shifting plates and are )alled plate3oundar( $ol)anoes'

The peripheral areas of the Pa)ifi) -)ean #asin6 )ontaining the 3oundaries of se$eral plates6 are

dotted 9ith man( a)ti$e $ol)anoes that form the so)alled Aing of Fire' The Aing pro$ides

e;)ellent e;amples of plate3oundar( $ol)anoes6 in)luding Mount St' 8elens'

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8o9e$er6 some a)ti$e $ol)anoes are not asso)iated 9ith plate 3oundaries6 and man( of these so

)alled intraplate $ol)anoes form roughl( linear )hains in the interior of some o)eani) plates' The

8a9aiian ,slands pro$ide perhaps the 3est e;ample of an intraplate $ol)ani) )hain6 de$eloped

3( the north9estmo$ing Pa)ifi) plate passing o$er an inferred Ghot spotH that initiates the

magmageneration and $ol)anoformation pro)ess'

PlateTe)toni)s Theor(KThe /ithosphere Plates of Carth

This figure sho9s the 3oundaries of lithosphere plates that are a)ti$e at present' The dou3le

lines indi)ate .ones of spreading from 9hi)h plates are mo$ing apart' The lines 9ith 3ar3s

sho9 .ones of underthrusting ?su3du)tion@6 9here one plate is sliding 3eneath another' The

3ar3s on the lines indi)ate the o$erriding plate' The single line defines a strikeslip fault

along 9hi)h plates are sliding hori.ontall( past one another' The stippled areas indi)ate a

part of a )ontinent6 e;)lusi$e of that along a plate 3oundar(6 9hi)h is undergoing a)ti$e

e;tensional6 )ompressional6 or strikeslip faulting'

Sour)e: U'S' %eologi)al Sur$e('


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1.2.2 Sequence stratigrahpy

reamble

Stratigraph( is the s)ien)e of understanding the $ariations in the su))essi$el( la(ered )hara)ter

of ro)ks and their )omposition' These ro)ks ma( 3e sedimentar(6 $ol)ani)6 metamorphi) or

igneous' The la(ering of sedimentar( ro)ks is e;pressed as sets of simple to )omple;sedimentar( geometries6 and a 9ide $ariet( of different sedimentar( fa)ies' Se+uen)e

stratigraph(6 a 3ran)h of sedimentar(stratigraph(6 deals 9ith the order6 or se+uen)e6 in 9hi)hdepositionall( related stratalsu))essions ?timero)k@ units 9ere laid do9n in the a$aila3le spa)e

or a))ommodation' The )hronostratigraph( of sedimentar( ro)ks tra)ks )hanges their )hara)terthrough geologi) time' These )hanges ma( 3e sho9n in graphi)al form as either geologi) )ross

se)tions andLor as )hronostratigraphi) )orrelation )harts or heeler ?14&!6 14@ diagrams'

This is distin)t from their geo)hronolog( or geologi) age' The dis)ipline of se+uen)estratigraph( pro$ides a tool used interpret the depositional origin and predi)t the heterogeneit(6

e;tent and )hara)ter of thelithofa)ies' This tool )om3ines:

• The frame9ork of major depositional and erosional surfa)es 3ounding

these su))essions of strata

• The geometr( that su))essi$e )ontemporaneous strata ha$e follo9ing

their a))umulation

This frame9ork is most )ommonl( interpreted to ha$e 3een generated during )hanges in relati$e

sea le$el 9hen surfa)es formed during the asso)iated deposition and erosion' These surfa)es6 and

the geometries of the sediments the( en$elope6 are )om3ined to interpret the depositional settingof )lasti) and )ar3onate sediments sediments6 3e the( )ontinental6 marginal

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marine6 3asin margins and do9nslope settings of 3asins' The interpretation is 3etter6 and

predi)tions of lo)al and regionalstratigraph( more a))urate6 9hen the se+uen)e

stratigraphi) frame9ork integrates a))ommodation su))essions 9ith understanding of:

• Stenos /a9s of sediment a))umulation

• alther s /a9 of the $erti)al and lateral e+ui$alen)e of sediments

• The )hronolog( of the su))ession of strata forming the geologi) se)tion

• Sedimentar( stru)tures

The major pro3lem 9ith se+uen)e stratigraph( is that the definition6 terminolog( and

interpretation of the surfa)es of se+uen)e stratigraph( is )omple; and often )ontentious ?=eal

B3rue6 2004@' Terminolog( often in$ol$es )on)eptual depositional models6 sea le$el6 andLor age

duration6 mi;ing interpretation 9ith o3ser$ation6 appl(ing different geneti) names to the

same surfa)es or deposits that depend on the model emplo(ed' ,n the hope of )ir)umna$igatingthis6 the site pla)es a hea$( dependen)e on the e;planation of terminolog( linked popup 3o;es

9hose )ontents is intended to )larif( the understanding and use of this dis)ipline of stratigraph(',n the hope of )ir)umna$igating this6 the site pla)es a hea$( dependen)e on the e;planation

of terminolog( linked popup 3o;es 9hose )ontents is intended to )larif( the understanding and

use of this dis)ipline of stratigraph('

!ounding Surfaces of Sequence Stratigraphy

The ke( to using se+uen)e stratigraph( as a tool for interpreting the sedimentar( se)tion are themajor 3ounding and su3di$iding surfa)es ?see the 3anner image a3o$e@' These surfa)es are

)ommonl( generated 3( the )hanges in relati$e sea le$el' From the moment the o)eans 9ere first

generated6 their 9ater $olume and distri3ution a)ross the glo3e has $aried' This 9ould ha$eresulted in transgressions that )aused the shore and the nearshore 3eing flooded so transgressi$esurfa)es ?TS@ formed' hen the rate of sea le$el rise rea)hed its most rapid )hange6 the rate of

sediment a))umulating sea9ard of the shore slo9ed 9hile from the onset of the Phanero.oi) the

pelagi) and 3enthi) organi) matter )ontinued to a))umulate' These organi)s se+uesteredradioa)ti$e elements in the 9ater )olumn' The result is that from the Phanero.oi) on the

sediments ha$e a strong radioa)ti$e signal on gamma logs 9ith mat)hing )ondensed se)tions of

fossils that a))umulated on a surfa)e or in a thin .one 9hi)h is kno9n as the ma;imum floodingsurfa)e ?mfs@' ,n )ontrast6 a drop in sea le$el ma( )ause the shore and the nearshore to 3e

eroded6 forming se+uen)e 3oundaries ?S#@'

The rotocol "f Sequence Stratigraphic #nalysis-n)e interpretati$e anal(sis has identified the su3di$iding surfa)es listed a3o$e6 the su))essionsof la(ered stratal geometries of dis)rete )ontemporaneous sediment filling the a))ommodation

are e;amined' These stratal geometries of a))ommodation su))essions )ommonl( either:

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• Prograde and aggrade ?PB@

• Aetrograde ?A@

• Bggrade to prograde to degrade ?BPD@

The )hara)teristi) geometries of a))ommodation su))essions are interpreted to differentiate the

s(stems tra)ts and se+uen)es listed 3elo9' First the interpreter re$erses the order of deposition 3( 3a)kstripping the )ontemporaneous stratal geometries from (oungest to oldest6 These are then

reassem3led in the order of su))essi$e a))umulation' This reassem3l( uses the template of

su3di$iding surfa)es6 lithofa)ies geometr(6 and fauna to interpret the e$ol$ing )hara)ter of

depositional setting and 3uild )on)eptual models' Aeassem3l( tra)ks the e$olution of thesedimentar( s(stem6 its h(drod(nami) setting6 anda))ommodation ?see #asin lasti) Se+uen)e

8ierar)hies for su)h a reassem3l(@'

The 3a)kstripping and anal(sis is aided 3( a $ariet( of )ontemporaneouselements su3di$ided 3( the surfa)es and their hierar)h( from lo9 fre+uen)( to

high fre+uen)(' These in)lude:

• Se+uen)es

• S(stems tra)t

• Parase+uen)es andLor )()les

• #edsets

• #eds

Bs these sediments are reassem3led6 the geneti) )hara)ter of the se+uen)es6 s(stems tra)ts6

parase+uen)es6 and 3eds 9ill 3e seen as produ)ts of )hanges in a))ommodation' B limit to this

anal(ti)al strateg( is often the e;tent of ones understanding of the inferred depositional setting'

The ad$antage of the strateg( is it )onsiders ne9 +uestions6 leading to more realisti)interpretations and enhan)ed predi)tions of lithofa)ies heterogeneit(s' Thus the se+uen)e

stratigraphi) frame9ork is used to anal(.e and e;plain ho9 sedimentar( ro)ks a)+uire their

la(ered )hara)ter6 litholog(6 te;ture6 faunal asso)iations and other properties' These properties inturn )an 3e used to e;plain ho9 the me)hanisms of sediment a))umulation6 erosion and inter

related pro)esses produ)ed the )urrent )onfiguration of these ro)ks'

The se+uen)e stratigraphi) approa)h re)ommended on this 9e3 site for the interpretation ofsedimentar( ro)ks )ontrasts 9ith:

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• /ithostratigraphi) anal(sis 9hi)h maps lithofa)ies independent of su3di$iding e;ternal

and internal 3oundaries

• Bllostratigraphi) anal(sis that identifies and in)ludes as time markers 3ounding

dis)ontinuities in)luding erosion surfa)es6 marine flooding surfa)es6 and markers that

in)lude tuffs6 tempestites6 andLor tur3idite 3oundaries et)'6 3ut )onsiders these asindependent of an( model of 3ase le$el )hange

Bnal(ses 3ased on se+uen)e stratigraph( appl( allostratigraphi) models to interpret the

depositional origin of these sedimentar( strata 3ut in )ontrast assumes6 though this is not al9a(sstated6 an impli)it )onne)tion of the )ontermporaneous strata torelati$e sea le$el or 3ase

le$el )hange'

$iels Steno and %ohannes &alther

Steno and alther s )ontri3utions to sedimentar( interpretation and so se+uen)estratigraph( 9ere profound' Steno esta3lished the order and the 9a( sediments 9ere laid do9n'

8is prin)iple of superposition re)ogni.ed that older sedimentar( la(ers underlie the ne9er la(ers'8is prin)iple of original hori.ontalit( re)orded ho9 sediments are deposited to fill a 3asal

irregular surfa)e en)losed a3o$e 3( a smooth surfa)e' 8is prin)iple of lateral )ontinuit( proposed

)ontemporaneous la(ers of sediment are )ontinuous till the( pin)h out6 or a 3arrier pre$ents theirfurther spread during deposition6 or su3se+uent a3rupt )hanges in the lands)ape 3reak up the

sediment la(ers' alther then re)ogni.ed that as depositional settings )hange their lateral

position and fill a))ommodation6 so the sedimentar( fa)ies of adja)ent depositional settingssu))eed one another as a $erti)al se+uen)e'

Stac'ing atterns and (eometriesTo esta3lish the depositional setting of the sedimentar( se)tion6 se+uen)e stratigraph( uses the

geometri) arrangement of sedimentar( fill6 parti)ularl( the $erti)al su))ession of sedimentar(

fa)ies geometries and their en$eloping surfa)es kno9n as sta)king satterns' The geometries and

so sta)king patterns of un)emented )ar3onates and )lasti)s are similar' This is 3e)ause 3othrespond to )hanges in 3ase le$el6 3oth )an 3e su3di$ided 3( similar surfa)es and 3oth respond to

9a$e and )urrent mo$ement similarl( and ma( 3e transported'

=e$er the less major differen)es in the se+uen)e stratigraph( of the t9o sediments e;ist' Bll

)lasti)s are transported to their depositional resting pla)e 9hile )ar3onates are produ)ed and

a))umulate


16/102

• onfined 9ithin eroded topograph('

Sta)king patterns for 3oth )lasti)s and )ar3onates that are the produ)t of ph(si)al

a))ommodation $ar( 3et9een:

• Un)onfined sheets that:

o Prograde ?step sea9ard@ as

o Aetrograde ?step land9ard@

o Bggrade ?3uild $erti)all(@

• Un)onfined prograding )ar3onate sheets that are the produ)t of ph(si)al

a))ommodation are further su3di$ided 3elo9 into:

o /o9 angle ramps of fine shallo99ater )ar3onate that in deeper9ater pass to

gra$els

o 8omo)linal ramps of fine shallo99ater )ar3onate

o Distall( steepened ramps of shallo99ater graindominated )ar3onate

• Un)onfined )ar3onate platform sheet geometries formed 9ith e)ologi)al

a))ommodation form

o

Flattopped open shel$es 9ith moderate shallo99ater e)ologi)ala))ommodation

o Aeefrimmed platform 9ith highest shallo99ater e)ologi)al a))ommodation

o Massi$e steep to )liffed margins 9ith ma;imum shallo99ater e)ologi)al

a))ommodation

onfined 3odies represented 3( fill of ,n)ised topograph( in)lude

• Su3aerial in)ised $alle(s

• Su3marine in)ised $alle(s

hannel fill and sta)king of )onfining $alle(s6 un)onfined lo3es and sheets ma( 3e e;pressed as:

• -rgani.ed 3odies

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17/102

• Disorgani.ed 3odies

• Multistoried

• Bmalgamated

-ther Stratigraphi) Tools Utili.ed 9ith Se+uen)e Stratigraph(

Predi)tion and interpretation impro$es not onl( 9hen se+uen)e stratigraph( is )oupled to the/a9s of Steno and alther 3ut 9hen tied to indi)ators of deposition and time' ,ndi)ators of

depositional setting in)lude:

• ,)hnofa)ies and fossils

• Sedimentar( stru)tures

• 5ol)ani)s

• Storm la(ers or tempestites

• Se+uen)e stratigraphi) 3oundaries

hronostratigraphi) markers in)lude:

• Fossils

• Magnetostratigraphi)

• Aadioa)ti$e markers or gamma ra( log signalAadioa)ti$e markers or gamma ra( log

signal

• Aadiometri) markers

Terminology

Though the linkage 3et9een the se+uen)e stratigraph( and the other su3dis)iplines of

stratigraph( )an 3e Nfu..( these links are important to predi)tion and interpretation' B ke( pro3lem to strengthing theses links is not onl( that the terminolog( of se+uen)e stratigraph(

)arries )onnotations related to the interpretation of the surfa)es used to interpret the stratigraphi)se)tion 3ut also a )onsideration of sedimentolog( and )hronostratigraph(' 8o9 the terminolog(

is defined and used andLor fits pre)on)ei$ed )lassifi)ations is tied to the )hara)ter of the data andstratigraphi) te)hni+ues used' ,n the end it is up to the user to )onsider their data6 and the goals

of their interpretations' The( should 3e a3le to e;plain their )hoi)e of terms and then make their

interpretationO

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18/102

)se of the *"ver Simplification+ of time as it relates to sequence stratigraphy

Bs is e;plained in the pages that follo96 using the a3o$e approa)h geologists infer the pro)esses

responsi3le for that sedimentar( ro)k and so interpret its origin' The sedimentar( la(ering of astratigraphi) se)tion has a $ast arra( of dimensional hierar)hies' These range from units

millimeters thi)k that might 3e formed o$er se)onds to thousands of feet thi)k and formed of

millions of (ears' Bs mu)h of the literature related to these surfa)es indi)ates6 it should 3ere)ogni.ed that 9hate$er the dimension of a la(er is and 9hate$er the time in$ol$ed in its

deposition6 ea)h la(er is assumed to 3e )ontemporaneous though it is 3ounded 3( surfa)es that

transgress time ?heeler6 ?14&!@> Middleton6 ?147*@> 5ail et al ?1477@> %allo9a(6 ?14!4@>atuneanu6 et al6 ?144!@> S)h9ar.a)her6 ?2000@> atuneanu6 ?2002@> Cm3r(6 ?2002@> ross6 and

/essenger6 ? submitted @@' This means an interpretation of the depositional setting for a se)tion )ut

3( these dia)hronous surfa)es )ontra$enes althers /a9' Most interpreters a))ept and take into

)onsideration that the la(ered units 3ounded 3( these surfa)es formed at different times6 andre)ogni.e that the su3di$iding surfa)es are of a higher order fre+uen)( than the time en$elope of

the parase+uen)e 3eing )onsidered' ,n other 9ords the situation is simplified 9hen the surfa)es

are taken to represent instan)es in time 3et9een 9hi)h assumed to 3e )ontemporaneous

sediments a))umulated )ontinuousl( o$er some unit of time' Thus the surfa)es of the la(erstransgress time and the sediments filling 3et9een these surfa)es also transgress time 9hile 3eing

)ontinuousl( re9orked through a series of geologi)al e$ents'

Figure 8ierar)h( of sedimentar( stru)tures:B Flaser stru)tures from an intertidal flat setting in 9hi)h the indi$idual

)omponents pro3a3l( a))umulated o$er minutes 3ut the 9hole se)tion ma(

represent tidal )()les o$er months ?#ar S)ale 2 )m@# ross 3edded -rdo$i)ian )ar3onates from a 3ea)h or nearshore shallo9

shoal setting that pro3a3l( represent a))umulation and re9orking o$er

se$eral (ears


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Flat 3edded Mississippian do9nslope sili)i)lasti) fan deposits> ea)h 3ed

of 9hi)h ma( ha$e a))umulated o$er a period of hours6 though the 9hole

se)tion en)ompasses potentiall( hundreds of thousands of (ears ?3ar s)ale 1m@

Thus it should 3e re)ogni.ed that in sedimentar( interpretation the appli)ation of Stenos

prin)iples and alther s /a9 pro$ide po9erful and useful simplifi)ations that assume thesediments pa)kaged 3( surfa)es a))umulated 9ithin dis)rete moments of time6 and are

)onsidered )ontemperaneous' ,f one thinks a3out this6 these simplifi)ations dont )ontra$ene

logi) ?9hi)h is literall( Fu..(@ and aid in the interpretation of the sedimentar( se)tion' The

a3o$e dis)ussion pro$ides a general introdu)tion to the su3di$ision of the sedimentar( se)tion 3(the surfa)es listed a3o$e and their relationship to 3ase le$el )hange' For for a more )omplete and

thorough dis)ussion of this topi) (ou should read atuneanu ?2002@'

,ntroduction to the &eb Site

This e3 Site e;plains:

1' 8o9 to make se+uen)e stratigraphi) interpretations of sedimentar( se)tions:

• Su3di$ide of these se)tions into se+uen)es6 parase+uen)esLor their

asso)iated s(stems tra)ts

• Determine their depositional setting

• hara)teri.e and predi)t of the e;tent of their lithofa)ies6 parti)ularl( 9hen

asso)iated 9ith h(dro)ar3on reser$oirs6 and a+uifers'

2' The use of:

• 2D and *D seismi) se)tions

o ell log data

o -ut)rops

to identif( and )orrelate surfa)es of:

•

Crosion and nondeposition ?se+uen)e 3oundaries S#Q@

• Transgressi$e surfa)es TSQ

• Ma;imum flooding surfa)es mfsQ

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*' 8o9 the a3o$e surfa)es ha$e time signifi)an)e and esta3lish:

• a relati$e time frame9ork for the sedimentar( su))ession

• the interrelationship of the depositional settings and their lateral )orrelation

• a )ompartmentali.ation of h(dro)ar3on reser$oirs

,n summar( this 9e3 site e;plains ho9 Deltai) s(stems> deep9ater fans> Deep9ater

3asins

o ontinental: %la)ial> Beolian> Bllu$ial Fans> #raided Streams> oarse and fine

grained flu$ial s(stems> /a)ustrian

• carbonate Systems: ,nner )ar3onate shelf> -uter )ar3onate Shelf and Margins>

Deep9ater )ar3onates

Using the side3ar menu (ou )an sele)t topi)s in se+uen)e stratigraph( and a))ess e;er)isesrelated to this' Eou should 3e a3le to learn ho9 to su3di$ide the sedimentar( se)tion into

pa)kages defined 3( 3ounding un)onformities and internal surfa)es' Eou 9ill 3e a3le to see

ho9 se+uen)es6 parase+uen)es and their asso)iated s(stems tra)ts are the produ)ts of )hangesin relati$e sea le$el and rates of sedimentation' The $arious forms of se+uen)e stratigraphi)

anal(ses outlined in)lude the use of seismi) )rossse)tions6 9ell logs and out)rop studies of

sedimentar( ro)ks to infer )hanges of relati$e sea le$el and rates of sedimentation' Eou 9ill 3esho9n ho9 to )onstru)t )hronostratigrapi) diagrams and also 3e sho9 ho9 to predi)t fa)ies

geometries and 3uild depositional models using a $ariet( of te)hni+uesO

The se+uen)e is di$ided 3( surfa)es s(stems tra)ts' Ca)h s(stems tra)t is represented 3( a

)olle)tion of the sediments of the asso)iated sedimentar(depositional s(stems that 9ere a)ti$eduring the different phases of 3ase le$el)hange' Thus s(stems tra)t sediments )an 3e )onsidered

as sedimentar( units that 9ere deposited s(n)hronousl( and )an 3e mapped as 3eing en)losed 3(

)ontinuoussurfa)es that e;tend from su3aerial and to su3a+ueous settings'

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The s(stems tra)ts defined in order of deposition to form the ideal se+uen)e are:

• Carl( phase lo9stand s(stems tra)t

• /ate phase lo9stand s(stems tra)t

• Transgressi$e s(stems tra)t

• 8ighstand s(stems tra)t

Carl( phase lo9stand s(stems tra)t is asso)iated 9ith:

• Falling stage of relati$e sea le$el indu)ed 3( eustas( falling rapidl( andLor te)toni)

uplift outpa)ing the rate of )hange in sea le$el position

• Flu$ial in)ision up dip 9ith formation of an un)onformit( or se+uen)e 3oundar( and

the fo)us of sediment input at the shoreline

• For)ed regressions indu)ed 3( the la)k of a))ommodation produ)ingsta)king

patterns of do9n9ard stepping prograding )linoforms o$er the)ondensed

se)tion formed during the pre$ious transgressi$e andhighstand s(stems tra)ts

• Slope insta3ilit( )aused 3( the rapid deposition of sediment from the flu$ial s(stems

• #asin floor fans formed from sediment transported from the shelf margin 9hen this

fails under the 9eight of the rapid sediment a))umulationasso)iated 9ith the for)ed

regression

• Shelf margin and slope fans form 9hen rates of sedimentation slo9s and slope

insta3ilit( is redu)ed so sediment is not displa)ed so far do9nslope

• -nlap of sediments onto the prograding )linoforms 3elo9 the shelf 3reak

• The lo9er 3oundaries of the earl( phase lo9stand s(stems tra)t are the

updip un)onformit( and the top of the do9ndip )ondensed se)tion' Thesesurfa)es form 3( different me)hanisms and ha$e different time signifi)an)e

• The top of the do9ndip )ondensed se)tion immediatel( underlies thedo9nlap ping

prograding )linoforms of the for)ed regression

• The top of the earl( phase lo9stand s(stems tra)t in theor( is marked 3( an

initial onlap onto the often eroded surfa)e of the prograding )linoforms of the for)edregression

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Stratigraphic framework and sedimentary systems

Figure: Information from detailed geological analysis populates a sequence stratigraphic framework so

leading to accurate interpretations of depositional setting and predictions of lithofacies geometries in

unknown portions of a basin.

,ntroduction

/(ells premise in 1!*06 1!*2 1!** that Gthe present is the ke( to the pastH is fundamentalto se+uen)e stratigraph(s re)ognition that the sedimentar( re)ord of the earths )rust is the

produ)t of uniform and )ommon ph(si)al pro)esses that intera)ted 9ith sediments as the(

a))umulated' This means that the pro)esses responsi3le for kno9n portions of a geologi)alse)tion )an 3e determined 3( )areful des)ription and anal(sis fo)used on )omponent lithofa)ies6

fa3ri) and geometr(' The origins of these sediments are then 3e interpreted 3( )omparison 9ith

o3ser$ations of similar features in modern sedimentar( s(stems and their pro)esses6 results of

flume e;periments6 )omputer simulations that re)reate the fa3ri)s and geometries seen in thefield and la3orator(6 and the 3od( of kno9n geologi)al information geologists ha$e amassed in

the geologi)al literature' These interpretations are then integrated 9ith the se+uen)e stratigraphi)

frame9ork of erosional and depositional surfa)es that en)lose and su3di$ide the se)tion' Thistemplate e;tends the interpretation of the depositional setting and predi)tions of lithofa)ies

geometries a9a( from the kno9n areas' ,t also aids predi)tion of sedimentar( ro)ks likel( to

)ontain 3oth h(dro)ar3on and 9ater resour)es and 9hat their )hara)teristi) fa3ri)s might 3e'

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Figure: B se+uen)e stratigraphi) frame9ork leads to interpretations of depositional setting and

predi)tions of lithofa)ies geometries'

This portion of the 9e3 site is 3ased on the geologi) literature6 in parti)ular atuneanu6 et al6

?2011@ and its summar( of a )olle)ti$e understanding of se+uen)e stratigraph(' This se)tion

defines and e;plains the origins of:

• The se+uen)e stratigraphi) frame9ork of en$eloping erosional anddepositional

surfa)e 3oundaries

• The ph(si)al pro)esses that generated the gross sediment geometri) end mem3ers:

o Se+uen)es

o S(stems tra)ts

o Parase+uen)es'

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The relationship of the different depositional s(stems6 9ith their different geneti)all( related

stratigraphi) elements is then des)ri3ed in terms of the a3o$e se+uen)estratigraphi) geometri)

end mem3ers' Further )onsideration is gi$en to the stratalsta)king patterns ofdifferent depositional s(stems )om3ined to define trends in geometri) )hara)ter and s(stems

tra)ts' The te;t e;plains ho9 the frame9ork of the elements of ea)h depositional setting has

)ommon hierar)hies that ena3le re)onstru)tion of the sedimentar( se)tion and the predi)tionof lithofa)ies and paleogeograph( a9a( from )ontrol points' The sour)es of information in this

te;t are referen)ed6 though if inad$ertent omissions o))ur6 it is likel( the information 9as

thought to 3e a;iomati)'

!ounding surfaces and architectural elements

The interpretation of the depositional setting of sedimentar( strata is enhan)ed through

understanding the origin of the )hara)ter of the 3ounding surfa)es to the sedimentar( geometriesof the )omponent lithofa)ies' The 3ounding erosional anddepositional surfa)es of sedimentar(

geometries ha$e hierar)hi)al order' For instan)e partings 9ith a high fre+uen)( in)lude those of

that su3di$ide shales6 9hile 3edding planes6 the features )ommonl( used to interpret the origin of

the sedimentar( se)tion6 are of lo9er fre+uen)(' ,n )ontrast lo9er fre+uen)( 3oundingsurfa)es in)lude un)onformities ?8utton6 17!!@6 9hose stratigraphi) importan)e in)reases 9here

the( su3di$ide sedimentar( ro)ks of $ar(ing ages'#rookfield ?1477@ 9as among the first kno9n geologists to appl( hierar)hi)al order to

surfa)e 3oundaries su3di$iding sedimentar( ro)ks6 using his perspe)ti$e of surfa)esidentified 3(

Stokes ?14!@ in aeolian sediments' #rookfield ?1477@ identified:

• First order 3oundaries that )ut a)ross underl(ing aeolian sediments 9hen the migration

of GdraaH dunes o))urred'

•

Se)ond order surfa)es related to migration of trans$erse dunes6

• Third order 3oundaries that en)lose groups of laminae interpreted to 3e the produ)ts of

lo)al e$ents 9ithin the depositional )()le'

Bllen ?14!*@ des)ri3ing flu$iatile s(stems e;tended this 3( re)ogni.ing that 3ounding

surfa)es ma( 3e non erosional or erosional' Using this he identified four surfa)es:

• on)ordant nonerosional ?normal 3edding@

• Dis)ordant nonerosional rea)ti$ation surfa)e

• on)ordant erosional

• Dis)ordant erosional )onta)ts

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Stud(ing 3raided streams6 Bllen ?14!*@ used these surfa)es to asso)iate at least eight geometri)

shapes 9ith spe)ifi) lithologies and fa3ri)s that he named


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B se+uen)e stratigraphi) anal(sis 9ill iterati$el( use mi;es and mat)hes of a top do9n)lassifi)ation 9ith a 3ottomup )lassifi)ation' This intera)ti$e approa)h uses the general to guide

an understanding of the spe)ifi) and $i)e $ersa'

#elo9 are further e;amples of the hierar)hi)al ar)hite)tures of different sedimentar( s(stems'

li)k on the thum3 nail and right clic' the shado9 3o; image to see full si.e imageO This 9ill

9ork on most of the images on site'

#ea)h #arrier

S(stem

Deep ater

S(stemar3onateS(stems

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Figure: Se+uen)e stratigraphi) frame9ork of Permian Se)tion e;posed in %uadalupe Mountains?Tinker6 144!@

Surfaces or !oundaries of the Sequence Stratigraphic Frame-or'

Bs indi)ated se+uen)e stratigraph( uses a frame9ork of surfa)es or 3oundaries that define


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Transgressive surface TS/

• This surfa)e is the first signifi)ant marineflooding surfa)e in a se+uen)e' ,n most

sili)i)lasti) and some )ar3onate su))essions it o))urs 9hen the rate of )reation

of a))ommodation spa)e is greater than the rate of sediment suppl(' Transgressi$e

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surfa)e ?TS@ lies o$er the /o9stand S(stem Tra)t ?/ST@ and 3eneath the transgressi$e

s(stems tra)t ?TST@ ?atuneanu6 et al6 2011@'

• 0aimum flooding surface mfs/

Seismi)all( an mfs is often e;pressed as a do9nlap surfa)e and is a .one 9here slo9

rates of deposition result in thin and fine grained pelagi)hemipelagi)sediments forming a )ondensed se)tion ?Mit)hum6 1477@' The mfs marks the 3ounding

surfa)e 3et9een )oarsening andLor fining up9ard )()les' This )ommonl( 9idespread.one is often )hara)teri.ed 3( the presen)e of radioa)ti$e and often organi)

ri)h shales6 glau)onite6 hardgrounds and is )omposed of thin 3edded )on)entrations of

fauna ?)ondensed se)tions@ 9ith high a3undan)e and di$ersit(' This surfa)e marks thetime of ma;imum flooding or transgression of the shelf and lies 3eneath the highstand

s(stems tra)t ?atuneanu6 et al6 2011@'

The su3di$iding


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interpretation this is o$ersimplified and the dia)hronous )hara)ter of the surfa)es is essentiall(

ignored' For instan)e 8ol3rook and #hatta)har(a ?2012@ indi)ate su3aerial un)onformities in

flu$ial s(stems meet these )riteria 3ut suggest these 3oundaries )an still 3e used to 3ounds(stems despite intense dia)hroneit(' The results of the use of the se+uen)estratigraphi)

methodolog( is that interpretation of depositional setting and a predi)tion of gross sedimentar(

geometr( are )onfirmed in the field and 9ith su3surfa)e data'

ithout e;)eption all these surfa)es6 and in man( )ases the .ones inferred to )ontain them andthe sediment the( en)lose6 transgress time6 in other 9ords aredia)hronous and in some )ases ma(not e$en ha$e the regional e;tent proposed for them6 and so ma( 3e miss)orrelated' Blso

the se+uen)e stratigraphi) surfa)esha$e 3e)ome largel( )on)eptual surfa)es imposed upon

tangi3le ro)ks ?8elland8ansen6 and Martinsen6 144> atuneanu6 200> Cm3r( et al'6 2007>

Miall6 200> 8ol3rook and #hatta)har(a6 2012@' For instan)e 8ol3rook and #hatta)har(a ?2012@ point out that the su3aerial un)onformit( is more often than not is a )on)eptual surfa)e and is

assumed to 3e an appro;imate time 3arrier that in)ludes the defining traits of originating as a

Nsu3aerial erosional surfa)e preser$ed as an Nun)onformit(that separates (ounger fromolder strata 9ith signifi)ant hiatus'

Bs a result all the se+uen)e stratigraphi) surfa)es6 ?S#6 #STSST6 TS6 and mfs@ often$iolate alther s /a96 sin)e the( re)ord shifts in fa)ies deposition

duringtransgression and regression andLor rates of )hange of a))ommodation6 parti)ularl(

at 3asin margins and along strike ?atuneanu6 200@' ,t is argued here that 9hile most of

these se+uen)e surfa)es do not e;a)tl( fit their defining )hara)teristi)s the( )an 3e mapped and 3ound en)losing fa)ies that a))umulated o$er a generall( short time' The )on)eptual )hara)ter of

a surfa)e is likel( to 3e more so 9ith in)reasing hierar)hi)al rank ?atuneanu6 et al6 2011@'

Despite these )a$eats se+uen)estratigraphi) surfa)es are useful for general


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)orrelation' Bs interpreti$e tools the( are )ommonl( used and are often referred to in the

stratigraphi) literature' To )on)lude the definition of these surfa)es is o$ersimplified and form

dis)rete 3oundaries that )an 3e tra)ed 3e(ond the s)ale of a single $alle( or )ompara3lelo)al depositional s(stem6 and used to make a))urate fa)ies predi)tions'

ontention arises from the nomen)lature of ea)h of the se+uen)e stratigraphi) surfa)es and the

3odies the( )ontain' This argument is 3ased not so mu)h on the )onstantl( )hangingnomen)lature as the de$eloping understanding of sedimentar( s(stems and their interpretation'

8o9e$er it is unfortunate that6 though )hanges in nomen)lature are 9ell intentioned6 these

)hanges often add further to the )onfusion to a s)ientifi) methodolog( alread( 9eighed do9n9ith )omple; multi9ord and multis(lla3le terminolog('

Sequence Stratigraphic )nits

The gross sediment geometri) end mem3ers are represented 3( se+uen)es6s(stems tra)ts6and parase+uen)es are a hierar)h( of stratigraphi) pa)kages or units of similar

sediment strata 9hose geometries are of in)reasingl( higher fre+uen)(6 and are related to

)hanges in the spa)e or a))ommodation a$aila3le for sediment fill> a))ommodation dri$en 3(

)hanges in eustas( and te)toni)s ?er$e(6 14!!@' ,t is sho9n ho9 the geometri) hierar)h( ise;pressed in these pa)kages 3( the su3di$iding and en$eloping surfa)es found in sedimentar(

se)tions' These 3odies and their lithofa)ies are ke(s to determining and interpreting thedepositional setting of the sedimentar( se)tions that )ontain these 3odies' ,t is )ontended that

if depositional s(stems are des)ri3ed in terms of the geometri) hierar)h( of their lithofa)ies and

elements this leads to a 3etter understanding of the depositional origins of similar sedimentar( 3odies in the ro)k re)ord'

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Figure: a))ommodation is


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a ma;imum flooding surfa)es ?mfs@' These erosional and depositional surfa)es mark )hanges in

depositional regime or Posamentier et al' 14!!> 5an agoner et al'

14!!6 1440> 5ail et al' 1441> 8unt and Tu)ker 1442@

• %eneti) stratigraphi) se+uen)es6 3ounded 3( ma;imum flooding surfa)es ?%allo9a(

14!4@

• Transgressi$eAegressi$e ?TA@ se+uen)es6 also referred to as TA )()les6 3ounded

3( ma;imum regressi$e surfa)es ?ohnson and Murph( 14!> ohnson et al' 14!&@' The

TA se+uen)e 9as su3se+uentl( redefined 3( Cm3r( and ohannessen ?1442@ as a unit

3ounded 3( )omposite surfa)es that in)lude the su3aerial un)onformit( and the marine portion of the ma;imum regressi$e surfa)e'

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atuneanu ?2004 and 2011@ felt that the $arious t(pes of se+uen)e should 3e en)ompassed 3( the

definition' The( redefined a se+uen)e as Ga su))ession of strata deposited during a full )()le of

)hange in a))ommodation or sediment suppl(H' The definition is generi)6 modelindependent6

and em3ra)es the se+uen)es listed a3o$e that ma( de$elop at an( spatial or temporal s)ale' There+uirement that ase+uen)e )oin)ide 9ith a full stratigraphi) )()le means that a se+uen)e )an 3e

distinguished from )omponent s(stems tra)ts' C;isting se+uen)e stratigraphi) s)hemes

in)orporate a full )()le of )hange in a))ommodation or sediment suppl( 9ith a 3eginning and

the end of one )()le manifest 3( the same kind of e$ent' This is the onset of a relati$e seale$elfall> the end of relati$e seale$el fall> the end of regression> or the end of transgression' ,n

)ontrast6 the 3oundaries of an( s(stems tra)t )orrespond to different e$ents 9ithin a relati$e seale$el )()le' The definition of a se+uen)e is updated to 3e the fundamental statal unit of se+uen)e

stratigraph(?atuneanu et al'6 2011@' Bs 9ith 5ail6 et al'6 ?1477@ the( see this as represented 3( a

relati$el( )onforma3le su))ession of geneti)all( related strata 3ounded 3(surfa)es 3ut e;tend

this to )orrespond to a full )()le of 3asele$el )hanges or shoreline shifts depending onthe se+uen)e model 3eing emplo(ed'

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