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GRAMMATICAL FUNCTIONSubject Think of a staff meeting, for example. There are different kinds of people, different ages, sexes, qualifications, etc and partly because of these differences; each person plays a different role in the meeting. Likewise words in a sentence: there are different kinds of words nouns, verbs, adjectives and so on, and they each play a different role in the sentence. Each role gives contributions to the sentence's meaning. For example,Pat likes beans,the subjectPatcontributes the `like-er' (subject) and the objectbeanscontributes the `like-ee' (object). If we do not know about the rule, surely we do not know about the meaning of the sentence.

In learning grammatical function, there will have a set of terms of grammatical description. The terms are subject, object, oblique object, indirect object, complement and adjunct. In terms of subject, a distinction is frequently drawn between grammatical subject, logical subject, and thematic or psychological subject. Grammatical subject is the grammatical forms that can function as the subject. For example, in English grammar, the grammatical subjects arenoun phrases, prepositional phrases, verb phrases, and noun clauses. Sometimes, the subject of a sentence can be a nominalzed sentence or sentence like constituent, as in: - That Edinburghs New Town is magnificent is undeniable - For you to run off with Mary would be madness.When no such constituent is available to act as subject a dummy subject is supplied; this is the case with weather expressions. E.g. It is raining. Where a nominalized sentence is extraposed, it will become: - That Edinburghs New Town is magnificent is undeniableIt is undeniable that Edinburghs New Town

Another item that operates like a dummy subject is there. Existential asserts the existence of something. Eg. There are glasses in the drinks cupboard. Deictic point to something. Eg. There is the glass. There are differences between deictic and existential. In deictic, pronounced with non-reduced form.E.g. there is /riz/, there are /ra/; There need not be a subject (For instance, The glass is there); There can be questioned (Where is the glass?); Definite NP means there typically restricted to sentences with definite NP ( the) .In existential, pronounced with reduced form. Eg. there is /z/, there are /ra/; There must be a subject (For example: There is a glass); There cant be questioned (where are the glasses in the drinks cupboard?); Indefinite NP means there typically restricted to sentences with indefinite NP ( a and an) E.g. A glass is on the table. Derived fromSubject in the grammar of English can be derived from transformational approach to description. In this approach, we distinguish an underlying from a surface level of description. Suppose the sentence: Everyone believes that Charlie is handsome Everyone believes (Charlie is handsome) Underlying structure Derived from Everyone believes Charlie to be handsome Alternative realizationLogical subject is usually related to sentences involving an (agent) participant. Agent is the"doer"whoorwhat that causes the action. For instance: William invaded England in 1066. G L England was invaded by William in 1066. G LThere are many typical roles for the subject in logical subject. First, agentive subject performs the action as in John beat the dog. Second, instrumental subject is used to carry out the action as in The axe smashed the door. Third, dative subject as in Harry knows that his wife is unfaithful. Fourth, goal subject where the action is directed towards/from as in Harry received a gold medallion from the Royal Society. Fifth, source subject is where the action originated as in The Royal Society presented a gold medallion to Harry. Sixth, locative place subject where the action occurs as in Edinburgh is cold, wet and windy. Seventh, patient subject undergoes the action and changes its state as in The butter is melting. Last, neutral subject mindlessly performs the action as in Mary is very tired. Thematic subject is characterized by textual considerations this is what the sentence is about. For example;

John (G,L,T) took the largest kittenThe largest kitten (G,T) was taken by John (L)The largest kitten (T), we (G,L) gave away.

ObjectIn active declarative sentence with unmarked word order, these four grammatical features characterize the object:

Directly follows the verbNot in construction with a prepositionCan become the subject of the corresponding passive sentenceAn obligatory constituent with transitive verbs

One kind of objects is object of result and it is also called an effected or factitive object.e.g.Maggie move the tableThe workmen are cleaning the horse cages

It can become the subject of a passive sentence, and there are no paraphrases involving preposition.Meanwhile, the other object is cognate object. The relevant NP in this object usually contains a noun morphologically derived from (and hence cognate with) the verb stem.e.g.Mother sewn a sewingShe draw a beautiful drawing

The other object is called object of concern. They are clearly neither affected (direct) nor affected (resultant) objects. e.g.Nunung is sipping his coffeeNindi is watching Troy

There is a hierarchy of objecthood. The considerable example is the Direct Object (DO). The characteristics are:Has a particularly close tie to the main verbIs an obligatory sentence constituentImmediately follows the main verbWill not occur in a paraphrase involving a prepositionCan be the subject of the corresponding passive sentence

Study this example:1aAmerica supplied tanks to the Israelis1bAmerica supplied the Israelis with tanksIn 1a, tanks is a DO (direct object) while Israelis is an (OO) oblique object. On the other hand, in 1b, tanks is an OO while Israelis is a DO.Since those sentences are close in meaning both of them describe events of supplying tanks- we can see them as containing the same roles (agent, patient, neutral). They differs only to which role is chosen as direct object and so that presented as more central, because more closely related to the verb. Note that they cannot occur with a preposition in this position, instead of they could become the subject of the corresponding passive:2a *America supplied with tanks to the Israelis2b *America supplied to the Israelis with tanks2c Tanks were supplied to the Israelis by America2d The Israelis were supplied with tanks by America Then, 2e*America supplied with tanksBut when the PP is omissible, they will become:2fAmerica supplied tanks2gAmerica supplied the IsraelisThe NP in the PP is an OO because the NP in the PP might, as it were, have become the object, had the other NP not done so. The OO is omissible, as we have observed, and cannot generally become the subject of a passive sentence:2h*The Israeli were supplied tanks to by America The effect of becoming an object is important. The syntactic effect has been discussed; but there is also a semantic effect, which varies from cases like number 2.

Indirect Object Exist when a verb is followed by two NPs, neither of which is associated with a preposition. See this sentence:

3Yucha gives Nindy (IO) a candy (DO) May occur as an OO (Oblique Object), and can usually be omitted without affecting the grammaticality of the sentence, whereas the DO cannot be omitted [see the example on page 326-328]

Below are the passive formation cases on DO and IO:4aNunung lent that map (DO) to Yuni (OO)4bThat map was given to Yuni by Nunung While,4cNunung lent Yuni (IO) that map (DO)4dYuni was lent that map by Nunung But not always like those, because we can see these sentences:5aNindy asked Yucha a help5b?Yucha was asked a help by Nindy And also study these:6aSister played me Dakon 6b*I was played Dakon by sisterThe NP that immediately follow the verb has a privileged status, both syntactically and semantically. When only one NP is available for this role (that is, in two-place propositions) there would seem to be a hierarchy of objecthood. When two NPs are available for the role in three-place propositions, the situation is more complex.

ComplementThese sentences below are Attributive complement because they describe the class membership of the subject noun, or ascribe an attribute to it:

7aCinderella was pretty7bCinderella was a princessThose can also be called subject complement cause it relate back to the subject noun. Then, in 7b the noun a princess is a nominal complement. Those complements are state complements since they are found in stative sentences and describe states.Those sentences below are the type of result complements:8a The mangoes are turning yellow8b Yucha became a bachelor of english departmentThe complement cannot become the subject of a passive sentence.Meanwhile, the identify complement can be shown in:9a Nunung is the man with a bunch of dollar in his wallet.The NP is always a definite NP. That sentence can be reversed:9b The man with a bunch of dollar in his wallet is Nunung.Let us study this:9c Nunung is (to be identified as) the man with a bunch of dollar in his wallet. The locative complement can be shown in:10 Yuni is in her study roomLocative complement is usually a prepositional phrase. Sometimes it is used as a place adverb. Corresponding on that, we can also recognize a directional complement in sentences, like:11Nindy hid under the table12 Yucha walked across the hospitalDirectional complements only occur in nonstate sentences.The italicized constituents in the sentences in 12 are also often called complements:12a Nunung comes back home safe12b Yuni talked the issue honest12c Nindy always buys her spinach fresh12d Yucha coloured her book green12 a and 12 b are intensive to the subject, then others to the object. In some cases, they can be substituted by adverbs. We can also make paraphrase constructions like:12 e Nindy always buys her spinach in fresh condition12 f Yuni was honest when she talked the issue, etc.

AdjunctsAdjuncts are usually adverbials, whether they are adverb phrases, PP, adverbs, or subordinate clauses of time, place, manner, and so on, that distributionally function like adverbials.

Adjuncts are clearly a rather mixed bag, in that syntactically there are numerous subclasses which have different and overlapping distribution, and they fill a variety of semantic roles.

Morphological mapping of grammatical functionsIntroductionHow are gramatical functions mapped onto morphological representatios?We will begin with a preliminary discussion intended to provide the necessery background for understanding the key syntactic and semantic concepts that are involved. First introduce the notions of thematic roles, grammatical relations and the teory of case assigment, next explore the morphological effects of syntatic rules that change the canonical pairing of thematic roles with grammatical function. And the final part of the chapter will take the discussion further afield through an investigation of the phonomenon of incorporation whereby the syntax requiresthe inclutionof one word within onother.Predicates, arguments and lexical entriesNormaly, sentences are contructed in such a way that some constituents identify particular individuals or things (or more abstract entities like ideas) and other contituents which indicate individuals or entities are called referring expreesions, while those wich attribute to them properties, processes, actions, relations or states are called predicates.e.g : a. my sister cried b. she will go c The car crashedthe sentence a refers to an individual and predecates the property crying of that individual at some time in the past. In sentence b the property of going is predicated of the individual she. Finnaly, sentenses c the property of crash is attribute to an entity. Predicates take referring expressions as their arguments (my sister, she, the car). Theta-roles and lexical entriesLanguage use syntax and inflectional morphologi to encode some of the sematic relations which obtain in sentence between a prdicate and its arguments. We will use the term theta-roles (0-rules) for these sematic relations. (they are also called (abstract) case relations or thematic relations in the leterature.)

Recognition of 0-rules is essentially based on the intuition which is widely shared among linguists that there is a relatively small number of syntactically relevant sematic properties that play a role in the transitiveity systems of language.Gruber (1965,1976) and Fillmore (1968) define of Theta-roles:Agent is the case of the individual (usually animate) that instigates the action identified by the verb. e.g., (d) Mamat killed the chickenInstrumental is the case of the inanimate instrument used to bring about the state of affairs described by the verb. e.g., (e) mother whashed with a brushPatient is the case of the entity or individual that undergoes the process or action described by the verb. e.g., (f) Toni punched the boardBenefactive is the case of the individual who gains from the action or prosess described by the verb.e.g., (g) Kai gave his girlfriend letter.Theme is semantically the most neutral case. e.g., (h) Hari gave Mia new hand phone. Locative is the case that indicates the location, direction or sparial orientation of the event, state or action identified by the verb e.g., (i) tommorow I will go to beijing.Theta-roles are essentially used to characterise transitivity. They specity the parts palyed by the arguments representing different participants is the action, state or process indicated by the verb.Intransitive verbs are one-place predicates.they occur in frames with one argument. e.g., (j) Agung slept.Transitive verb are two-place pridicates.e.g., (k) Mamat killed the duck.Ditransitive verbs are three place predicates. e.g., (l) Mother put the ice cream in the freezerIn order to ensure that a verb appears in the right syntactic frames, the lexicon must specify the 0-roles which it requires.The lexical entries for the verbs in e.g. (j) must contain the following information.

e.g., (k) slep V (agent)killV (agent patient) putV (agent goal theme ).0-rules are associated directly with NPs by phrase structure rules, as shown in e.g. a. S NPVP (agent) b. VP V NP c. NP Det N d.N Nsg, Npl e. Det - the f. V Vtrns (i.e. transitive verb) The tree should look like this S

NP VP(agent) V NPDetN[sg]V[trns] DetN[pl] Theclowntickled the children

We will require each lexical entry for a verb to include the 0-roles which that verb assigns to its arguments.To this and, a wellformedness principle called the Theta-Critorion will be incorporated in the grammar and given the task of ensuring that: a verb is only used in frames where the requisite arguments are present, and those arguments all have the prescribed 0-roles.Symbols X and Y are used as variables to represent any entity or individual that can function as arguments of these predicates with the 0-rules af agent, patient, theme etc. The entry for a verb in the lexicon will include a subcategorisation template showing its argument stucture requerenments.a. tickleV#TICKLE (X? Y?) e.g., The clown ticled the children b. wash:V # WASH 1 (X?) e.g., This curtain washes well # WASH2 (X? Y?) e.g., peter washed the curtains

the lexical entries in tell us which senses of wash and tickle require two arguments, and which particular 0-roles hold between those arguments in a particular sense of the verb. To solve this problem we need to add a further dimension to the model of grammatical analysis, namely that of grammatical relations.

Grammatical relations Syntactic categories like noun phrase and verb phrase specify the syntactic type of particular constituents.the syntactic type of a constituent is determined by the category og the head of that constituent.A noun phrase is a constituent whose head is a noun while a verb phrase is a constituent whose head is a verb, and so on.

o-roles, specify a sematic relationship between a predicate ad its argumentsgrammatical relations indicate the grammatical relationship that holds between two syntactic constituents in a sentence.they are determined, not by semantic considerations, but by the syntactic position of the particular contituent. The grammatical relations that we shall use are verb phrase, subject, object, second object and oblique. They are defined in tuen belowThe easient grammatical relation to recognise is verb phrase (VP). The term VP is commonly used ambigously by generative grammarians to refer both to a syntactic category, and to a grramatical realation as we are doing here. The grammatical relation VP has a verb as its syntactic head e.g., Andi came. Andi is S and ame is VPAll declarative sentences en English must have a subject (S).the subject is the topic about which the rest of the sentence says nothing, the subject is the NP the has the 0-role og agent, if that role is present, the subject is the NP that precedes the VP, and with which the verb agrees in number.In reality, however, many subject do not hava all these properties, ae we shall soon see.The NP that immediately follow the verb is the object and the NP that comes after that object NP is called the second object. e.g., Andi send Ani latter.Grammatical relations is surronded by a degree of theoretical controversy, there is widespread agreement about the purpose which the serve.Once the need for grammatical relations is regognised, grammars must perform the two tasks:they must state how 0-roles are mapped on to grammar of a particular language. For example, English mapping principles may take this form:

0-role correspondens grammatical functionagent subjectpatientobject of verblocativeoblique NP

they must state how grammatical functions are maked on the surface, e.g. by word order, prepositions or case inflection.

Various syntavtic rules which may mask the grammatical function of a particular NP. Much of the morphological camplexityfound in languages aries from the making og such masked grammatical function.Grammatical Function Changing RulesGrammatical functions are hierarchically ordered across languages. The hierarchy depends on the relative likelihood of NPs associated with particular grammatical functions being affected by certain syntactic rules. Keenan and Comrie (1977, 1979) have established this hierarchy:Subject > direct object > non-direct object > possessorSuch rules mask the relationship between the surface manifestation of grammatical function (GF), which is often marked case or word order, and the semantic role of an argument. GF changing rule tend to have significant morphological repercussions which typically affect verbs more than other word-classes. these are some repercussion:Passive

Often sentences expressing the same proposition can be realised in a variety of ways, depending on how grammatical relations are encoded using the syntax and morphology. Normaly, where such choice exist, one way of expressing a propositions is marked and another is unmarked.

Active voice

Agent/ subjectNominativeThe VetShePassive voice

Patient/ subjectNominativeEsmeraldaShe

examinedexamined

was examinedwas examinedPatient/ object accusativeEsmeraldaHer

AgentOblique NPby the Vetby her The sentence above, with the subject as agent preceding the verb and the object, who is patient, following the verb, are unmarked. The agent who is also the subject, receives nominative case and the patient, who is object receives accusative case. Passive can be semi-formally stated as in:Subject oblique (or null)Object subject

Antipassive

The antipassive is the process used in ergative languages to turn a transitive verb into an intransitive verb. It causes the object NP to be realised as an oblique NP, or to be deleted. The effect of the antipassive is comparable to that of the passive. Just as the passive demotes the original subject to an oblique NP in a nominative accusative language, the antipassive demotes the original object of a transitive sentence to an oblique NP and the underlying agent NP argument which should otherwise be in the ergative is put in the absolutive. This can be seen in the example of Eskimo languages below:a.balayugubagul yara-gu gunba-nbagubarri-gu

it-ABStree-ABShe-ERGman-ERGcut-PASTit-INSTaxe-INST

the man cut the tree with an axe'

b.Antipassive

bayiyaragunba-l-a-nyubaguyugu-gubagubarri-gu

he-ABSman-ABScut-ANTIPAST-PASTit-DATtree-DATit-INSTaxe-INST

the man cut the tree with an axe'ABS = absolute; ANTIPAST = antipassive; ERG = ergative; INST = instrumental; DAT = dativeApplicative

The applicative is another common GF-changing rule with significant morphological consequences. It characterizes using this schema:ObliqueIndirect object object; object 2nd objectNull (or oblique)

Some of applicative are:Benefactive: a NP in the benefactive case that has the GF of second object can be realised as a direct object when the applicative rule applies. For example:

a.Andrew gave the flowersto Helen

Agentthemebenefactive

Subjectobjectoblique NPb.Andrew gave Helenthe flowers

Agentbenefactivetheme

Subjectobject2nd objectLocative: in many languages the applicative can be used with locative meaning which is expressed in English using propositions like in, on, at, etc. This is the example from Kinyarwanda languages.

a. Umwaana y-a-taa-yeigitabomu maazi

ChildSP-past-throw-ASPbookin water

the child has thrown the book in to the water'b.Umwaana y-a-taa-ye-moamaaziigitabo

ChildSP-past-throw-ASP-APPL (in)waterbook

the child has thrown the book into the water Possessor: when possessor raising take takes place, an NP which function as the possessor modifying the head of a possessive noun phrase is turned into the object of the verb. The original object is shunted into a new slot and becomes the second object. Possessor raising is shown below:

NP possessor in possessive NP object of verbObject of verb 2nd object

This is example from Bantu Language:a. a-li-menyaokugulukw-aKapere

s/he-fut-breaklegofKapere

s/he will break Kapare's legb.a-li-menyaKapereokugulu

s/he-fut-breakKapereleg

s/he will break Kapare's leg

Causative

The changes in grammatical function caused by the causative GF process can be stated in this way:

Null subjectSubject objectObject 2nd object

This is the example from Luganda languagea.Abalenziba-li-fumb-alumonde

BoysSP-futore-cook-BVSpotatoes

the boys will cook potatoes'b.kaparea-li-fumb-is-aabalenzilumonde

boys SP-future-cook-BVSboyspotatoes

Kapere will make the boys cook potatoes.'SP = subject prefix; BVS = basic verbal suffixFrom the example above, the causative introduces a new agentive NP as subject in [b]. The original subject becomes the object and the original object becomes a second object. Equally important, the verb receives the causative suffix is-. Miror Principle

Introduction

The traditional view on morphology is that word-formation takes place in the lexicon, and that morphological rules are different in nature and operate on different primitive elements than syntactic rules: morphology operates on stems and morphemes to produce words, while syntax operates on words to produce phrases and sentences. In other words, the essential property of morphology is, it is concerned with the structure of words; the essential property of syntax is, it is concerned with the structure of sentences.

The Mirror Principle The idea of Mirror Principle was proposed by Baker (1985). His argument is that derivation of words and their relationship in a sentence and in meaning couldnt be based only on functional matter. Reviewing that the morphological derivations must directly reflect syntactic derivation and the syntactic derivation must directly reflect morphological derivation. In other words, syntactic and morphological orderings stand in a symmetrical relation. Unfortunately, Baker does not specify according to which general principles are affixes merged into syntactic structure. He argued that the Mirror Principle is the result of the strict locality of head movement (of cyclic head movement) through incorporation of a lexical root to a morpheme. It this condition syntax operates on both words and morphemes, and a complex word can be formed by syntactic rules, and more specifically head movement. In short, if the morphological structure of a complex word is derived through head-movement of the lexical root to the heads where the morphemes are base-generated, the MP follows straightforwardly: the order of morphemes in a complex word reflects the natural syntactic embedding of the heads that correspond to those morphemes

The rule of Mirror Principle (Baker 1985):

The order of affixes reflects the order in which the associated syntactic operations apply.

Morphological derivations must directly reflect syntactic derivation and the syntactic derivation must directly reflect morphological derivation

The evidence of Mirror Principle

Mirror Principle was applied in Lugandas major language, Bantu.

Verbal extensions in Luganda

NameShapeExampleGlossCausative/-is-/n-a-mu-zin-is-aI made him danceApplicative/-ir-/a-n-zin-ir-ahe is dancing for meReciprocal/-agan-/ba-a-kub-agan-athey hit each otherPassive3/-ibu-/n-a-kub-ibw-aI was beatenTransitive4/-i-/y-a-ba-kaab-y-ashe made them cryStative/-ik-/ga-nyw-ek-ait (water) is drinkableReversive/-ulul-/oku-pang-ulul-ato unstuck (take things off a pile)

The data above is analyzed with : Causative Applicative Reciprocal Passive (CARP), where the affixation can be classified. As in Luganda language, the changing of affixation can be clearly recognize even there are some inconsistent form. Compare with the sample below, the changing of affixation in Sundanese, Mirror principle cannot be applied perfectly.

NameShapeExampleGlossCausative*/-keun-/Abdi merintahkeun maneha gerua gebug etaI made him hitApplicative

Maneha gebug keur abdihe is hitting somethingReciprocal/gebug-gebugan/Sadayana gebug-gebukanthey hit each otherPassive3/-kena-/Abdi kena gebugI was hitTransitive4

Maneha merintahkeun sadaya gerua gebug etashe made them hitStative

Cai eta tiasa dileleutit (water) is drinkableReversive

Jalma eta mindahakeun caishe move the drink.

Analysis using C A R P (Causative Applicative Reciprocal Passive)

CausativeApplicativeReciprocalPassiveCausative-

Applicative

-

Reciprocal

-

Passive

-

Causative-Applicative combination

Causative-Reciprocal

Causative-Passive

Applicative-Causative

Applicative-Reciprocal

The counter arguments against Mirror Principle However, as Baker has lacking explanation of his idea on mirror principle, it raises some counter arguments.

Federico Damonte (1998) claims:that argument structure changing affixes in Pular are merged in a fixed hierarchy of theta-related functional heads and that the complements they introduce are merged in the specifiers of these functional projections. Von Stechow (2002) and Zeijlstra (20007): the position of affixes does not correspond to the position where they take scope from.Sadock (1985): propose a theory of auto lexical syntax that overview the autonomous of morphology and syntax although they are held together.Hyman and Katamba (1992): morphological position and phonological position infer the changing order of morpheme in words.

Conclusion

It seems that mirror principle seems to be essentially correct, but languages may show variation in the way which they set their own parameter. As seen from the examples above, comparing Luganda and Sundanese language, the affixation which is essential in Luganda in changing grammar doesnt appear in Sundanese. It is an evident that mirror principle can be applied in certain languages. Moreover, the grammars of many languages provide alternative ways of expressing the same kind of proportional meaning.