preparation guide for the - …€¦ · web viewtoefl (test of english as a foreign language)...

LANGUAGE CENTERMuhammadiyah University of Jember

PREPARATION FOR THE

TOEFL(Test of English as a Foreign Language)

PREPARED BYMUHLISIN

LANGUAGE CENTER

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MUHAMMADIYAH UNIVERSITY OF JEMBER

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Berkenalan dengan TOEFL

TOEFL adalah singkatan dari Test of English as a Foreign Language. TOEFL umumnya diberikan sebagai persiapan untuk meneruskan ke jenjang studi lanjut S2 dan S3 baik di Indonesia atau terlebih lagi di negara-negara dimana Bahasa Inggris biasa digunakan. Disamping itu, TOEFL juga biasa digunakan sebagai persyaratan kerja terutama di lembaga-lembaga tingkat International.

Dalam TOEFL ada tiga keahlian berbahasa Inggris yang diujikan. Keahlian tersebut meliputi kemampuan ‘mendengar, mengidentifikasi kesalahan yang ada pada teks tulis serta membaca’ sejumlah wacana berbahasa Inggris.

Kemampuan mendengar (listening) wacana berbahasa Inggris merupakan bentuk tes yang pertama diujikan dalam TOEFL. Kemampuan mendengarkan ini mencakup kemampuan mendengarkan monolog pendek yang terdiri dari satu atau dua kalimat hingga sebuah monolog yang cukup panjang seperti dalam bentuk materi perkuliahan. Dalam bagian ini, kemampuan dasar yang harus dikuasai meliputi kemampuan menafsirkan berbagai bentuk suara ujaran dari penutur asli bahasa Inggris. Terlebih lagi, Anda harus mampu memaknai berbagai bentuk suara ujaran tersebut.

Bagian kedua yang diujikan dalam TOEFL meliputi kemampuan ‘mengidentifikasi kesalahan yang ada pada teks tulis’ (structure and written expression). Umumnya bentuk uji yang diberikan dalam bagian ini meliputi kemampuan mengidentifikasi kesalahan-kesalahan grammatikal yang ada di dalam wacana tertulis (written expression) berbahasa Inggris. Dengan kata lain, kemampuan yang diujikan dalam bagian kedua ini terkait erat

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dengan kemampuan analisa tatabahasa yang ada pada teks-teks tulis tersebut. Oleh karenanya, kemampuan dasar yang diperlukan adalah pengetahuan Anda tentang tatabahasa yang benar menurut kaidah penggunaan bahasa Inggris. Dengan memiliki keahlian tersebut, Anda akan mampu mendeteksi kesalahan (error) yang ada dengan lebih mudah.

Kemampuan yang ketiga meliputi uji ‘kosa-kata’ serta uji ‘kemampuan membaca’ (vocabulary and reading comprehension) terhadap teks berbahasa Inggris. Materi yang biasa disajikan dalam bagian ini meliputi teks yang mencakup berbagai pokok bahasan. Namun demikian, TOEFL lazimnya memberikan materi bacaan yang lebih sesuai dengan tujuan pembelajaran seperti jika kita akan melanjutkan ketingkat pasca sarjana. Oleh karena itu, materi bacaan tersebut lebih berbetuk teks-teks akademis. Selain kemampuan membaca secara umum, bagian ini juga menuntut penghetahuan tentang kosa-kata yang bersifat teknis dan mnyeluruh. Selain itu, kemampuan Anda dalam memaknai kata yang berimbuhan atau berbeda affixes baik dalam prefixes atau suffixes nya juga sangat penting untuk mengetahui makna kosa-kata yang diujikan.

Mengingat ada beberapa model dalam pelaksanaan TOEFL, Oleh karenanya dalam modul ini model TOEFL yang disajikan berupa bentuk tes yang biasa diujikan dalam TOEFL ITP (Institutional Testing Program). Tidak ada perbedaan yang signifikan sehubungan dengan bidang uji yang diberikan di antara beberapa jenis TOEFL meskipun prosedur dalam mengerjakan tesnya berbeda seperti dalam TOEFL paper-based dan computer-based.

Semoga modul ini bermanfaat bagi Anda dan saya ucapkan ‘Selamat Belajar”

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DAFTAR ISI

Sampul …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 1

Berkenalan dengan TOEFL ………………………………………………………………………………….

2 Daftar isi

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 4

MATERI 1 (Listening Comprehension) Part A

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 6

Part B ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 8

Part C ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 10

Practice for the listening section …………………………………………………………………………. 13

MATERI 2 (Structure and Written Expression) English Grammar Review .

……………………………………………………………………………………. 17

Types of English Verbs …………………………………………………………………………………………. 17

Classifying Verbs …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 17

Verbs in Relation to Tenses …………………………………………………………………………………

19 English Sentence Structure

………………………………………………………………………………….23

English Tenses ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 24

Introduction to the Usage of Tenses …………………………………………………………………. 24

Simple Present Tense ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 26

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Present Continuous Tense ………………………………………………………………………………….. 30

Present Perfect Tense …………………………………………………………………………………………… 33

Present Perfect Continuous ………………………………………………………………………………….

36 Simple Pas Tense

……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 37

Past Continuous Tense ………………………………………………………………………………………… 39

Past Perfect Tense …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 40

Past Perfect Continuous Tense …………………………………………………………………………… 41

Simple Future Tense ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 42

Future Continuous Tense ……………………………………………………………………………………. 43

Future Perfect Tense …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 45

Future Perfect Continuous Tense ………………………………………………………………………. 45

Past Future Tense ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 46

Past Future Continuous Tense ……………………………………………………………………………. 47

Past Future Perfect ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 47

Past Future Perfect Continuous …………………………………………………………………………. 48

Mini-Test 1 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 49

Structure Section ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 54

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Practice Questions …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 55

Written Expression ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 60

Practice Questions …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 60

MATERI 3 (Reading Comprehension) Sample Passage and Questions

…………………………………………………………………………… 64 Practice 1 ……………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………...65

Practice 2 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 67

Practice 3 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 70

Practice 4 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 73

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To

My wife Pratiwi Andriani

My daughter Anatasya Iftihani

and Tasya’s Grandparents

“The ones who’ve been bestowing heaps of incredible

momentous life to live in; the ones who’ll always be

illuminating throughout the gloomy moments of my life for

sure”

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MATERI 1 - Listening Comprehension -

Dalam bagian pertama ini Anda akan diperkenalkan dengan berbagai bentuk dan instruksi yang biasa ada pada so’al yang terkait dengan uji kemampuan mendengarkan wacana berbahasa inggris. Pelajarilah dengan seksama karena agar supaya Anda bisa lebih familiar dengan bentuk tes yang nyata nantinya. Sebagai informasi tambahan, bentuk uji yang diberikan di bagian pertama ini bertujuan untuk mengukur kemampuan Anda dalam memahami ragam bahasa Inggris lisan. Keseluruhan tes pada bagian pertama ini umumnya berlangsung antara 30 s/d 35 menit dengan 50 soal secara keseluruhan. Bagian listening comprehension ini terdiri dari tiga bagian. Masing-Masing bagian dari tes tersebut akan disajikan sebagai berikut:

PART ADirection: In this part of the test, you will hear short conversations

between two people. After each conversation, you will hear a question about the conversation. The conversations and questions will not be repeated. After you hear a question, read the four possible answers in your test book and choose the best answer. Then, on your answer sheet, find the number of the question and fill in the space that corresponds to the letter of the answer you have chosen.

Example: On the recording, you will hear a very short conversation between two speakers and followed by a question from a narrator, such as:

(Speaker 1) : I don’t like this painting very much.(Speaker 2) : Neither do I.Narrator : What does the man mean?And in your test book, you read such as:

a. He doesn’t like the painting either.b. He doesn’t know how to paint.

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c. He doesn’t have any paintings.d. He doesn’t know what to do.

From the conversation, you can see that the implied meaning of the second speaker’s utterance is that he doesn’t like the painting either. Therefore, the best answer to the question is (A).

Practice Questions for Part A.1. You will hear:

(Man) : Shall I lock the computer lab now before I go home?(Woman) : Don’t bother. I’m not leaving for a while – I can

check it out on my way out.(Narrator) : What will the woman probably do?You will read :

(A)Lock the computer lab later.(B)Leave the man.(C)Buy a new lock for the computer lab.(D) Show the man where the lab is.

2. You will hear:(Man) : Do you mind if I turn the television off?(Woman) : Well, I’m in the middle of watching a program.(Narrator) : What does the woman imply?You will read :

(A)The man should watch the program too.(B)The man should leave the television on.(C)The program will be over soon.(D) She’ll watch television later.

3. You will hear:(Woman) : I heard the math requirements for graduation are

being changed.(Man) : Yes. And I may be short one course.(Narrator) : What does the man mean?You will read :

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(A)He isn’t sure what course to take.(B)The math course is too short.(C)He may not meet the graduation requirements.(D) The graduation date has been changed.

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PART BDirection: In this part of the test you will hear longer conversations.

After each conversation you will hear several questions. The conversations and questions will not be repeated.After you hear a question, read the four possible answers in your test book and choose the best answer. Then, on your answer sheet, find the number of the question and fill in the space that corresponds to the letter of the answer you have chosen.Remember, you are not allowed to take notes or write in your test book.

Practice Conversation and Questions for Part B.(Narrator) : Question 4 through 7. Listen to a conversation about a

trip.(Man) : Are you ready for “The Big Apple”?(Woman) : Excuse me?(Man) : You know, New York City. You are going to New York

with us, aren’t you? I want to show everybody around my old neighborhood.

(Woman) : Oh….Sure! I wouldn’t miss it – especially when the tour guide is a native New Yorker.

(Man) : I thought we could start at the museum of Modern Art. Right now there’s an exhibit on twentieth century American painters.

(Woman) : Fine with me….but what were you saying about….a big apple?

(Man) : “The Big Apple.” It’s a nickname for New York. I think I heard once that it started with jazz musicians in the 20s.

(Woman) : Oh.(Man) : Whenever they played a concert in a city, they called

that city an “apple.” In those days, New York was the

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biggest city in the country, so they called it “The Big Apple.”

(Woman) : Hey, I have an idea! Let’s go to a jazz club while we’re there.

(Man) : Sounds good.

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Questions:4. You will hear:

(Narrator) : What is the man planning to see?You will read: (A) An art exhibit.

(B) A Broadway play.(C) A modern dance production.(D) An opera.

5. You will hear:(Narrator) : What can be inferred about the man?You will read: (A) He is a jazz musician.

(B) He wants to join the woman’s club.(C) He is in his twenties.(D) He was born in New York.

6. You will hear:(Narrator) : What does the word “Apple” in the phrase “The

Big Apple” refer to?You will read: (A) An instrument

(B) A city.(C) A theater.(D) A concert.

7. You will hear:(Narrator) : Who gave New York its nickname?You will read: (A) Painters

(B) Tour guides(C) Musicians(D) Grocers

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PART CDirections: In this part of the test you will hear several talks. After

each talk, you will hear some questions. The talks and questions will not be repeated.After you hear a question, read the four possible answers in your test book and choose the best answer. Then, on your answer sheet, find the number of the question and fill in the space that corresponds to the letter of the answer you have chosen.

Here is an example.On the recording, you will hear:(Narrator) : Listen to an instructor talk to his class about a television program.(Man) : I’d like to tell you about an interesting TV program

that’ll be shown this coming Thursday. It’ll be on from 9 to 10 pm on Channel 4. It’s part of a series called “Mysteries of Human Biology.” The subject of the program is the human brain – how it functions and how it can malfunction. Topics that will be covered are dreams, memory, and depression. These topics are illustrated with outstanding computer animation that makes the explanation easy to follow. Make an effort to see this show. Since we’ve been studying the nervous system in class, I know you’ll find it very helpful.

A sample question and answer from the spoken monolog.(Narrator) : What is the main purpose of the program?In your test book, you will read:

(A) To demonstrate the latest use of computer graphics.(B) To discuss the possibility of an economic depression.(C) To explain the workings of the brain.(D)To dramatize a famous mystery story.

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The best answer to the question, “What is the main purpose of the program?” is (C), “To explain the workings of the brain.” Therefore, the correct choice is (C).

Here is another example. You will hear:(Narrator) : Why does the speaker recommend watching the program?In your test book, you will read:

(A) It is required of all science majors.(B) It will never be shown again.(C) It can help viewers improve their memory skills.(D) It will help with course work.

The best answer to the question, “Why does the speaker recommend watching the program?” is (D), “It will help with course work.” Therefore, the correct choice is (D).Remember, you are not allowed to take notes or write in your test book.

PRACTICE TALK AND QUESTIONS FOR PART C(Narrator) : Questions 8 through 10. Listen to a talk about animal behavior.(Woman) : Today’s discussion is about a common animal reaction

– the yawn. The dictionary defines a yawn as “an involuntary reaction to fatigue or boredom.” That’s certainly true for human yawns. The same action can have quite different meanings in different species.For example, some animals yawn to intimidate intruders on their territory. Fish and lizards are examples of this.

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Hippos use yawns when they want to settle a quarrel. Observers have seen two hippos yawn at each other for as long as two hours before they stop quarreling. As for social animals like baboons or lions – they yawn to establish the pecking order within social groups, and lion often yawn to calm social tensions. Sometimes these animals yawn for a strictly physiological reason – that is, to increase oxygen levels. And curiously enough, when they yawn for a physical reason like that, they do what human do – they try to stifle the yawn by looking away or by covering their mouths.

Questions:8. You will hear:

(Narrator) : What is the speaker’s main point?You will read: (A) Animals yawn for a number of reasons.

(B) Yawning results only from fatigue or boredom.(C) Human yawns are the same as those of other

animals.(D) Only social animals yawn.

9. You will hear:(Narrator) : According to the speaker; when are hippos likely to yawn?You will read: (A) When they are swimming.

(B) When they are quarreling.(C) When they are socializing.(D) When they are eating.

10. You will hear:(Narrator) : What physiological reason for yawning is mentioned?You will read: (A) To exercise the jaw muscles.

(B) To eliminate fatigue.(C) To get greater strength for attacking.(D) To gain more oxygen.

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Dari contoh keterangan dan latihan listening section untuk TOEFL diatas, Anda dapat memahami bentuk-bentuk so’al yang biasa diberikan dibagian pertama tersebut. Sebagian gari so’al tersebut menuntut pemahaman Anda tentang wacana yang diperdengarkan secara explicit (tersurat). Namun demikian, sebagian dari bentuk so’al yang diberikan juga menuntut pemahaman Anda dalam menarik kesimpulan dari wacana yang diperdengarkan tersebut. Dengan kata lain, jenis so’al yang kedua ini lebih berbetuk pertanyaan-pertanyaan yang implicit (tersirat) mengenai wacana yang diperdengarkan. Oleh sebab itu, pertanyaan jenis kedua ini umumnya sering dirasa lebih sulit dari pada jenis perntanyaan pertama diatas oleh mayoritas peserta TOEFL.

Sebagai catatan mengenai kemampuan mendengarkan wacana yang diperdengarkan dalam bahasa Inggris memang tidak bias serta-merta diperoleh dengan mudah. Kemampuan mendengarkan wacana berbahasa Inggris secara memadai hanya dapat diperoleh dengan latihan yang intensif dan berkelanjutan. Oleh karenanya, dibawah ini disajikan beberapa wacana monolog berbahasa Inggris yang sederhana –dari segi kompleksitas penutur asli– sebagai bekal latihan Anda dalam memahami pengucapan-pengucapan bahasa Inggris. Anda bisa berlatih mendengarkan monolog-monolog tersebut sebanyak yang Anda perlukan untuk melatih kemampuan Anda dalam memahami pengucapan penutur asli bahasa Inggris.

PRACTICE FOR THE LISTENING SECTIONPractice one (Latihan 1) Listen to a monolog about “A high school offers single-sex classes to top students”. Now check your understanding by answering the following questions.

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1. Where is in the U.S. the special single-sex classes program offered?

2. Who can join the program?3. What is the aim of implementing the program?4. What do the students need to join the program?5. Who writes “The Call of the Wild”?6. What does Morgan Van Fleet say about boys and girls as they

are together in a same classroom?7. What activity that the boys and girls can do together in the

Academy?

Practice two (Latihan 2)Listen to a monolog about “Women Edge Past Men in Getting Doctorates”.Now check your understanding by answering the following questions.

1. What is the predicted average number of women attending graduate schools in US comparing with men?

2. What does the Census Bureau expect in response to the case?

3. How many percent of women earned master’s degrees in 2009?

4. What did the 2008-2009 report say as a change to the previous fact?

5. What was the largest share of all doctorate degrees attained by women in 2008-2009?

6. What fields of study constituted the fastest enrollment growth between 1999 and 2009?

7. What did graduate schools report in 2009?

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8. How many percents was the decrease of international students’ enrollment by that year?

9. When was the first drop of it?

10. What is the news all about?

Practice two (Latihan 3)Listen to a monolog about “After Brain Study, New Questions About Mobile Phones”.Now check your understanding by answering the following questions.1. Have there been any studies conducted proving that cellphones

cause brain cancer or other health problems?

2. What did the scientist find concerning the use of a cellphone to our ear for at least fifty minutes?

3. Who is Dr. Nora Volkow?

4. What did Dr. Nora Volkow find in her research of the use of cellphone by anyone for around fifty minutes?

5. How did Dr. Nora Volkow and her team conduct the research?

6. What could be shown by the brain scans that were used by Dr. Nora Volkow in her research?

7. What did the brain scans show when people use cellphone?

8. Who is Dr. Giuseppe Esposito?

9. What did he say after many years of studies?

10. Where is the news from?

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MATERI 2 - Structure and Written Expression -

Pada bagian kedua ini Anda akan diperkenanalkan dengan dua bentuk pertanyaan yang biasa disajikan pada bagian ke dua (section 2) TOEFL. Bentuk pertanyaaan pertama (Part A) merujuk pada structure, sedangkan bentuk yang kedua (Part B) berupa written expression. Pada bagian pertama so’al (Part A) Anda akan diuji untuk melengkapi bentuk kalimat berbahasa Inggris dengan salah satu opsi pilihan jawaban yang telah disediakan. Opsi yang Anda pilih haruslah sesuai dengan standar penggunaan bahasa Inggris secara baku. Sedangkan untuk bagian kedua (Part B), bentuk uji meliputi kemampuan Anda menteksi kesalahan yang ada pada sebuah kalimat. Kesalahan tersebut sengaja dibuat sebagai bahan pokok ujian kemampuan bidang ‘written expression’. Untuk mengerjakan keseluruhan bagian kedua (section 2) dari TOEFL, waktu yang umumnya dialokasikan adalah sekitar 25 menit dengan keseluruhan so’al sebanyak 40 pertanyaan.

Untuk menjawab so’al pada bagian kedua TOEFL ini, kompetensi yang Anda harus kuasai meliputi pengetahuan yang memadai mengenai ‘tata bahasa Inggris’ yang berterima (baku) sesuai dengan kaidah. Jika Anda telah memiliki kemampuan tersebut maka kemampuan Anda untuk melengkapi bentuk kalimat berbahasa Inggris dengan opsi jawaban yang tepat pada bagian pertama (Part A) serta untuk mendeteksi kesalahan-kesalahan gramatikal yang ada pada bagian kedua (Part B) akan lebih mudah dilakukan.

Sehubungan dengan pokok bahasan “tata bahasa Inggris”, ada berbagai topik yang perlu untuk Anda pelajari. Namun demikian, hal yang pertama yang perlu Anda kuasai adalah konsep mengenai “Tenses”. Tenses adalah konsep ‘kala/waktu’ yang melekat pada bentuk kata kerja dalam Bahasa Inggris untuk menunjukkan kapan suatu aktifitas atau kejadian berlangsung. Tenses merupakan

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pokok bahasan yang paling mendasar sebelum mempelajari pokok bahasan lain dalam tata bahasa Inggris karena ada banyak sekali bahasan dalam tata bahasa Inggris yang terkait erat dengan penggunaan Tenses tersebut. Sebagai contoh penggunaan Conditional Sentence I, II and III, Reported Speech dan Question Tag serta beberapa pokok bahasan lain. Alasan yang kedua tentang mengapa Tenses merupakan bahasan yang fundamental adalah keterkaitannya dengan kemampuan menyusun ‘kalimat’ dalam bahasa Inggris secara akurat. Sebagai mana telah diketahui bahwa kalimat (sentence) merupakan bentuk fundamental dalam bahasa yang memungkinkan penyampaian makna diantara para pengguna bahasa. Oleh karena itu, sebelum Anda dihadapkan pada contoh so’al yang ada pada bagian 2 (section 2) dari TOEFL, dibawah ini akan disajikan sebuah materi pembelajaran mengenai konsep kalimat (sentence) serta konsep kala/waktu (Tenses) secara khusus dalam bahasa Inggris. Hal ini dimaksudkan sebagai bahan latihan bagi Anda sekalian dalam memaknai bacaan berbahasa Inggris. Terlebih lagi, keperluan untuk memperkaya jumlah kosa-kata (vocabulary) yang perlu Anda kuasai juga sangat penting untuk keberhasilan Anda menggunakan bahasa Inggris dan khususnya untuk bisa mengerti pertanyaan-pertanyaan yang ada pada ujian seperti TOEFL ini.

Pada bagian kedua modul ini juga Anda juga akan diperkenalkan kepada sample pertanyaan yang biasa ada pada bagian dua (section 2) TOEFL. Pelajarilah dengan seksama bentuk-bentuk instruksi yang ada beserta betuk pertanyaannya. Hal ini akan mempermudah Anda ketika Anda telah berhadapan dengan uji TOEFL sebenarnya – khususnya pada uji section 2.

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# ENGLISH GRAMMAR REVIEW #

ENGLISH “VERBS AND TENSES”

2.1. Types of English Verbs2.1.1. Classifying Verbs

Before proceeding with discussion dealing with Tenses, a few annotations on the production of the English verb system might be appropriate to present to make us more uncomplicated in comprehending the subject matter. Even so, if we consider about type of verbs in English, there is hardly, or even nothing, adequate definition of the verbs classification in accordance with their use in English language, but generally all of the uses can be classified broadly into two categories related to the function. According to Randolph Quirk and Sydney Greenbaum (1985:26), verbs can be classified related to the functions of items in the verb phrase. There are two kinds which can be identified in classifying verbs in English, namely lexical verbs & auxiliary verbs. Therefore, it is useful for distinguishing lexical verbs from the closed system of auxiliary verbs here. As to making it more specific, the auxiliary verbs can be subdivided again into two subcategories i.e. primary and modal auxiliary. The summary and the example of the above discussion can be seen in the subsequent table.

Lexical walk, write, play, beautify, and so forth.

Auxiliarydo, have, be, can, may, shall, will, could, might, should, would, must, ought to, used to, need, dare to.

The lexical verbs have two classifications in English, namely regular and irregular verbs. To understand all kinds of verbs is essential for the study of Tenses since the form of the verbs is dependable on when they are used in a sentence which is typically varied contextually. In reference to the verb grouping, those verbs

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which belong to “regular” form are ended with d or ed in the end of the words as they are used in a past simple or past participle. Example:

Infinitive Past simple Past participleWalk Walked WalkedPlay Played PlayedTalk Talked Talked

The usage of those verbs is simple. It does not need too hard recalling. However, as it was stated formerly that not every verb belongs to regular one. Some of them, which are inevitably more frequently used, constitute the “irregular” ones i.e. verbs whose extended forms cannot be formulated in terms of the ending d or ed since the forms they take must be varied one from another.Example:

Infinitive Past simple Past participleWrite Wrote WrittenSpeak Spoke SpokenRead Read Read

As it can be seen from the table, irregular verb has no precise form when it is used in past simple or past participle. Consequently, there is no way but to learn them all by heart so as to know exactly the forms of the verbs respectively especially as they are used in past simple or past participle.

The second group of verbs, in terms of their function, is auxiliary verbs or sometimes they are named helping verbs. Auxiliary verb has a function to express a wide range of meanings (ability, permission, possibility, necessity, etc.) and most auxiliaries have more than one meaning (Azar 1992; 94). In addition, Krohn (1971:109) points out that most modal auxiliaries do not change their form for person or number i.e. auxiliaries mentioned in the box below. That is, there is no –s form for the third person singular – excluding do, be, have. The normal position for the modal in a

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sentence is after the subject and before the rest of the sentence except in question forms.Will future time ………………(be going to)Can ability …………………...(be able to)May permission………………(be permitted to, have

permission to) Might possibility………………..(It is possible that…..)Should obligation………………...(ought to)

DesirabilityMust inference…………………(I conclude that…..)Must Conclusion

Probability………………..(It is very probable that….)Necessity………………….(have to)

(See Rober Krohn’s: English sentence structure)The auxiliary verbs can be changed to different form as shown in the right brackets with only little varied in meaning.Example:

The teachers will teach outside the classroom.It can be changed into

The teachers is going to teach outside the classroom, The students may leave the school earlier

It can be changed into The students are permitted / have permission to leave the

school earlier, and so forth. Having been familiar with the sentence structure of English and its verb forms and classification, the better understanding is hoped to be more easily gotten of the following discussion of Tenses.

2.1.2. Verbs in Relation to Tenses Principally, the extended forms of verbs in English can be sorted out into present form, past form, present participle and past participle. Those verb forms are the ones applied in Tenses usage in accordance with a certain form of the Tenses itself which are used within sentences. Concerning with the verb forms, the divergence as well as the meaning relating to the forms should be known well.

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Yet, the category of the verb formations seems to be a little bit perplexing for the reason that there are a number of verbs having identical forms especially in the past simple form and in the past participle. Moreover, there are also several verbs which only describe a mental state which, in consequence, makes them implausible to be transformed into a progressive form. To know better about this, it is advisable to consult grammar books. Nevertheless, this problematical issue must not be regarded as a confusing matter for the grouping of verb-formation looks neither misleading nor confusing. According to Hayden, et.al. (1956:59) the principal forms of verb used in the construction of simple present, simple past, the progressive Tenses, and perfect Tenses are the simple form, the past form, the present participle as well as the past participle respectively. To see what the form of verbs depicted based on the above category then it is likely to be worthwhile for us to see the following illustration containing the verb write. The simple form of the verb is write, which is as the same as prior-mentioned, while its past form is wrote, for its past participle form is written, and lastly for its present progressive form is writing. The verb forms comprising past participle and present participle forms are frequently used as an adjective which both of them have variance in meaning. The past participle form is used to designate that a noun being modified is in a passive state, i.e. it is under control of a particular variable / action. Conversely, the present participle form is utilized to show that a noun being modified is in active state. In other words, it brings out an action in accordance with the verb used as an adjective in a form of present participle. To make the explanation clearer, consider the following phrases containing both past participle (stolen) in the first phrase and present participle (stealing) subsequently. A stolen robot; the phrase refers to a robot which has been stolen by a burglar or anyone, for instance, from one place, although its definite function

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is still unknown, meanwhile, a stealing robot refers to a robot that is capable of stealing something. Thus, the function of the robot is to steal things from people.

Pertaining to the use of verb in all Tenses, which will be clarified one by one subsequently, the four verb categories are always used in relation to the form of tense being applied. The first one, that is the simple form, is always used with simple present tense, but light conversions of the verb are made particularly when it is used with a subject called third person singular. The other conversion is employed to the verb be which is converted also in relation to the subject of a sentence. Some other auxiliaries, however, do not include any alteration at all. To exemplify the above details, the given example is bestowed below:

VERB SUBJECTSingular Plural

Walk

Be

I walkYou walkHe walksShe walksIt walks

I amYou areHe, she, it is

They walkYou walkWe walk

They areYou areWe are

Notice the conversions of the verb used with subject containing third person singular (he, she, it) as well as the changes of the verb be in account to each subject. Another used of simple verb form in relation to Tenses can be found in simple future tense where both of the modal auxiliary, commonly composed of the auxiliary will (sometimes shall), and the verb follows it must in the form of bare infinitive (infinitive without to). For example: I will go, they will go, we will go, you will go, he/she/it will go. Secondly, the past form of verb, whatever the form might be, is the same for all subjects either plural or singular. However,

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the verb be is an exception now that the verb has its own form referring to the subject it follows. Most of verbs are converted from simple form (infinitive) to past form simply by adding d or ed, except those which have no regular formation, and the verbs that belong to the latter are named irregular verb. Referring to the irregular verbs, the memorization to know exactly what form they take in the past or past participle form is crucial. For regular verb, on the other hand, the verb is simply attached with d or ed in the end of the word itself to form its past or past participle form. The rule of formation can be illustrated as the following:

The first one, we simply add d to the end of words when the simple form (infinitive) ends in e or ee. For example: commence is converted to be commenced; agree becomes agreed; divide becomes divided; and free becomes freed.

The second one, ending ed is added to other verbs out of above criterion, often the following alterations crop up in relation to the spelling of the simple form. Words ended in y, preceded by a consonant (in other words, the letter y is used as vocal), is changed to i before it is added ed. For example: study becomes studied, cry becomes cried, try becomes tried, and empty becomes emptied. However, this is not always solely the case especially when the letter y in the end of a word is used as a consonant such as buy, convey, stay and so forth.

The third one, the final consonant letter (except h, w, x, y), preceded by a single vowel letter, is doubled in words accented on the last syllable. For example permit is transformed into permitted, and occur becomes occurred. But for the words attempt (ends in three consonant letters or it is usually known as consonant clusters) becomes attempted. And gather (accent on first syllable) becomes gathered.

Those are the categorization on the subject of the configuration of regular verb given regarding to the regular verb formation. However, it does not include all the way of the system to

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form the accepted regular verb in English language. There is no such the best suggestion but to consult over and over again to a numerous grammar books available. The subsequent elucidation refers to the use of verb form in terms of past participle that is frequently applied to perfect Tenses. According to Hayden, et.al (1956:62) the perfect tense constitutes verb phrase which is composed with the auxiliary have + the past participle for the main verb of a sentence. There are many Tenses which are composed with the combination of perfect tense either present, past or future. Along with the present Tenses, the perfect tense is found in present perfect and present perfect progressive. Along with the past Tenses, the perfect tense is found in the past form of both of the Tenses as aforementioned namely past perfect and past perfect progressive. Many varieties of perfect tense are also found in combination with future Tenses including future simple and past future. In future simple, for instance, the combination with perfect tense is connected with the use of future perfect tense and future perfect continuous tense, whereas in the past future, it is connected with past future perfect as well as past future perfect progressive. The past participle of verbs are mostly as the same as the past form of verbs

with the exception of some of the irregular ones; consider the following example to

make the explanation more apprehending pertaining to the usage of past participle

form of verb combined with perfect tense such as:

The past form of verbs The past participle form of verbs I waited for you at the stall

yesterday She worked all day long last

week We studied Math just now They talked about her

yesterday I visited the library two days

I have waited for an hour We have worked hard You have studied the lesson They have already talked

about the issue He has not visited his brother

yet

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ago He accomplished the task last

month

She has not accomplished the task

Some other examples with other Tenses include:She had gone before we arrived (had + Past participle)We will have lived (will have + past participle).

The last form of verbs in refering to the usage of Tenses is the present participle (-ing form). Present participle is composed of the auxiliary be + V1 + ing of the main verb of either regular or irregular ones. There are several criteria to alter the spelling of verbs when they are added –ing to the simplest form of the verb namely as follows:1. A final e letter in the end of a word that is not pronounced is

dropped. For example: write becomes writing, take becomes taking, argue becomes arguing and so on. But for words with the final ee is retained. For instance: agree becomes agreeing, and free becomes freeing.

2. A final consonant letter (except h, w, x, y), preceded by a single vowel letter, is doubled in words of one syllable. For example: beg becomes begging, stop becomes stopping. But for fix (ends in x) becomes fixing, and greet (two vowel letters before consonant) becomes greeting.

3. A final consonant letter (except h, w, x, y), preceded by a single vowel letter, is doubled in words accented on the last syllable. For instance: begin becomes beginning and permit becomes permitting. But for suffer (stress on the first syllable) becomes suffering.

4. A few verbs end in ie. The ie in some of these verbs changes to y when the –ing ending is added. For example: die becomes dying, and lie becomes lying (Hayden et al. 1956:63).

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In sum, the present participle (-ing form) is the form used in progressive Tenses of either present, past, future, or even past future.

2.2. English Sentence StructureBasically, all of us have already known well that a

combination of words can be named a sentence if it consists of at least one word as a subject (noun phrase) and another one word as a predicate (verb phrase). It is as the same as Palmer’s concept of sentence. He points out:

A traditional view (and one that is implicit in much of modern theoretical linguistics) divides the sentence into two parts, subject and predicate. Thus in the sentence below the boy is the subject and chased the dog is the predicate.

The boy chased the dog.The subject is notionally “what is being talked about” and the predicate ‘what is being said about it’ (Palmer 1998:2)Another concept of sentence structure is given by a

distinguished linguist, Noam Chomsky. To a simple extent, he mentions a view of theoretical linguistics concerning a sentence structure where the first rule is

S NP+VP (Chomsky 1957:26) This states that the sentence consists of a noun phrase and a verb phrase, which correspond closely to Palmer’s view of traditional grammar involving the subject-predicate aspect. For that reason, it can be stated again that a combination of words can be labeled a sentence if it covers at last two words which one of them stands for a subject position (NP) and the other stands for predicate position (VP) although it is not obviously illustrated whether the a verb is referred to ‘intransitive’ or ‘transitive’.

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Relating to the above discussion, transitive verb can be defined as verbs that can be understood well if they are followed with object. Intransitive, on the other hand, is verbs that do not require objects to make the meaning intelligible. The verbs that belong to intransitive are often said to be verbs which need no object.

e.g. Intransitive sentencesThe man cried,The woman laughed,The dog died.

Transitive sentencesThe boy played football,The girls ate the cake,The cat climbed the tree.

Not all languages can be drawn for the similar rule, though, as the abovementioned, for not all subjects are placed preceded the predicate. There must be different rules in different languages but since they are not the concern here, we will overlook to discuss them all.

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3. English Tenses3.1. Introduction to the Usage of Tenses

Before setting off for the parts on verb of Tenses, the students should be certain at the first stage that they do not perplex the term tense and time. It seems necessary to clarify again here in more detail, although it has been bestowed above in different section, concerning the difference between time and tense in which the two should never be thought similar. One of the definitions dealing with the distinction of Time and Tense is given by Hornby (1975). The same concept is also stated by Hayden together with Pilgrim and Haggard. According to them Tense refers to the form of the verb used; for example, he goes (simple present), he went (simple past), he has gone (present perfect) etc. on the other hand, time is not a grammatical structure; time is a concept that exists in the mind of the speaker (Hayden et.al, 1956:71). Hence, when we talk about an activity or any other occasions to another person, we have clear idea in our mind about the time when the activity or the occasion takes place. It so happens because there is a correlation between what we are talking and the sentence being used to transmit our message to our interlocutors. However, it is important to note that the correlation is not merely in time but something more abstract that cannot be explained clearly as has been noted before. Accordingly, Time and Tense must not be considered alike.

Basically, Time and Tense are different in the essence since one Tense occasionally point toward more than just one particular time. Even sometimes some of the Tenses do not refer to the exact time as they should do in reference to the pattern used. Now consider the following sentence to make clear depiction of what the difference is about.

“John leaves for Melbourne next Monday.” The sentence contains present simple which is usually asserted as a tense referring to the repeated time as habitual action or the like.

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But obviously the condition is absent as it neither refers to habitual nor general truth as the Tense should cover. Instead the sentence refers to an activity that will happen in the future or it refers to future action not the habitual action. Another accentuation to differentiate between Tense and Time is clearly demonstrated in the use of conditional sentence. It has been commonly stated that conditional sentence is more related to state of affair or special condition being talked rather than focusing itself on the time of the situation. Accordingly, it is important to take into account that the Time does not match with the Tense used in conditional sentences as it should do in the regular use.

e.g. John would fly to New York for vacation today if he were not sick.

The tense above does not refer to the action happened in the past time, as it is shown with the use of the two past tenses, in fact it refers to the present time which does not fulfill the condition being wanted.

In short, Tenses refer to the verb forms which indicate time of the action mentioned. In English there are sixteen Tenses altogether. In this draft all the sixteen Tenses will be clarified using patterns / formula to make them more intelligible; most of the patterns are made based on lots of grammar books as mentioned in the reference.

3.2. Simple Present TenseWe use present simple to talk about thing in general

circumstances. Hence, it happens repeatedly either in the past, present, or most likely to continue in the future. Hence, we are not thinking only about a time while we are speaking at the moment. Present simple can also indicate the speaker believes that a fact was true before, is true now, and will still be true in the future. It is

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not necessary whether the speaker is correct about the fact. It is also used to make generalizations about people or thing (Lado, 1986:2).

Further function of present simple is to express daily or habitual activities as well as eternal truth. According to Allen in his book Living English Structure the simple present tense is used to express eternal truth; it has the least definite time aspect, as it frequently includes past, present, future (Allen, 1974:75). The use of present simple refers to the timeless activity, especially when it pertains to the eternal truth since it happens at anytime without any time span.

e.g. the Earth goes around the sun.

From the example stated above we can see at whatever time it takes place. It is seemingly that the earth will not defy to another rotation at any time. That is why it can be said that present simple has least definite time aspect as most of the activity conveyed using present simple is indefinite as to when it is brought to an end.

Another comprehensive principle pertaining to the use of present simple derives from Alter; he says that Present simple does not refer to present time alone. We can show actions in the past and future as well as it is to express habitual action or to state general truth. (Alter, 1992:36)

Sometimes speakers use present simple to tell that an action is going on or is not going on at the moment of speaking. It is possible to do it only when the sentence or the expression contains non-continuous verb such as: understand, remember, forget, etc. This is commonly known as non-progressive verbs and it will be discussed more detail in the present progressive tense section.

In addition, the illustration of present simple formula (as well as others Tenses formula subsequently) is also given in all sections regarding each tense usage in this draft in order to make the each tense elucidation more comprehensible.

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Verbs other than be have two forms in simple present tense, that is a simple form and –s form. The –s form is used with third person singular subjects (He, She, It, John, Mary, Book, etc). Otherwise, the simple form is used with other subjects such as they, we, I, and you. So, all sentences in simple present tense with subjects of either they, we I, you is followed with bare infinitive but for sentences of which third person singular (he, she, it) is the subject, the verb ought to be added with s or es which depends on the verb ending. The verbs which are usually followed with es are those ended with letter of either s, ch, x, z, o, etc. in the end of the verb-word.

To show the clear usage of the above role, notice the singular and plural

forms of the nouns and the forms of the verb.

SINGULAR / PLURAL

SUBJECT VERB ADVERBIAL

SingularSingularSingularSingular

PluralPluralPlural

IHe, She

ItYouWe

TheyYou

StudyWorksSleeps

EatPractice

SingRead

Every nightEvery dayEvery morningEvery dayEvery afternoonEvery nightEvery morning

Some additional examples that include affirmative, negative and interrogative sentences in simple present tense are as follow:

The affirmative ones: Sun rises in the east and sets in the west. We go to dentist twice a month.

The negative ones: Ann does not drink tea very often. We do not play football every week.

The interrogative ones: Do you go shopping everyday? Do you play basketball every afternoon?

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Further example with verb be in simple present tense that includes the affirmative, negative, as well as interrogative sentences are as follows:

The affirmative ones: The hat is red. The cat is hungry. The man is a teacher. She is my wife. The rose is beautiful

The negative ones: John is not happy. Max is not a student anymore.

The interrogative ones: Is Mary sick? Are they bored?

Present simple is often used with adverb of frequency as well. The following adverbs of frequency are placed in the present simple sentences as the example. Notice the position of the adverbs in the sentences below and compare their meanings:

SUBJECT ADVERB OF FREQUENCY

MAIN VERB ADVERB OF TIME

JohnMaryBobBillAliceTom

AlwaysUsuallyOftenSometimesSeldomNever

Studies StudiesStudiesStudiesStudiesStudies

At night.At night.At night.At night.At night.At night.

The illumination of all the adverb of frequency below is in a line with the criteria the is set after each of them, i.e. always means all of the time, usually means most of the time, often means much of the time, sometimes means some of the time, seldom means almost never, whereas never means not at any time.

The position of adverb of frequency always with the following verbs (study and be) describes its difference in usage respectively as it is applied with the two verbs. The difference can also be

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generalized as to using the other adverbs of frequency with the equal different types of verbs.

The use of adverb of frequency with a verb other than be.

SUBJECT ADVERB OF FREQUENCY

MAIN VERB ADVERB OF TIME

John always studies at night

The use of adverb of frequency with verb of be.

SUBJECT BE ADVERB OF FREQUENCY

ADJECTIVE

Mary is always busy

In the first table, the adverb of frequency comes before the main verb of a sentence. On the contrary, the adverb of frequency comes after forms of be (am, is, are, etc) in the succeeding table.

The adverbial phrases, which are frequently used in present simple are: always, usually, often, frequently, sometimes, everyday, every night, every morning, every week, generally, twice a week, once a week, rarely, seldom, never, and so forth. Present simple can also be used to express future time when events stated are in restricted schedule or happen in specific time. Nonetheless, not solely all verbs which are commonly used in the present simple can also be used to express future time. Some of the following verbs are much more common in comparison with other verbs for use to indicate future time in present simple without including future tense aspect: to leave, to arrive, to begin, to start, to end, to finish, to open, to close, be. e.g. The plane leaves at 8 a.m. next Monday.

We start taking new course next month. The Bank closes at 1 p.m. tomorrow. There is a discussion about politic of this country on TV tonight.

The exemplifying sentences above express an occasion which neither habitual activity nor eternal truth, which are usually noted

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as the common functions of present simple. Still, the future activities are being told regardless the common functions of the tense.

3.3. Present Continuous TensePresent continuous tense, or as it is sometimes called present

progressive tense, expresses an activity which is still in progress at the moment of speaking. It began in the recent past, is continuing at present, and probably ends at some point in the future (Azar, 1989:11). Another elucidation of the present continuous tense is offered by Hall. According to him, the action in the present progressive tense is taking place at the same time that it is being talked about. In other words, it is contemporary or simultaneous with the utterance (Hall, 1992:164).

In dealing with the propositions stated above, this Tense type is generally used to express an action or activity which is carried out in the period of speaking, though it is not compulsory that it takes place precisely in the time of speaking. The other function of present continuous tense which has not yet been mentioned is to express an activity that is likely to take place in the future. This latter function will be explained in more detail successively.

The following illustration shows the difference between the use of simple present tense and present continuous tense.

PAST TIME PRESENT FUTURE SIMPLE PRESENT write write write write write write write

yesterday…………today…………tomorrow

PRESENT PROGRESSIVE NOW to be (am) writing……………………

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In accordance with illustration above, the present simple is used to indicate a repeated, habitual, or customary action or event. Therefore, it continuously happens in the past, present, and future time. Nevertheless, the present continuous, which is made with a form of be and the –ing form in the end of verb, indicates the action or event which is actually in progress at the present moment and is likely to terminate at any time. In addition, the action or event is not related to any past occurrence.

This present continuous tense is formed with be + present participle or it is also more known as an –ing form. The use of the verb be of either is, am, or are must fit the subject of a sentence. Some examples of present continuous tense including its use in affirmative, negative as well as interrogative sentences are:

(+) We are watering the flowers now. (+) *Harry is reading novel at present. (-) I am not doing anything at this moment. (-) She is not sleeping now. (?) Is he working in the office today? (?) *Are you taking an English course this month?

The common adverbial phrases which are frequently used to indicate present continuous tense are: now, still, at present, at this moment, etc. Yet, as stated in the above examples with the asterisk, the action in present continuous tense is not necessary to take place precisely in the time of speaking. To make it clear, notice the conversation below which takes place in a café when both Tom and Ann are having lunch together. Tom says to Mary: “I am reading an interesting book now. I can lend you when I finish reading it.” (Murphy, 1994:2) In the statement, it is quite obvious that Tom is not reading the book while he is having dinner in the café with Ann. It is only to show that he is in the period of reading the book. What

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he means to say, instead, is to tell her that he has started reading the book but not finished it yet. He is in the process of reading it. Regarding the other function of present continuous tense which is to tell an action or event that will happen in the future, some examples are also provided below so as to make it clearer.

I am leaving for London tomorrow morning. She is going to the party tonight. We are conducting the duty of English study next moth.

In some cases, present continuous tense is used to tell future activity when the sentence itself concerns with following the features, namely: a definite plan, a definite intention, a definite future activity either indicated by adverbial of time of future tense or implied by the context of the sentence.

e.g.: I am staying home tonightis as the same asI am going to stay home tonight.

In another case, sometimes a speaker uses the present

progressive tense as future activity when he or she wants to make the statement very strong or emphatic.

e.g.: I am flying to London next week; I have made up my mind. There is nobody -whoever they are- can stop me, that is it. I don’t want to talk about it anymore. Nonetheless, there are some of verbs in English cannot be applied for progressive tense, which are usually named non-progressive verb. Thus, Instead of expressing activities or action that are in progress, the non-progressive verbs are more likely used to express condition or state of something.

e.g.: John understands English grammar well. * John is understanding English grammar well.

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The first sentence above describes a mental state of John’s of being understand something. It does not signify any activity at all, while the second similar sentence with the asterisk is not possible English sentence and always considered ungrammatical. To shed light on the difference, compare the sentence above with sentence below.

e.g.: Kim is writing a letter now. The latter tells that Kim is in the middle of doing something,

undoubtedly the verb to write entails the activity of writing. Hence, the use of present continuous tense indicates that she is in the progress of her writing activity. The progressive sentence is used with verbs like to take, to eat, to write, to read, and so forth all of which indicate the completion of a certain activity, whereas it is not used with the verbs like to understand, to know, etc which all does not signify action or activity.

There are some non-progressive verbs listed below, with some of them can also be used in progressive tense which surely entails different meaning from their use in the non-progressive one including to think, to have, to taste, to smell, to feel, to see, to look, to appear, to weigh, and to be. The difference simply refers to the existing state for non-progressive usage and an activity which is in progress for progressive usage.

COMMON NON-PROGRESSIVE VERBS IN ENGLISHMENTAL STATE

know, believe, imagine, want, realize, feel, doubt, need, understand, suppose, remember, prefer, recognize, think, forget, mean.

EMOTIONAL STATElove, hate, fear, mind, like, dislike, envy, care, appreciate.

POSSESSIONpossess, have, own, and belong.

SENSE PERCEPTIONtaste, hear, see, smell, and feel.

OTHER EXISTING STATE

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seem, cost, be, consist of, look, owe, exist, contain, appear, weigh, include.

(see Azar)The comparison of the following example will make the

difference even clearer.e.g.: I think she is a good girl (mental state).

I am thinking about my future (activity in progress). He has a lot of money (existing state for possession). She is having a private discussion with him (activity in

progress).

Still in the present progressive tense, it is also possible to insert an adverb of place between be and present participle of the sentence.

e.g.: William is in his room sleeping. Sally was in bed reading a magazine when I entered.

3.4. Present Perfect Tense Instantaneously, this section is to pertain with the usage of present perfect tense in which all is interrelated with the following criteria. When we talked about something that occurred in the past, and we do not specify precisely when it happened though for the reasons that we do not know or it is less important to say when it took place, then present perfect tense is used (Hewings, 1999:6). Similarly, present perfect is used to express the completion or ‘perfection’ of an action by now. Therefore it is, to some extent, a kind of present tense, because we are not interested in when the action took place, we are only interested in present state of completion; i.e. its effect now (Allen, 1974:78). Accordingly, as we use present perfect tense, we mean to talk about an action which took place at unspecified time before now, yet we are usually more interested in the result of the action rather than in the action itself

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(Allsop, 1989:159). In sum, the Tense is used to notify an action or event which has been already completed and whose result still affects the present condition.

Time Signal of Present Perfect Tense

Present perfect tense is constructed with have or has after subject and followed with past participle. Have is used for a sentence where the subject is either of they, we, I, or you. Whereas, has is used for subject of either he, she, or it i.e. the so-called third person singular.

e.g.: John has talked to Bill twice this week. Max has bought four new books this month. We have answered two questions today.

The example above illustrates that the events have initiated before the moment of speaking. However, it prolongs up to the present moments such as today, this week, and this month. Thus, preset perfect tense is used. In other words, it is used whenever a speaker whishes to indicate that the event is relevant or is still related to the present moment.

The example also shows that the adverb of time today, this week, and this month all refer to the present time to each particular context. The adverb of time indicating past time such as yesterday,

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The Action

FUTURETIMEPAST TIME

PRESENT TIME

Moment of Speaking


last night, a minute ago, etc, cannot be used with present perfect. Therefore, the following sentence is grammatically improper.

*I have opened the window a minute ago. By contrast, although the stated activity terminates not long before the utterance, still this sentence refers to PAST TIME activity since there is no relation between the activity that the speaker did a minute before with the activity he is doing as he is reporting it. Therefore, in referring to the expression past tense is used instead of present perfect tense.

I opened the window a minute ago (and now I am reading a book).Some additional examples of the present perfect which cover

its use in affirmative, negative, and interrogative sentence are as the following:

(+) They have ever gone to Jakarta.(+) Susan has met her sister already. (-) They have not taken English course yet. (-) We have not had breakfast yet. (?) Have you ever been to Singapore? (?) Has she lived here already? The common adverbial phrases which are frequently used

in present perfect tense are: since, during, recently, never, lately, already, for, just, ever, not yet, up to now, etc. In contrast with past tense, which denotes completely the completed past time occasions, this present perfect tense expresses indefinite time that begins in the past and extends to the present. It is special of past time that ends with the moment of speaking. An event may continue beyond the present moment of speaking, but the statement is not concerned with this segment of time (Frank, 1972:78). Another function of present perfect tense is almost similar to the present perfect progressive (see following topic), that is to express the duration refers to past-to-present time span.

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e.g.: I have lived in Chicago for three years.I have lived in Chicago since 2004.

Regarding to the above examples, the use of For, in the tense, expresses the extended time expressed as quantity, often with numeral, and Since, also in the tense, expresses the beginning point of an extended period which is sometimes expressed as a date (Frank, 1972:79).

3.5 Present Perfect Continuous To know evidently in terms of the use of present perfect continuous tense, let us consider to the following quotations thoroughly. The first one is stated by Azar, she says that this kind of tense is used to be a sign concerning the duration of an activity that commenced in the past and continues up to the present moment. When the tense signifies this meaning, it is used with time words such as for, since, all morning, all day, all week (Azar, 1989:36). The second notion illustrates that present perfect continuous tense is applied when we are talking about something which began but did not necessarily finish in the period between before now and now. In particular, we are interested in the process of the action (Allsop, 1989:160). The third one says that present perfect continuous tense emphasizes the continuity of an action that has not been interrupted at all. It is often used with a time expression (Alter, 1992:48). In short, all of the elucidations stated above is similar in the essence, that is to say that the tense is used to convey that an action took place in the past and it is still continuing up to the present moment of speaking and possibly will be proceeding in the future.

The use of the present perfect progressive is illustrated below.Have + participle

To be + Present participle

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1) George has studied.

2) + George is studying.

3) George has been studying.


Have + been + present

participle

The first sentence states that George has started to study (present perfect tense) and that his activity is still relevant to the present activity, which means that he is still studying now. This activity of the second sentence is depicted by the use of present progressive tense. Sentence 3 as the summary of the two relevant activities of both the first and second sentences states that George’s studying began in the past and is still continuing up to the present and that is dealing with the use of present perfect continuous tense i.e. the fact that this studying continues or is in progress up to the present time emphasized.

This sentence is composed with additional have or has after the subject of the sentence and followed directly with been + present participle. Some additional examples in sentences are as the following.

e.g.: (+) They have been reading the newspaper all morning. (+) We have been studying English more than six years. (-) He has not been living here for long. (-) I have not been working for a month. (?) Have you been discussing the problem for a week? (?) Have you been watching television all day?

The adverbial phrases which are usually used in present progressive tense are almost the same as present perfect tense, namely: since, during, for, etc.

3.6 Simple Past Tense Several explanations of the simple usage of this kind of tense are stated as follows: Simple past tense is used to refer to a completed action or condition in the past, it is also used to refer to

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an action or condition that was habitual or repeated in the past (Furrey and Menasche, 1992:16). From Furrey and Menasches’s statement above we are clearly exemplified that past simple is used to express any occasions which happened in the past, though they were what someone habitually carried out. However, it is important to note that the habit itself or whatever it might be called must take place in the past as it is indicated with the use of simple past tense.

Another explanation is given by Allsop, he states that in using of simple past tense we see a completed act one which began in the past and ended before now (Allsop, 1992:54). Thus, as English native speaker uses past tense in conveying their mean, it indicates that a definite past time is being discussed which means that the thing denoted completed before the present moment and the completion has no particular effect to present circumstance. However, it is worth committing to memory simple past in English is not as specific as the past in some other languages as to whether the action took over a long or short period of time, or whether it was a single or repeated action (Hall, 1992:172). To summarize, this simple past tense is used to indicate an action or activity which was done completely in the past time and has no relation to present occurrence.

Time Signal in past simple

Past tense is constructed using past form of verbs after the subject of a sentence. The following examples are presented to

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The moment of Speaking

The action

PAST TIME FUTURE TIME


differentiate between present tense and past tense. Note the differences from the verb-forms and time signals.

I study English everyday. (simple present tense)John studied English yesterday. (simple past tense)At the first sentence-example, the expression indicates that

the action (study) occurs as habitual action. So the action recurs over a period of time at either past, present, or future. In the second sentence-example, on the other hand, the expression indicates that the action was completed before the moment of speaking. The adverb of time yesterday, which is used in enlightening the sentence, indicates that the action has no relation with today’s activity.

The followings are some more examples of the tense usage in sentences.

e.g.: They had a lot of trouble this morning. The police arrested the thief yesterday. They did not come to work last week. I did not watch television last night. Did you play basketball yesterday? Was she sick last month?

The adverbial phrases which are frequently used to tell simple past are: yesterday, this afternoon, last night, this morning, a minute ago, etc.

3.7 Past Continuous Tense The use of past continuous is clearly concerned as there were two occasions in which one of them happened before another and was still in progress when the other took place. Surely, both of the occasions proposed necessarily took place in the past time. Thus, the use of past continuous tense came about at the time of a past action, which is defined in relation to another action happening also in the past. The one of the two occasions set up as the background to the other is put into past continuous tense. We use it to show the

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time notion of the action as it was taking place, but we are not interested in its completion. Therefore, past continuous is the tense for use to indicate wherever the action was in the progress in the particular period in the past. It can also be said to be alike to present continuous but merely distinct in the matter of time.

Further stance in terms of the usage of the tense itself is cited by Murphy. According to him we use past continuous tense to say that somebody was in the middle of doing something at certain time in the past. The action or occurrence had already started before a certain time in the past but had not finished (Murphy, 1998:12). He further states that we often use the past simple and the past continuous together to say that something happened in the middle of something else. In sum, this tense is used to express an action or event that was happening in a particular time in the past.

Time signal of past progressive tense

Past continuous tense is constructed with was or were after the subject of a sentence, then followed with present participle. Was is used with third person singular, otherwise, Were is used with subjects of either they, we, I, or you.

e.g.: While they were doing some shopping, a beggar asked them for money.

She was studying Physics yesterday when you arrived. I saw Jane having breakfast this morning while I was waiting

for you.

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Past continuous

Past tense

PRESENT FUTURE TIMEPAST TIME


The underlined phrases of the example above show that someone was in the middle of doing something while they encountered other events or actions which also happened in the past time.

Some additional examples concerning with the use of the tense are as the following:

Susan was sleeping as I came to her house. I was having my lunch while you broke the glass. Mark was not singing as you entered the room. Brian was not studying when the lamp went out. Were they going out when you phoned them? Was Ronald watching TV while someone called him?

Adverbial phrases which are frequently used in past progressive tense are: at (time), when, while, as, and so forth.

3.8 Past Perfect Tense Straightforwardly, we use past perfect tense in reference to one of two actions which had necessarily been completed ahead of the other action, and both of the two actions happened in the past. The concept presented is as the same as what Azar mentions in terms of the tense usage. Past perfect tense expresses an activity that was completed before another activity or time in the past (Azar, 1989:39). In addition, we can also trace back to Allsop’s account. We use past perfect tense when we want to make it clear that action A took place in a time before and separate from the time when action B took place (Allsop 1992:161).

Time Signal of Past Perfect Tense

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Past perfect is constructed with had + past participle. For example: After we had worked all day, we stopped for a rest. Before you went home, I had already waited for you. As soon as you had finished studying we went to the concert.

Three of the sentences contain both of past perfect and past tense. The underlined verbs indicate that the action had happened before the other one, they are called past perfect tense as the reason mentioned above. Both of the events (past perfect and past tense) must happen in the past time which has no relation with the present activity.

Some examples in sentences are provided to make the use of the tense even clearer, such as:

(+) After I had already studied English, I began to study in the University.

(+) After she had slept last night, she went out. (-) Arthur had not studied the lesson before he did the lesson. (-) We had not had dinner before we went to sleep. (?) Had you finished doing your homework before you went to

school yesterday? (?) Had not they prepared it before they left?

The adverbial phrases which are usually used in past perfect tense are: already, after, before, and so forth.

3.9. Past Perfect Continuous Tense

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PAST PERFECT

NOW

PAST TENSE

FUTURE


To pertain to the use of the past perfect continuous tense, I hereby quoted Hewing’s words extensively for conferring lucid designation as to when and why we use the tense. In accordance with his view we use past perfect continuous to talk about an activity that happened over a period up to particular past time, or until shortly before it (Hewings, 1999:20). Alternatively, we use the tense when we talk about the continuity or duration of a situation or activity in the past time; that is to say that we use this tense to describe an activity that had been going on in the past before another and was still in progress (Allsop, 1989:60).

Time signal of past perfect progressive

Past perfect progressive tense is made by adding had + been + present participle after the subject of a sentence. e.g.: He was wet because he had been swimming.

I was tired although I had just been resting. I had been living in California for two years three months ago.

3.10 Simple Future Tense The use of the future tense can be taken with the allusion to Alter’s. He affirms we use simple future tense to show future actions which are usually unplanned in advanced (Alter, 1992:70). Further enlightenment of the tense usage is provided by Allen in relation with the auxiliaries used to tell future simple. He posits the different meanings of the future simple in referring to the auxiliaries commonly used; namely shall and will. He mentions that the auxiliary shall correlates with the meaning of command,

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Past perfect continuous

FUTUREPAST PRESENT


compulsion, or obligation; while the auxiliary will means want or wish (Allen, 1974:125).

Time signal of simple future

Simple future tense is constructed by adding auxiliary will or shall after subject in a sentence and followed by bare infinitive.

e.g.: We shall travel by train tomorrow morning. I shall finish my booklet next month. They will come to see us tonight.

In the examples above, all sentences indicate future time in which the actions do not take place in the period of speaking. In other words, the actions mentioned refer to the future accomplishment. The verb shall is used only with subjects I and we. See both sentence 1 and 2; whereas, will can be used for all subjects.

Some additional examples about the use of simple future tense are as follows:

Daniel will visit my parents next week. I will go to Australia next year. I will not watch television tonight. Jeremy will not come tomorrow. Will you read the book tonight? Shall we go to Surabaya by bus?

The adverbial phrases which are often used in future simple are: tomorrow, next week (month, year, etc), tonight, two more days, etc.

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Future tense

Present time


Apart from using will or shall to express future tense, we can also use be going to and be about to to tell future simple. Be going to and will are the same when they are used to make predictions about the future. To tell an action or occasion that hasn’t happened in the time of speaking, but it is probably coming to be real in the future time. e.g.: Jane is going to be successful person because she always

studies hard everyday. Jane will be successful person because she always studies hard everyday.

Both of the sentences have the same meaning; namely to mention the prediction about Jane’s fate in the future. Be going to; however, can not be used when the speaker is going to express willingness or volunteer. Here, will is used. e.g.: This luggage seems too heavy for you to carry alone. I’ll help

you to carry them all. In the expression the speaker is willing to give a hand.

Similarly will; however, cannot be used to express a preconceived plan, here be going to is preferred. e.g.: I sold my old computer because I am going to buy a new one.

From the statement, we can see that the speaker is planning to buy a new computer. Another form of future simple is expressed by using be about to to designate an activity which will happen after the present moment. Be about to expresses an activity that will happen in the immediate future, usually within five minutes (Azar, 1992:65).

e.g.: Ann’s bags are packed, and she is wearing her coat. She is about to leave for the airport. Please be quiet, the movie is about to begin.

Those contextualized events above are going to happen in the next few minutes even though the time-signals are not mentioned.

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3.11 Future Continuous Tense The future continuous / progressive expresses an activity that will be in progress at a certain time in the future. Sometimes there is little or no difference between the future progressive and the simple future, especially when the future will occur at an indefinite time in the future (Azar, 1989:51). When we use the future progressive tense, we immediately mean to talk about an action or activity that is in progress at a particular time in the future. Sometimes, there is no difference between the future simple and the future progressive but the time applied to make the use the tense in context; however, as the same tract as Azar’s statement, both of the tenses are quite hard to distinguish one from another whilst the time of the activity is indefinite.

e.g.: Don’t get impatient, she will be coming soon, and Don’t get impatient, she will come soon.Time signal of future progressive tense

3.12 Future Perfect Tense According to Hayden et.al, future perfect expresses activities that exist or occur before another activity or point of time in the future (Hayden, et.al, 1956:95). More complete explanation dealing with future perfect tense is granted by Frank, he says that in general future perfect tense may be characterized as future-before-future time. This kind of tense emphasizes the fact that one future time is completed before another future time or, to put it another way, that one future time is past in relation to a second future time. Normally, the event marked by the future perfect tense actually

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PAST PRESENT FUTURE

Future progressive


begins in the past and terminates in the future; we may then speak of past-to-future time (Frank, 1972:85).

Time signal of future perfect tense

Future perfect tense is constructed by adding shall or will after the subject of sentence + have + past participle.e.g.: I will already have studied when they visit me.

I will have graduated from this University by the end of this year.

The farmer will have harvested their crops when this season ends.

The students will have studied in Senior High School by the end of this month.

The above sentential examples point toward the completion of an activity or occasion before another activity in the future or by the coming of particular time in the future.

3.13 Future Perfect Continuous Tense I simply mean to mention two elucidations interconnected with the use of the tense, the first one is granted by Azar who posits that the use of the future perfect continuous / progressive emphasizes the duration of an activity that will be in progress before another time or event in the future (Azar, 1989:53). Secondly, future perfect progressive expresses activities similar to those in the future perfect tense but emphasis their continuous nature (Hayden, et.al, 1956:95). Both of the elucidations share the common sense of the

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PAST PRESENT FUTURE

future perfect


use linked to the tense being discussed here, though the clarifications are seemingly disconnected.

Time signal of future perfect progressive

This kind of tense is constructed by adding shall or will + have + been + present participle.

e.g.: I will have been playing football for two hours by the time my friends come.

John will have been living in this town for six years by the end of this year.

Luna will have been conducting the research for two weeks when this semester ends for the next one.The above activities will have been in a particular period or

duration before another. To add, the cogent difference of present perfect progressive with present perfect tense is the activities expressed using present perfect continuous tense seem to continue subsequently.

3.14 Past Future Tense Past future tense is mainly known as having two functions; the first one is to express an action that would be accomplished in the past time. The second one is for the use in conditional sentence type two. The functions are discussed one by one in this subtopic.

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PAST

PRESENT

FUTURE

Future perfect progressive


Past future tense is constructed by adding would or should as the past form of auxiliary will and shall, and then followed by bare infinitive. To make it apparently understandable, the functions of the tense are provided from some quotation from Krohn and Simanjuntak.

According to Simanjuntak (2003:44) past future tense is past form of future simple, that is, it expresses an action or event which was going to be performed in the past time. e.g.: Jane would buy a car the previous day.

I thought that they would go to Bali.Past future tense is also used to describe a hypothetical

situation, one that is contrary to the real facts of the present, or unlikely to occur in the future (Krohn, 1986:257).

e.g.: He would buy a car if he had enough money. It implies that he will not buy a car as he has not enough money. If she knew the fact, she would tell you. It implies that she doesn’t know about the fact so she doesn’t tell you anything about it.

3.15 Past Future Continuous Tense In accordance with Hartanto’s concept, past future continuous or progressive is expressed as the past form of present future progressive tense, that is to indicate that an action was about to be accomplished in a certain time in the past (Hartanto, et.al, 1996:262).

This kind of tense is constructed by adding would or should + be + present participle. e.g.: I should be taking an examination at this time last week.

Stephanie would be working in the factory at this moment yesterday.

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3.16 Past Future Perfect Tense To make the use of the past future perfect, the following explanation cited by Krohn seems to be valuable to take into account; he points out that past future perfect is used to describe a hypothetical situation of past time, one which did not occur (Krohn, 1986:257).

Past future perfect tense is constructed by adding would or should + have + past participle.e.g.: I should have gone to Malang if I had had a car.

It means that I did not go to Malang for I did not have a car. Tom would have visited her if she had been at home. It means that Tom did not visit her as she was not at home.

3.17 Past Future Perfect ContinuousAlluding to Hartanto’s idea in relation with the use of the past

future continuous / progressive, we can find its use as the past form of future perfect progressive, that is, it expresses an action or activity that would be in progress before another time in the past (Hartanto, et.al 1996:264).

This tense is formed by adding would or should after the subject of sentence, then it is followed by have + been + present participle. e.g.: By last summer I should have been living in this town for four

years. By the end of this month last semester, Kathryn would have been studying in University of Chicago for three years.In addition to the use it self, this tense can also be used in

conditional sentence to express an action of which was not completed in a certain time in the past. e.g.: Brian told me that he would have been playing football in that

time if it had not started to rain.By now, we all have grasped description about the usage of

“Tenses” with its manifestation also in “sentences” despite its complexity to discuss the all in detail due to its very big coverage as

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a part of English grammar. Therefore, it is not all adequate to mention up to their molecular facet totally in this limited page. Yet, the above explanations are supposed to be sufficient to give us general description about the common use of Tenses. All right, now let’s check your understanding of the concepts by referring to the mini-test in the following section.

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Mini-Test 1

Part I. In this section of the test, there are simple and uncompleted conversations. The questions are given in multiple choice. Choose the right answer for each.

1. “Are Alice and Tom still living in New York?”“No, they…………to Dallas.”

a. are just moved c. have just movedb. had just moved d. will just moved

2. “Why is Teddy so sad?”“Because his bird …………..away.”

a. flown c. flyb. flew d. had flown

3. “Can I come by for my check tomorrow?”“Yes, by then I ……………..time to go to the bank.”

a. will have had c. will has hadb. will had d. have

4. “Why were you hurrying?”“We were hurrying because we thought that the bell……………”

a. had already rang c. Had already rungb. has already rang d. have already ringing

5. “Did you go to Hawaii for vacation?”“I ………….. to go, but I got sick at the last minute.”

a, was planned c. had been planningb, had planning d. have planned

6. “When was Michael Caine born?”“In Britain, but now he ……………….in the United States.”

a. has lived c. livesb. living d. is living

7. “Where are Ken and Margaret?”“They were hungry, so they …………….to the grocery store.”

a. go c. wentb. had gone d. were gone

8. “Betty told me that you have a cottage on Lake Superior.”“Yes, we…………there since we first moved to Michigan.”

a. had gone c. are goingb. have been going d. had been going

9. “You and Carl seem to be getting along well.”“Yes, I……………him better than before.”

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a. Liking c. likedb. like d. have liked

10. “How are you feeling?”“I’ve been feeling better since………”

a. the doctor has came c. the doctor had comeb. the doctor will came d. the doctor came

11. If only we had needed vacation at the time, we…………to Florida.a. would have been going c. have been goingb. would be to go d. was going to go

12. “It was regretful that I couldn’t joint the party.”“We wish that you…………..such a lot of work, because we know that you would have enjoyed the party.”

a. hadn’t had c. didn’t have hadb. hadn’t d. hadn’t have

13. “Did you meet Ann here at the University?”“No, we …………..we started college.

a. have already met c. had already been meeting

b. had already met d. had already meet

14. “Where is the new stove that you brought yesterday?”“The color didn’t match, so I ……………….it to store.”

a. return c. returnedb. had returned d. did return

15. “When are you planning to send the memo to the staff?”“I ……………..it already.”

a. send c. have sent b. had sent d. was to send

16. “Do you always go to the barber to have you hair cut?”“Yes, I ……………..to the same barber since 1950?

a. am going c. go b. have been going d. had going

17. I ……………many famous museums at this time if we stopped in Florence.

a. have been visiting c. would be visitingb. are visiting d. was visiting

18. “Would you like to go to the band concert?”“Thanks, but I …………… it already.”

a. had seen c. have seenb. have been seeing d. did see

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19. “Isn’t hard to drive down town to work?”“Yes, that’s why I ………….to work by train.”

a. have been going c. have been goneb. have went d. going

20. The man ……………hard today if he came here.a. would be working c. was being workedb. will e working d. would have been working.

21. “How long have you been with the company?”“I ……………….there for two years by January.”

a. will work c. will haveb. was working d. will have worked

Part II. In this part of section, you will be exposed to questions in a form of sentences consisting of five options. The questions are in the same multiple choice form as above.

22. By the end of the century, it is likely that the oceans of the world ………..by all the rubbish poured into them.

a. will polluted d. would have being polluted

b. will be polluting e. are being pollutedc. will have been polluted

23. Why was peter absent yesterday? He ………….bad cold.a. have d. was havingb. having e. had hadc. had

24. Where are my books? One of those boys …………them now.a. have d. hadb. has e. are havingc. is having

25. I went to collect my car but it was not ready, when I went to the service station it ………..still……….

a. was….. servicing d. had been …..servicedb. was….. serviced e. was being ……servicedc. was…... servised

26. If you are selfish, you …………..the lives of many people.a. would endanger d. are endangeredb. will endanger e. were endangeredc. might endanger

27. I didn’t know he……….in three months’ time.

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a. will promote d. will be promotingb. was going to be promoted e. had been promotingc. has been promoting

28. If you had not forgotten your key, you…………able to get in the house easily.

a. were d. would have beenb. will be e. will have beingc. have been.

29. He told us he would ………………the fan in ten minutes.a. repair d. to repairb. repaired e. have repairc. repairing

30. If it were not for his kindness, you ………….in hospital now.a. are d. would beb. will be e. had beenc. were

31. Sometimes I get up before the sun …………..a. rising d. had risenb. rise e. risesc. rose

32. I doubt …………..to your letter before the end of the week.a. he will reply d. whether will be replyb. that he will reply e. whether he will replyc. he is replying

33. If you had been more careful, you ……………the car.a. would not damaging d. had not damagedb. were not damaged e. would not have damagedc. will not damaging

Part III. In this part of the test you are assigned to put the verbs in the brackets in the correct form.

34. I ………….(work) in a car factory during the summer of 1976.Answer:

35. For the time being, Mr. Smith………..(act) as manager of this department.

Answer:

36. The painter said that he ……….(work) on the picture at the time if it hadn’t started to rain.Answer:

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37. She………….(interfere) with my work now if she were here.Answer:

38. By next month I ………….(write) this book for 3 years.Answer:

39. We ………….(meet) you in Grand Central Station tomorrow.Answer:

40. If you come before six, I ………….(work) in my garden.Answer:

41. At this time next month, he………..(study) at Columbia University.

Answer:

42. Listen! I think the telephone………….(ring).Answer:

43. We ………….(look) at the painting for about ten minutes before we realized who the artist was.Answer:

44. At ten o’clock tomorrow morning, I ………….(have) music lesson.Answer:

45. Next Saturday, they…………(live) in this house for a year.Answer:

46. His brother ………….(study) in the University for three years at this time being last month.Answer:

47. I ……….(go) to James Town in Virginia if I had had a car.Answer:

48. Next year, my father…………..(work) in the company for 30 years.

Answer:

49. I ………….(work) hard, so I felt that I deserved a holiday.Answer:

50. At present they…………..(travel) in South America.Answer:

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~ Section 2–Structure and Written Expression ~This section is designed to measure your ability to recognize language that is appropriate for standard written English. There are two types of questions in this section, with special direction for each type.

StructureDirections: Questions 1-4 are incomplete sentences. Beneath each sentence you will see four words or phrases, marked (A), (B), (C), and (D). Choose the one word or phrase that best completes the sentence. Then, on your answer sheet, find the number of the question and fill in the space that corresponds to the letter of the answer you have chosen.Look at the following examples.Example IGeysers have often been compared to volcanoes . . . . they both emit hot liquids from below the earth surface.

(A) due to(B) because(C) in spite of(D) regardless of

The sentence should read, “Geysers have often been compared to volcanoes because they both emit hot liquids from below the earth surface.” Therefore, you should choose answer (B).Example IIDuring the early period of ocean navigation, . . . . any need for sophisticated instruments and techniques.

(A) so that hardly(B) where there hardly was(C) hardly was(D) there was hardly

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The sentence should read, “During the early period of ocean navigation, there was hardly any need for sophisticated instruments and techniques.” Therefore, you should choose answer (D).

PRACTICE QUESTIONS1. Refrigerating meats _____the spread of bacteria.

(A) retards(B) retarding(C) to retard(D) is retarded

2. Throughout the animal kingdom, _____bigger than the elephant.(A) whaler is only the(B) only the whale is(C) is the whale only(D) only whale is the

3. The fact _____money orders can usually be easily cashed has made them a popular form of payment.(A) of(B) that(C) is that(D)which is

4. The first article of the United States Constitution gives Congress _____to pass laws.(A) the power(B) has the power(C) the power is(D)of the power

5. What year did you _____ university?(A) graduate(B) graduate from(C) graduating(D) graduating from

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6. It seems to be getting worse. You had better _____ a specialist.(A) consult(B) consult to(C) consult with(D) consult by

7. Chicago is a large city, _____?(A) aren't it(B) doesn't it(C) won't it(D) isn't it

8. Don't leave your books near the open fire. They might easily _____.

(A) catch to fire(B) catch the fire(C) catch on fire(D) catch with fire

9. Do you enjoy _____?(A) to swim (B) swimming (C) swim (D) to swimming

10. I have trouble _____.(A) to remember my password(B) to remembering my password(C) remember my password(D) remembering my password

11. Do you have _____ to do today? We could have a long lunch if not.

(A) many work(B) much work(C) many works(D) much works

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12. My brother will _____ for a few nights.(A) provide us up(B) provide us in(C) put us up(D) put us in

13. When will the meeting _____?(A) hold on (C) take on(B) hold place (D) take place

14. The board meeting was held _____.(A) at Tuesday(B) on Tuesday(C) with Tuesday(D) in Tuesday

15. Why don't you _____ us?(A) go to the house party with(B) go together the house party with(C) go the house party with(D) together the house party with

16. That awful accident occurred _____.(A) before three weeks(B) three weeks before(C) three weeks ago(D) three weeks past

17. They didn't _____ John when he explained his decision.(A) agree to(B) agree with(C) agree(D) agree about

18. The social worker _____ the two old sisters who were ill.(A) called to the house of(B) called on the house of(C) called to

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(D) called on19. Tomorrow is Paul's birthday. Let's _____ it.

(A) celebrate(B) praise(C) honor(D) congratulate

20. If you don't understand the text, don't hesitate _____.(A) ask a question (C) to ask a question(B) asking a question (D) to asking a question

21. It's snowing. Would you like to _____ on Saturday or Sunday?(A) skiing(B) go to ski(C) go skiing(D) go ski

22. Our company didn't pay _____ for that banner advertisement.(A) much funds(B) many funds(C) many money(D) much money

23. Do you feel like _____ now?(A) swimming(B) to swim(C) swim(D) to go swimming

24. Tom was thrilled to be _____ such a beautiful and interesting lady.

(A) introduced(B) introduced at(C) introduced with(D) introduced to

25. "What happened to them last night? They look depressed" "I don't think _____ happened."

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(A) nothing(B) everything(C) something(D) anything

26. "It is not very cold. I don't think we need these big jackets." "I don't think so, _____."

(A) anyway(B) neither(C) either(D) too

27. "Bill is not doing well in class." "You must _____, that he is just a beginner at this level."

(A) keep minding(B) keep to mind(C) keep in mind(D) keeping in mind

28. "Excuse me. Do you know where the bus terminal is?" "It is _____ the large police station."

(A) opposite of(B) opposed to(C) opposite with(D) opposite to

29. "Those students will perform the annual school play." "Yes, it is _____ for next week."

(A) due(B) scheduled(C) time-tabled(D) put on

30. "Where do you live now?" "I live in Utah; my _____."

(A) parents too do

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(B) parents do(C) parents do, too(D) parents also do

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Written ExpressionDirections: in the following questions, each question has four underlined words or phrases. The four underlined parts of the sentence are marked (A), (B), (C), and (D). Identify the one underlined word or phrase that must be changed in order for the sentence to be correct. Then, on your answer sheet, find the number of the question and fill in the space that corresponds to the letter of the answer you have chosen.Look at the following examples:Example IGuppies are sometimes call rainbow fish because of the males’ bright colors.

A B C DThe sentence should read, “Guppies are sometimes called rainbow fish because of the males’ bright colors”. Therefore, you should choose answer (A).Example IIServing several term in Congress, Shirley Chisholm became an important United A B CStates politician.

DThe sentence should read, “Serving several terms in Congress, Shirley Chisholm became an important United States politician.” Therefore, you should choose answer (B).Now begin work on the questions.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS1. Electrical disturbances on Earth are frequently caused with

storms on the surface A B C

Dof the sun.

2. Inventor Granville Woods received him first patent on January 3, 1884, for a steam

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A B C D

boiler furnace.3. A deficient of folic acid is rarely found in humans because the

vitamin is contained A B C

in a wide variety of foods.D

4. The gopher digs with the big strong claws of its two front foot with its

A B Coverhanging front teeth. C

5. As two nuclei move closer together, their mutual electrostatic potential energy A Bbecomes more large and more positive.

C D6. The study of these animals are truly fascinating, and many books

have been A B C

written about them. D

7. After George had returned to his house, he was reading a book.A B C D

8. Many contractors having proposed a new model on conserving the purity of

A B Cwater, but not one has been as widely accepted as this one.

D

9. Raging tropical storm which later develops into a hurricane destroyed

A B Chundreds of houses and other buildings.

D

10. We wish today was sunny so that we could spend the day in the country

A B C D communing with nature.

11. The food that mark is cooking in the kitchen is smelling delicious.

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A B C D

12. The professor has wrote the book to meet the needs of our students to join

A B Cthe course. D

13. After John eaten dinner, he wrote several letters and went to bed.

A B C D

14. The manager has finished working on the report last night, and now she will

A B C begin to write the other proposal.

D

15. A thirty-minute discussion and a number of objections have repealing the

A B Cproposal for it fails to include our district.

D

16. The work performed by these officers are not worth our paying them any longer.

A B C D

17. The bank was robbed with three burglars who first came to steal the money put

A B Cinside the building. D

18. The president went fishing after he has finished with the conferences.

A B C D

19. The professor divided his class into two sections to prevent overcrowding A B C Din his classroom for the subsequent meeting.

20. Mary and I play tennis every morning whereas Peter and Tom plays tennis every

A B Cafternoon.

D

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21. The administrator been canceling the class because too few students taking it this

A B C Dsemester.

22. There was a time that I used to swim five laps every day, but I did not

A B C D have enough time now.

D

23. Regarding the change in plans of our weekend trip, we should be informed Janis

A B Cabout it. D

24. When the telephone rang, He drunk a cup of coffee.A B C D

25. If a crisis would occur, those unfamiliar with the procedures would not know

A B C how to handle the situation.

D

26. We called yesterday our friends in Boston to tell them about the reunion that

A B C D we are planning.

27. The political candidate always talks as if he has already been elected to the

A B C D presidency.

28. My brother doesn’t care how much does the car cost because he is going to buy

A B C D it anyway.

29. Marie’s cousin is studied law at one of the ivy-league universities in the East.

A B C D

30. Mary and her sister study Biology last year, and so did Jean. A B C D

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31. The problems that discovered since the initial research was completed cause

A B C the committee members to table the proposal temporarily.

D

32. If Monique did not attend the conference, she will never meet her old friend Dan,

A B whom she has not seen in years. C D

33. Pete had already saw that musical before he read the reviews about it.

A B C D

34. Jennifer has been living in this town for 10 years when George left.

A B C D

35. The committee members examined the materials now for the competition next

A B C DFriday.

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MATERI 3 - Reading Comprehension -

Bagian ketiga dari TOEFL ini merupakan bentuk uji yang paling familiar bagi para pesertanya. Pemahaman materi bacaan bukanlah hal yang baru dalam uji kompetensi kemampuan bahasa. Namun demikian, perlu diperhatikan juga bahwa materi reading comprehension yang ada pada TOEFL cukup berbeda dengan materi reading comprehension yang biasa kita temui di uji kompetensi bahasa Inggris di sekolah-sekolah umum atau bahkan di tingkat pendidikan tinggi.

Topik dan gaya materi yang biasa disajikan untuk uji reading comprehension dalam TOEFL lebih condong kepada jenis yang biasa ditemui di kampus atau universitas di Amerika. Dengan kata lain, Anda sebagai peserta TOEFL akan disajikan berbagai jenis teks yang berhubungan dengan konteks akademis. Masing-masing dari teks tersebut akan dilanjutkan dengan pertanyaan-pertanyaan pemahaman seputar isi teks baik secara explicit maupun implicit. Sebagai tambahahan, untuk menghindari terfokusnya materi bacaan pada salah satu bidang studi saja, topik atau materi bacaan umumnya mencakup bahan-bahan kajian yang tidak menjurus pada spesifikasi bidang ilmu tertentu. Untuk lebih jelasnya, perhatikan contoh instruksi dan materi reading comprehension yang disajikan sebagai berikut:

Directions: In this section you will read several passages. Each one is followed by a number of questions about it. You are to choose the one best answer (A), (B), (C), and (D), to each question. Then, on your answer sheet, find the number of the question and fill in the space that corresponds to the letter of the answer you have chosen.Answer all questions about the information in a passage on the basis of what is stated or implied in that passage.

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SAMPLE PASSAGE AND QUESTIONSThe rail road was not the first institution to impose regularity

on society, or to draw attention to the importance of precise timekeeping. For as long as merchant have set out their wares at day break and communal festivities have been celebrated, people have been in rough agreement with their neighbors as to the time of the day. The value of this tradition is today more apparent than ever. Were it not for public acceptance of a single yardstick of time, social life would be unbearably chaotic: the massive daily transfer of goods, services, and information would proceed in fits and starts; the very fabric of modern society would begin to unravel.Example IWhat is the main idea of the passage?

(A) In modern society we must make more time for our neighbors.

(B) The traditions of society are timeless.(C) An acceptance way of measuring time is essential for the

smooth functioning of society.(D)Society judges people by the times at which they conduct

certain activities.The main idea of the passage is that societies need to agree about how time is measured in order to function smoothly. Therefore, you should choose answer (C).

NOW LET’S GO TO THE PRACTICE PASSAGEPassage 1

The Alaskan pipeline starts at the frozen edge of the Artic Ocean. It stretches southward across the largest and northernmost states in the United States, ending at a remote ice-free seaport village nearly 800 miles from where it begins. It is massive in size and extremely complicated to operate.

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The steel pipe crosses windswept plains and endless miles of delicate tundra that tops the frozen ground. It weaves through crooked canyons, climbs sheer mountains, plunges over rocky crags, makes its way through thick forests, and passes over or under hundreds of rivers and streams. The pipe is 4 feet in diameter, and up to 2 million barrels (or 84 million gallons) of crude oil can be pump through it daily.

Resting on H-shaped steel racks called “bents”, long sections of the pipeline follow zigzag course high above the frozen earth. Other long sections drop out of sight beneath spongy or rocky ground and return to the surface later on. The pattern of the pipeline’s up-and-down route is determined by the often harsh demands of the artic and subartic climate, the tortuous lay of the land, and the varied composition of soil, rock, or permafrost (permanently frozen ground). A little more than half of the pipeline is elevated above the ground. The remainder is buried anywhere from 3 to 12 feet, depending largely upon the type of terrain and the properties of the soil.

One of the largest in the world, the pipeline cost approximately $8 billion and is by far the biggest and most expensive construction project ever undertaken by private industry. In fact, no single business could raise that much money, so 8 major oil companies formed a consortium in order to share the costs. Each company controlled oil rights to particular shares of land in the oil fields and paid into the pipeline-construction fund according to the size of its holdings. Today, despite enormous problems of climate, supply shortages, equipment breakdowns, labor disagreements, treacherous terrain, a certain about mismanagement, and even theft, the Alaskan pipeline has been completed and is operating.

QUESTIONS1. The passage primarily discusses the pipeline’s

(A)Operating cost(B)Employees

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(C)Consumers(D) Construction

2. The word “it” in line 3 refers to(A)Pipeline(B)Ocean(C)State(D) Village

3. According to the passage, 84 million gallons of oil can travel through the pipeline each

(A)Day(B)Week(C)Month(D) Year

4. The phrase “Resting on” in line 10 is closest in meaning to(A)Consisting of(B)Supported by(C)Passing under(D) Protected with

5. The author mentions all of the following as important in determining the pipeline’s route EXCEPT the

(A)Climate(B)Lay of the land itself(C)Local vegetation(D) Kind of soil and rock

6. The word “undertaken” in line 20 is closest in meaning to(A)Removed(B)Selected(C)Transported(D) Attempted

7. How many companies share the costs of constructing the pipeline?

(A)Three(B)Four

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(C)Eight(D) Twelve

8. The word “particular” in line 23 is closest in meaning to(A)Peculiar(B)Specific(C)Exceptional(D) Equal

9. Which of the following determined what percentage of the construction costs each member of the consortium would pay?

(A)How much oil field land each company owned(B)How long each company had owned land in the oil fields(C)How many people worked for each company(D) How many oil wells were located on the company’s land

10. Where in the passage does the author provide a term for an earth covering that always remains frozen?

(A)line 4(B)line 12(C)line 15(D) line 21

Passage 2The next few decades we will see great changes in the way

energy is supplied and used. In some major oil producing nations, 'peak oil' has already been reached, and there are increasing fears of global warming. Consequently, many countries are focusing on the switch to a low carbon economy. This transition will lead to major changes in the supply and use of electricity. [A] Firstly, there will be an increase in overall demand, as consumers switch from oil and gas to electricity to power their homes and vehicles. [B] Secondly, there will be an increase in power generation, not only in terms of how much is generated, but also how it is generated, as there is growing electricity generation from renewable sources. [C] To meet these challenges, countries are investing in Smart Grid technology. [D] This system aims to provide the electricity industry

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with a better understanding of power generation and demand, and to use this information to create a more efficient power network.

Smart Grid technology basically involves the application of a computer system to the electricity network. The computer system can be used to collect information about supply and demand and improve engineer's ability to manage the system. With better information about electricity demand, the network will be able to increase the amount of electricity delivered per unit generated, leading to potential reductions in fuel needs and carbon emissions. Moreover, the computer system will assist in reducing operational and maintenance costs.

Smart Grid technology offers benefits to the consumer too. They will be able to collect real-time information on their energy use for each appliance. Varying tariffs throughout the day will give customers the incentive to use appliances at times when supply greatly exceeds demand, leading to great reductions in bills. For example, they may use their washing machines at night. Smart meters can also be connected to the internet or telephone system, allowing customers to switch appliances on or off remotely. Furthermore, if houses are fitted with the apparatus to generate their own power, appliances can be set to run directly from the on-site power source, and any excess can be sold to the grid.

With these changes comes a range of challenges. The first involves managing the supply and demand. Sources of renewable energy, such as wind, wave and solar, are notoriously unpredictable, and nuclear power, which is also set to increase as nations switch to alternative energy sources, is inflexible. With oil and gas, it is relatively simple to increase the supply of energy to match the increasing demand during peak times of the day or year. With alternative sources, this is far more difficult, and may lead to blackouts or system collapse. Potential solutions include investigating new and efficient ways to store energy and encouraging consumers to use electricity at off-peak times.

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A second problem is the fact that many renewable power generation sources are located in remote areas, such as windy uplands and coastal regions, where there is currently a lack of electrical infrastructure. New infrastructures therefore must be built. Thankfully, with improved smart technology, this can be done more efficiently by reducing the reinforcement or construction costs.

Although Smart Technology is still in its infancy, pilot schemes to promote and test it are already underway. Consumers are currently testing the new smart meters which can be used in their homes to manage electricity use. There are also a number of demonstrations being planned to show how the smart technology could practically work, and trials are in place to test the new electrical infrastructure. It is likely that technology will be added in 'layers', starting with 'quick win' methods which will provide initial carbon savings, to be followed by more advanced systems at a later date. Cities are prime candidates for investment into smart energy, due to the high population density and high energy use. It is here where Smart Technology is likely to be promoted first, utilising a range of sustainable power sources, transport solutions and an infrastructure for charging electrically powered vehicles. The infrastructure is already changing fast. By the year 2050, changes in the energy supply will have transformed our homes, our roads and our behaviour.11. According to paragraph 1, what has happened in some oil

producing countries?(A) They are unwilling to sell their oil any more.(B)They are not producing as much oil as they used to. (C) The supply of oil is unpredictable. (D) Global warming is more sever here than in other

countries.12. Where in paragraph 1 can the following sentence be placed?

There is also likely more electricity generation centres, as

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households and communities take up the opportunity to install photovoltaic cells and small scale wind turbines.

(A) A (C) C(B) B (D) D

13. Which of the following is NOT a benefit of Smart Grid technology to consumers?

(A) It can reduce their electricity bills. (B) It can tell them how much energy each appliance is using. (C)It can allow them to turn appliances on and off when they

are not at home. (D) It can reduce the amount of energy needed to power

appliances.14. According to paragraph 4, what is the problem with using

renewable sources of power?(A) They do not provide much energy. (B) They often cause system failure and blackouts. (C) They do not supply a continuous flow of energy. (D) They can't be used at off-peak times.

15. In paragraph 5, what can be inferred about cities in the future?

(A) More people will be living in cities in the future than nowadays.

(B) People in cities will be using cars and buses powered by electricity.

(C) All buildings will generate their own electricity. (D) Smart Grid technology will only be available in cities.

16. The word 'remote' in paragraph 5 could be best replace by:(A) isolated (B) crowded (C) attractive (D) alone

Passage 3

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No student of a foreign language needs to be told that grammar is complex. By changing word sequences and by adding a range of auxiliary verbs and suffixes, we are able to communicate tiny variations in meaning. We can turn a statement into a question, state whether an action has taken place or is soon to take place, and perform many other word tricks to convey subtle differences in meaning. Nor is this complexity inherent to the English language. All languages, even those of so-called 'primitive' tribes have clever grammatical components. The Cherokee pronoun system, for example, can distinguish between 'you and I', 'several other people and I' and 'you, another person and I'. In English, all these meanings are summed up in the one, crude pronoun 'we'. Grammar is universal and plays a part in every language, no matter how widespread it is. So the question which has baffled many linguists is - who created grammar?

At first, it would appear that this question is impossible to answer. To find out how grammar is created, someone needs to be present at the time of a language's creation, documenting its emergence. Many historical linguists are able to trace modern complex languages back to earlier languages, but in order to answer the question of how complex languages are actually formed, the researcher needs to observe how languages are started from scratch. Amazingly, however, this is possible.

Some of the most recent languages evolved due to the Atlantic slave trade. At that time, slaves from a number of different ethnicities were forced to work together under colonizer's rule. Since they had no opportunity to learn each other's languages, they developed a make-shift language called a pidgin. Pidgins are strings of words copied from the language of the landowner. They have little in the way of grammar, and in many cases it is difficult for a listener to deduce when an event happened, and who did what to whom. [A] Speakers need to use circumlocution in order to make their meaning understood. [B] Interestingly, however, all it takes

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for a pidgin to become a complex language is for a group of children to be exposed to it at the time when they learn their mother tongue. [C] Slave children did not simply copy the strings of words uttered by their elders, they adapted their words to create a new, expressive language. [D] Complex grammar systems which emerge from pidgins are termed creoles, and they are invented by children.

Further evidence of this can be seen in studying sign languages for the deaf. Sign languages are not simply a series of gestures; they utilise the same grammatical machinery that is found in spoken languages. Moreover, there are many different languages used worldwide. The creation of one such language was documented quite recently in Nicaragua. Previously, all deaf people were isolated from each other, but in 1979 a new government introduced schools for the deaf. Although children were taught speech and lip reading in the classroom, in the playgrounds they began to invent their own sign system, using the gestures that they used at home. It was basically a pidgin. Each child used the signs differently, and there was no consistent grammar. However, children who joined the school later, when this inventive sign system was already around, developed a quite different sign language. Although it was based on the signs of the older children, the younger children's language was more fluid and compact, and it utilised a large range of grammatical devices to clarify meaning. What is more, all the children used the signs in the same way. A new creole was born.

Some linguists believe that many of the world's most established languages were creoles at first. The English past tense –ed ending may have evolved from the verb 'do'. 'It ended' may once have been 'It end-did'. Therefore it would appear that even the most widespread languages were partly created by children. Children appear to have innate grammatical machinery in their brains, which springs to life when they are first trying to make sense of the world around them. Their minds can serve to create logical, complex

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structures, even when there is no grammar present for them to copy.17. In paragraph 1, why does the writer include information about

the Cherokee language?(A) To show how simple, traditional cultures can have

complicated grammar structures (B) To show how English grammar differs from Cherokee

grammar (C) To prove that complex grammar structures were invented

by the Cherokees. (D) To demonstrate how difficult it is to learn the Cherokee

language18. What can be inferred about the slaves' pidgin language?

(A) It contained complex grammar. (B) It was based on many different languages. (C) It was difficult to understand, even among slaves. (D) It was created by the land-owners.

19. All the following sentences about Nicaraguan sign language are true EXCEPT:

(A) The language has been created since 1979. (B) The language is based on speech and lip reading. (C) The language incorporates signs which children used at

home. (D) The language was perfected by younger children.

20. In paragraph 3, where can the following sentence be placed?It included standardized word orders and grammatical markers that existed in neither the pidgin language, nor the language of the colonizers.(A) A(B) B (C) C (D) D

21. 'From scratch' in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to:

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(A) from the very beginning (B) in simple cultures (C) by copying something else (D) by using written information

22. 'Make-shift' in paragraph 3 is closest in meaning to:(A) complicated and expressive (B) simple and temporary (C) extensive and diverse (D) private and personal

23. Which sentence is closest in meaning to the highlighted sentence? Grammar is universal and plays a part in every language, no matter how widespread it is.

(A) All languages, whether they are spoken by a few people or a lot of people, contain grammar.

(B) Some languages include a lot of grammar, whereas other languages contain a little.

(C) Languages which contain a lot of grammar are more common that languages that contain a little.

(D) The grammar of all languages is the same, no matter where the languages evolved.

24. All of the following are features of the new Nicaraguan sign language EXCEPT:

(A) All children used the same gestures to show meaning. (B) The meaning was clearer than the previous sign language. (C) The hand movements were smoother and smaller. (D) New gestures were created for everyday objects and

activities.25. Which idea is presented in the final paragraph?

(A) English was probably once a creole. (B) The English past tense system is inaccurate. (C) Linguists have proven that English was created by

children.

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(D) Children say English past tenses differently from adults.26. Look at the word 'consistent' in paragraph 4. This word could

best be replaced by which of the following?(A) natural (B) predictable(C) imaginable (D) uniform

Passage 4Humans are uniquely smart among all the other species on

the planet. We are capable of outstanding feats of technology and engineering. Then why are we so prone to making mistakes? And why do we tend to make the same ones time and time again? When Primate Psychologist Laurie Santos from the Comparative Cognition Lab at Yale University posed this question to her team, they were thinking in particular of the errors of judgment which led to the recent collapse of the financial markets. Santos came to two possible answers to this question. Either humans have designed environments which are too complex for us to fully understand, or we are biologically prone to making bad decisions.

In order to test these theories, the team selected a group of Brown Capuchin monkeys. Monkeys were selected for the test because, as distant relatives of humans, they are intelligent and have the capacity to learn. However, they are not influenced by any of the technological or cultural environments which affect human decision-making. The team wanted to test whether the capuchin monkeys, when put into similar situations as humans, would make the same mistakes.

[A] Of particular interest to the scientists was whether monkeys would make the same mistakes when making financial decisions. [B] In order to find out, they had to introduce the monkeys to money. [C] The monkeys soon cottoned on, and as well as learning simple exchange techniques, were soon able to distinguish 'bargains' – If one team-member offered two grapes in

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exchange for a metal disc and another team-member offered one grape, the monkeys chose the two-grape option. [D] Interestingly, when the data about the monkey's purchasing strategies was compared with economist's data on human behavior, there was a perfect match.

So, after establishing that the monkey market was operating effectively, the team decided to introduce some problems which humans generally get wrong. One of these issues is risk-taking. Imagine that someone gave you $1000. In addition to this $1000, you can receive either A) an additional $500 or B) someone tosses a coin and if it lands 'heads' you receive an additional $1000, but if it lands 'tails' you receive no more money. Of these options, most people tend to choose option A. They prefer guaranteed earnings, rather than running the risk of receiving nothing. Now imagine a second situation in which you are given $2000. Now, you can choose to either A) lose $500, leaving you with a total of $1500, or B) toss a coin; if it lands 'heads' you lose nothing, but if it lands 'tails' you lose $1000, leaving you with only $1000. Interestingly, when we stand to lose money, we tend to choose the more risky choice, option B. And as we know from the experience of financial investors and gamblers, it is unwise to take risks when we are on a losing streak.

So would the monkeys make the same basic error of judgment? The team put them to the test by giving them similar options. In the first test, monkeys had the option of exchanging their disc for one grape and receiving one bonus grape, or exchanging the grape for one grape and sometimes receiving two bonus grapes and sometimes receiving no bonus. It turned out that monkeys, like humans, chose the less risky option in times of plenty. Then the experiment was reversed. Monkeys were offered three grapes, but in option A were only actually given two grapes. In option B, they had a fifty-fifty chance of receiving all three grapes

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or one grape only. The results were that monkeys, like humans, take more risks in times of loss.The implications of this experiment are that because monkeys make the same irrational judgments that humans do, maybe human error is not a result of the complexity of our financial institutions, but is imbedded in our evolutionary history. If this is the case, our errors of judgment will be very difficult to overcome. On a more optimistic note however, humans are fully capable of overcoming limitations once we have identified them. By recognizing them, we can design technologies which will help us to make better choices in future.

27. What was the aim of the experiment outlined above?(A) To investigate whether monkeys could learn to use money (B) To investigate where human mistakes come from (C) To find out whether it is better to take risks in times of loss (D) To determine whether monkeys make more mistakes

than humans 28. Where in paragraph 3 could the sentence below be best

placed? The team distributed metal discs to the monkeys, and taught them that the discs could be exchanged with team-members for food.

(A) A(B) B (C) C (D) D

29. Which of the following statements is the best paraphrase of the highlighted sentence? On a more optimistic note however, humans are fully capable of overcoming limitations once we have identified them.

(A) Hopefully, humans will soon be able to solve these problems.

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(B) Fortunately, humans can solve problems that we know about.

(C) Luckily, humans do not have many limitations which have been identified.

(D) We are happy to note that we can solve the problem which we have identified.

30. The words 'cottoned on' are closest in meaning to:(A) learnt (B) knew (C) completed (D) concluded

31. Which paragraph addresses why monkeys were chosen for the experiment?

(A) Paragraph 2 (B) Paragraph 3 (C) Paragraph 4 (D) Paragraph 5

32. What can be inferred about Laurie Santos?(A) She thinks that both humans and monkeys are greedy. (B) Her job frequently involves working with monkeys. (C) She believes that humans should never take risks. (D) She prefers monkeys to humans.

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