makalah penentuan jenis kelamin
TRANSCRIPT
7/21/2019 Makalah Penentuan Jenis Kelamin
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FL@LELK BDGDXA@L
―]dgdgtulg Idgas @delfag‖
Hjsdg ]dgblfpu9
Hr. Lcrdga Klfahlk, _. ]t., F._a
Hr. Dvatl Lgbbrdrdaga, F._a
Hasusug jedk9
@dejfpj` SAAA
]asol Klgl Flrsdghl (L<O8<>==<)
Tfa ^lkflk (L<O8<>==>)
Lghrdj _ltral (L<O8<>=8>)
Klslglwlta (L<O8<>=82)
]^JB^LF _XTHA ]DGHAHA@LG NAJEJBA
IT^T_LG ]DGHAHA@LG FLXDFLXA@L HLG AEFT
]DGBDXLKTLG LELF
CL@TEXL_ @DBT^TLG HLG AEFT ]DGHAHA@LG
TGASD^_AXL_ ILFNA
>=<8/>=<4
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NLN A
]DGHLKTETLG
<.< Eltlr Ndel`lgb
Fd`lgasfd bdgdta` haflgl idgas `delfag hatdgtu`lg hlelf sdful
jrblgasfd kahup. _aclt hlslr bdgdta` pdgdgtulg sd`s slgblt ndrvlralsa ha
lgtlrl ndrnlbla ndgtu` `dkahuplg. ]lhl `dnlgyl`lg kdwlg hlg tufnuklg,
aghavahu fdgilha `kusus ugtu` fdgbklsae`lg sltu idgas blfdt. Nalslgyl
tahl` klgyl ndrndhl idgas bjglh ylgb fdrd`l faea`a, tdtlpa iubl ndrndhl
hlelf kle fjrcjejbas hlg casajejbas, ltlu `lrl`tdrasta` sd`s sd`ughdr.
Ndgtu` ylgb nalslgyl fdgbklsae`lg jvuf ha`dgle sdnlbla ndtagl, slelk
sltu ylgb nalslgyl fdgbklsae`lg spdrfl ltlu sdrnu` slra ha`dgle sdnlbla
ilgtlg. @lrdgl ndndrlpl prjsds sd`sule tahl` fdeanlt`lg blfdt, pdgdrlplg
ednak ugavdrsle hlra astaelk ―idghdr‖ fdgblou plhl sdtalp hjgjr fltdra
bdgdta` sdnlbla ilgtlg hlg pdgdrafl sdnlbla ndtagl.
Hacdrdgsalsa sd`s sdragb hasdrtla hdgblg hafjrcasfd `rjfjsjf ylgb
`jgsastdg, ylgb fdgblrlk nlkwl pdrndhllg `rjfjsjf tdr`lat hdgblg
pdrndhllg idgas `delfag. @rjfjsjf ylgb tahl` slfl plhl `dhul idgas
`delfag handra glfl `rjfjsjf sd`s. Ndndrlpl jrlgb fdgbbugl`lg astaelk
―kdtdrjsjfds‖ ugtu` fdfndhl`lg hlra lutjsjf, ylgb fdrupl`lg
`rjfjsjf ylgb sdolrl fjrcjejbas ahdgta` plhl `dhul idgas `delfag. _dtalp
jrblgasfd ylgb fdel`u`lg pdr`dfnlgb nal`lg sdolrl bdgdrltac fdfaea`a
idgas `delfag ylgb ndrndhl sdnlbla lelt rdprjhu`sagyl. Idgas `delfag lhl
hul flolf, ylatu ilgtlg hlg ndtagl. ]dgdgtulg idgas `delfag hatdgtu`lg
jedk `rjfjsjf `delfag ylgb haturug`lg hlra `dhul plrdgtlegyl ltlu
aghu`gyl. Ndrhlslr`lg kle tdrsdnut, hanult fl`lelk aga.
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<.< ^ufuslg Flslelk
Lhlpug rufuslg flslelk hlra fl`lelk aga alelk sdnlbla ndra`ut 9
<.
Lpl slil cl`tjr ylgb fdfpdgblruka pdgdgtulg idgas `delfag:
>.
Lpl slil tapd idgas `delfag plhl fl`keu` kahup:
?. Nlblaflgl `delaglg ylgb hatafnue`lg jedk cl`tjr bdgdta`:
<.> Xuiulg
Ndrhlslr`lg rufuslg flslelk ylgb lhl, hapdrjedk tuiulg lhlgyl
fl`lelk aga lgtlrl elag9
<. Tgtu` fdgydnut`lg cl`tjr ylgb fdfpdgblruka idgas `delfag.
>.
Tgtu` fdgydnut`lg tapd idgas `delfag plhl fl`keu` kahup.
?. Tgtu` fdgidels`lg `delaglg ylgb hatafnue`lg jedk cl`tjr bdgdtao.
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NLN AA
]DFNLKL_LG
>.< Cl`tjr-Cl`tjr ]dgdgtu Idgas @delfag
_dful kle ylgb fdfpdgblruka sultu `dlhllg hlra aghavahu ylgb
ndr`latlg hdgblg idgas `delfag nla` atu klgyl ndrsaclt sdfdgtlrl ltlu
pdrflgdg hasdnut hdgblg cl`tjr pdgdgtu idgas `delfag. Cl`tjr-cl`tjr pdgdgtu
idgas `delfag aga lhl ylgb ndrlsle hlra eulr ylgb hasdnut hdgblg cl`tjr
eagb`ugblg. Hlg lhl ylgb ndrlsle hlra hlelf ylb hasdnut hdgblg cl`tjr
bdgdta`.
l)
Cl`tjr eagb`ugblg
]dgdgtu idgas `delfag nu`lg klgyl `lrdgl cl`tjr bdgdta`
fdelag`lg `lrdgl lhlgyl cl`tjr eulr ylgb fdfpdgblrukagyl ylgb ha`dgle
hdgblg cl`tjr eagb`ugblg, nalslgyl ylgb fdgblfnae pdrlglg hlelf cl`tjr
eagb`ugblg aga lhlelk `dlhllg casajejbas.. Ia`l `lhlr kjrfjg `delfag
hlelf tunuk tahl` sdafnlgb pdrdhlrlggyl, fl`l pdrgyltllg cdgjtap plhl
fl`keu` fdgbdgla idgas `delfaggyl hlplt ndrunlk, l`anltgyl wltl`
`delfaggyl pug fdgblelfa pdrunlklg. Faslegyl plhl `lsus kdwlg
leabltjr (nulyl) ylgb idgas `delfaggyl hatdgtu`lg jedk suku tdeur ylgb ha
drlfgyl, plhl saput ylgb fdgblelfa pdrblgtalg idgas `delfag hlg plhl
kdwlg tagb`lt rdghlk hlelf kle aga lhlelk oloagb elut Njgdeeal varahas
ylgb flgl oloagb fuhl kahup plhl rlkaf hlra oloagb ndtagl sdkagbbl
fdgilha oloagb ilgtlg. ]dgdeatalg oloagb elut aga hatdeata jedk C. Nletzdr, al
fdgbltl`lg nlkwl sdtalp tdeur ylgb nlru fdgdtls (oloagb fuhl) ylgb
haedpls`lg ha hlelf lar ylgb nlgyl` tdrhlplt oloagb ndtagl hdwlsl, fl`l
lhl ndndrlpl oloagb fuhl atu tdrtlra` `dhlelf rlkaf oloagb ndtagl hlg
kahup ha hlelfgyl, `lrdgl lhlgyl pdgblruk hlra d`strl` utdrus oloagb
ndtagl fl`l oloagb tdrsdnut ndr`dfnlgb fdgilha oloagb ilgtlg.
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n) Cl`tjr Bdgdta`
Tfufgyl hlplt ha`ltl`lg nlkwl cl`tjr bdgdta`elk ylgb fdgdgtu`lg
idgas `delfag sultu fl`keu`, tdpltgyl lhlelk `jfpjsasa hlra sultu
`rjfjsjf (`lrdgl nlklg bdgdta` tdrhlplt hahlelf `rjfjsjf) ]lhl
ndndrlpl flk`eu` kahup hapdgblruka jedk `dbaltlg ylgb ndrelaglg hlra
bdg-bdg tugbble. Ojgtjkgyl plhl `lsus tlglflg ilbugb, tlglflg ilbugb
ylgb fdrupl`lg tlglflg ndruflk sltu. Ia`l bdg (nl) kjfjzabjta`, fl`l
njgb`je ylgb nalsl fdrupl`lg nugbl ndtagl, l`lg ndrunlk fdfndgtu`
ndglgbslra. _dnlea`gyl ia`l bdg (ts) kjfjzabjta`, fl`l flela ylgb
fdrupl`lg nugbl ilgtlg, ndrunlk fdfndgtu` puta` hlg tahl`
fdgbklsae`lg sdrnu` slra.
>.> ]dgdgtulg Idgas @delfag Xapd [[ Hlg [Q
L. ]lhl Flgusal
Flgusal fdfaea`a 83 `rjfjsjf ltlu >> plslgb `rjfjsjf ylgb
fdrupl`lg lutjsjf hlg < plslgb `rjfjsjf sd`s plhl ltlu bjgjsjfd.
@rjfjsjf sd`s haelfnlgb`lg hdgblg [ hlg Q. _djrlgb pdrdfpulg
fdfaea`a hul `rjfjsjf [ hlg sdjrlgb el`a-el`a [ hlg Q
`rjfjsjf. Iufelk bjgjsjfds tahl` fdgdgtu`lg bdghdr,
fdelag`lg lhl ltlu tahl` lhlgyl `rjfjsjf Q, ]dgdgtulg idgas `delfag
plhl flgusal/flfleal ha`ltl`lg fdgba`uta sastdf [Q.
_djrlgb pdrdfpulg fdfaea`a >> plslgb lutjsjf hlg < plslgb
`rjfjsjf-[, sdkagbbl cjrfuel `rjfjsjf ugtu` sdjrlgb pdrdfpulg
alelk >>LL[[, sdhlgb`lg sde tdeur klpejah gyl lhlelk >>L[ ylatu >> sde
lutjsjf hlg sdnulk `rjfjsjf sd`s. ]lhl el`a-el`a fdfaea`a >> plslgblutjsjf hdgblg > sde bjgjsjf ylatu [ hlg Q fl`l cjrfuel `rjfjsjf
ugtu` el`a el`a lhlelk >>[Q, sdkagbbl hlelf ndgtu` sde hapejahgyl el`a-
el`a fdfaea`a hul flolf spdrfltjzjl, ylatu9
l)
Bagjspdrfauf ylatu, spdrfltjzjl `rjfjsjf ylgb fdfaea`a >>
lutjsjf hlg sdnulk `rjfjsjf [ sdkagbbl cjrfuelgyl >>L[
n) Lghrjspdrfauf ylatu spdrfltjzjl ylgb fdfaea`a >> lutjsjf hlg
sdnulk `rjfjsjf Q sdkagbbl cjrfuelgyl >>LQ. Lghrjpdrfauf
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fdfaea`a u`lrlg ylgb dnak `doae ia`l hanlghagb`lg hdgblg
bagjspdrfauf.
Lplnael sdnulk sde tdeur hanulka jedk bagjspdrfauf fl`l lgl`
ylgb haklsae`lg lhlelk lgl` pdrdfpulg. Xdtlpa nael sde tdeur hanulka jedk
lghrjspdrfauf fl`l lgl` ylgb haklsae`lg lhlelk el`a-el`a.
_de @rjfltag (@rjfltag `delfag)
Nlhlg `rjfltag hatdfu`lg jedk sdjrlgb lkea bdgdta`l hlra @lglhl,
ylatu F.E. Nlrr plhl tlkug <181. Al fdgdfu`lg nlkwl plhl `lghugblg
agta sde ndtagl, hatdfu`lg sultu nlhlg ylgb fdgydrlp wlrgl, nlhlg atu
`dfuhalg hasdnut hdgblg Nlrr Njhy. Lhlgyl Nlrr Njhy fdgugiu`lg idgas
`delfag plhl wlgatl. ]lhl sde sjfltas wlgatl tdrhlplt sdnulk `rjfltag
`delfag sdfdgtlrl sde sjfltas pral tahl` fdfaea`agyl. _delgiutgyl
ha`dtlkua nlkwl nlgyl`gyl `rjfltag `delfag tdrgyltl slfl hdgblg
nlgyl`gyl `rjfjsjf [ ha`urlgba sltu. Ilha, wlgatl gjrfle fdfpugyla
sdnulk `rjfltag `delfag `lrdgl `rjfjsjf [-gyl lhl hul. _dhlgb`lg,
pral gjrfle tahl` fdfpugyla `rjfltag `delfag `lrdgl `rjfjsjf [-gyl
klgyl sltu. `dndrlhllg `rjfltag `delfag sdragb `lea habugl`lg ugtu`
fdgdgtu`lg idgas `delfag sdrtl fdghalbgjsas ndrnlbla `delaglg
`rjfjsjf `delfag plhl ilgag fdeleua pdgblfnaelg olarlg lfgajg dfnraj
(lfgajsdgtdsas). ]drdfpulg ndrsaclt sd`s `rjfltag pjsatac, sdhlgb`lg el`a-
el`a sd`s `rjfltag gdbltavd.
Kapjtdsl Eyjg
Flry C. Eyjg, sdjrlgb lkea bdgdta`l hlra Agbbras fdgbliu`lgkapjtdsas nlkwl `rjfltag `delfag fdrupl`lg `rjfjsjf [ ylgb
fdgblelfa `jghdgslsa ltlu kdtdrj`rjfltagaslsa sdkagbbl sdolrl bdgdta`
fdgilha agl`tac (tahl` l`tac). Kapjtdsas aga haelghlsa klsae pdgblfltlggyl
ltls d`sprdsa bdg rlgb`la [ ylgb fdgbltur wlrgl nueu plhl fdgoat.
Aghavahu ndtagl kdtdrjzabjt fdfpdreaklt`lg cdgjtapd fjzla` ylgb idels
ndrndhl hdgblg d`sprdsa bdg sdfahjfaglg (wlrgl lgtlrl ylgb sdrlblf).
Kle aga fdgugiu``lg nlkwl klgyl lhl sltu `rjfjsjf [ ylgb l`tac ha
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lgtlrl `dhul `rjfjsjf [ plhl aghavahu ndtagl. @rjfjsjf [ ylgb l`tac
plhl sultu sde fugb`ag fdfnlwl bdg hjfaglg sdfdgtlrl plhl sde ylgb
elag fugb`ag iustru fdfnlwl bdg rdsdsac.
Ndrhlslr`lg kapjtdsl Eyjg nlgyl`gyl `rjfltag `delfag ylgb
haiufpla plhl sultu aghavahu lhlelk slfl hdgblg nlgyl`gyl `rjfjsjf-
[ ylgb hafaea`a jedk aghavahu tdrsdnut ha`urlgba hdgblg sltu. ]drdfpulg
gjrfle fdfaea`a `rjfjsjf [[ fl`l al fdfaea`a < `rjfltag
`delfag. _dhlgb`lg plhl pral `rjfjsjfgyl lhlelk [Q sdkagbbl tahl`
fdfaea`a `rjfjsjf `delfag. _delag atu `rjfjsjf `delfag iubl
habugl`lg ugtu` halbgjsd tdrklhlp ndrnlbla `delaglg `rjfjsjf plhl
flgusal.
N. ]lhl Elelt nulk Hrjsjpka el sp.
Elelt nulk aga sdragb hailha`lg sdnlbla nlklg pdrojnllg fl`l
klrus hatagilu olrl pdgdgtulg idgas `delfag plhl elelt aga. Agta sde tunuk
elelt nulk Hrjsjpkael klgyl fdfaea`a ; nulk `rjfjsjf slil. Hdelplg
nulk `rjfjsjf atu handhl`lg ltls 9
l.
3 nulk `rjfjsjf (ltlu ? plslgb) ylgb plhl elelt ndtagl hlg ilgtlg
ndgtu`gyl slfl sdkagbbl hasdnut lutjsjf ( r̀jfjsjf tunuk), hasagb`lt
hdgblg kurup L.
n. > nulk `rjfjsjf (< plslgb) hasdnut `rjfjsjf `delfag (sd`s
`rjfjsjf) sdnln ndgtu`gyl lhl ylgb ndrndhl plhl elelt ndtagl hlg
ilgtlg.
@rjfjsjf `delfag handhl`lg ltls9
@rjfjsjf-[, ndrndgtu` nltlgb eurus. Elelt ndtagl fdfaea`a >`rjfjsjf-[.
@rjfjsjf-Q, ndrndgtu` sdha`at ndgb`j` plhl slelk sltu
uiugbgyl. Elelt ilgtlg fdfaea`a pdr sltu `rjfjsjf-[ hlg Q.
Cjrfuel `rjfjsjf ugtu` elelt nulk9
Elelt ndtagl ?LL[[ (6 ? plslgb lutjsjf + < plslgb
`rjfjsjf-[)
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Elelt ilgtlg ?LL[Q (6? plslgb lutjsjf + < `rjfjsjf-[
+ < `rjfjsjf-Q)
@rjfjsjf `delfag plhl elelt ndtagl atu sdidgas (lrtagyl `dhul-
hulgyl ndrupl `rjfjsjf-[) fl`l elelt ndtagl ha`ltl`lg ndrsaclt
kjfjblfdta`. Elelt ilgtlg ndrsaclt kdtdrjblfdta`, `lrdgl `rjfjsjf
`delfag sltu slfl elag ndrndhl. Elelt ndtagl fdfndgtu` sltu flolf sde
tdeur slil ylgb ndrsaclt klpejah (?L[). Elelt ilgtlg fdfndgtu` > flolf
spdrfltjzjl ylgb klpejah. Lhl spdrfltjzjl ylgb fdfnlwl `rjfjsjf-
[ (?L[) hlg lhl ylgb fdfnlwl `rjfjsjf-Q (?LQ). Lplnael sde tdeur ha
nulka jedk spdrfltjzjjg ylgb fdfnlwl `rjfjsjf-[, fl`l klsaegyl
elelt ndtagl (?LL[[). Nael sde tdeur hanulka jedk spdrfltjzjjg fdfnlwl
`rjfjsjf-Q, fl`l fdgbklsae`lg elelt ilgtlg ylgb hapejah (?LL[Q).
Lhlpug pdrlglg `rjfjsjf ‟ [ hlg ‟ Q plhl Hrjsjpkael sp.
_dndeufgyl tdelk ha`dtlkua nlkwl `rjfjsjf ‟ [ plhl Hrjsjpkael
fdfaea`a bdg-bdg ylgb fdgdgtu`lg saclt ndtagl. @doulea `rjfjsjf ‟ [
fdfnlwl `dkahuplg, `lrdgl atu elelt ylgb tahl` fdfaea`a `rjfjsjf ‟ [
(elelt QJ) tahl` lhl (edtle). @rjfjsjf ‟ Q tahl` fdfpugyla pdgblruk
hlelf pdgdgtulg idgas `delfag. _aclt `dilgtlglg hatdgtu`lg jedk lutjsjf,
tdtlpa `jfjsjf ‟ Q fdgdgtu`lg `dsunurlg (cdrtaeatls). Tgtu` atu, elelt
ylgb tahl` fdfaea`a `rjfjsjf ‟ Q (elelt [J) flghue (stdrae).
O. ]lhl Xufnuklg-Xufnuklg Ndruflk Hul
@dnlgyl`lg tufnuk-tufnuklg fdfpugyla ndglgb hdgblg ndglgb
slra (lelt `delfag ilgtlg) hlg puta` (lelt `delfag ndtagl). Nugbl hdfa`alg
haglfl`lg nugbl hdfa`alg hasdnut nugbl kdrflcrjhat (nugbl nlgoa).Ndrkunugblg hdgblg atu, `dnlgyl`lg tufnuk-tufnuklg tahl` hlplt
handhl`lg idgas `delfaggyl. Xdtlpa lhl tufnuk-tufnuklg ylgb hlplt
handhl`lg ltls tufnuklg ilgtlg (nugblgyl klgyl fdfaea`a ndglgb slra
slil tlgpl puta`) hlg tufnuklg ndtagl (nugblgyl fdfaea`fa puta` slil).
]lhl tufnuk-tufnuklg hdfa`alg aga hlplt handhl`lg idgas `delfag, ylgb
fdgba`uta sastdf [Q puel, tufnuklg ylgb fdfaea`a idgas `delfag ndtagl
lhlelk [[, sdhlgb`lg ylgb ilgtlg [Q. Ojgtjkgyl plhl tlglflg slel`.
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>.? ]dgdgtulg Idgas @delfag Xapd [J hlg [[
Ndndrlpl sdrlgbbl, `kususgyl jrhj Kdfaptdrl (`dpa`) hlg jrhj
Jrtkjptdrl (ndelelgb), kdwlg ilgtlgyl ndrsaclt kdtdrjblfdta` . sde blfdt ylgb
haklsae`lg ilgtlg lhl hul flolf, ylatu [ hlg J (tlgpl `rjfjsjf `delfag).
]dgdgtulg `delfagyl lhlelk kdwlg ilgtlg [J hlg kdwlg ndtagl [[. Ojgtjk
pdgdgtulg idgas `delfag sdrlgbbl tapd [J faslegyl plhl ndelelgb (
Fdelgjpeus haccdrdgtaleas ). Ndelelgb ndtagl fdfaea`a >8 `rjfjsjf ltlu >>
+[. _llt pdfnulklg, pdrtdfulg sde tdeur [ hlg sde spdrfl [ fdfndgtu`
aghavahu [[ (ndelelgb ndtagl), sdhlgb`lg sde tdeur [ hlg spdrfl J
fdfndgtu` aghavahu [J (ndelelgb ilgtlg).
>.8 ]dgdgtulg Idgas @delfag Xapd YY hlg YR
]dgdgtulg idgas `delfag plhl tapd aga tdrhlplt plhl nurugb (tdrflsu`
ugbbls), `upu-`upu. _dnlbla ojgtjk, pdgdgtulg idgas `delfag plhl ugbbls,
faslegyl Lylf. Lylf ilgtlg fdfaea`a `rjfjsjf `delfag YY, sdhlgb`lg
lylf ndtagl YR. ]lhl sllt tdrilha pdfnulklg, pdrtdfulg spdrfl Y hlg sde
tdeur R fdfndgtu` aghavahu YR (lylf ndtagl) sdhlgb`lg pdrtdfulg spdrfl
Y hlg sde tdeur Y fdfndgtu` aghavahu YY (lylf ilgtlg).
>.4 ]dgdgtulg Idgas @delfag Xapd Klpejah (g) hlg Hapejah (g)
]lhl sdrlgbbl ylgb tdrflsu` jrhj Kyfdgjptdrl sdpdrta ednlk flhu,
sdfut, ednlk, pdgdgtulg idgas `delfaggyl slfl sd`lea tahl` lhl kunugblggyl
hdgblg `rjfjsjf `delfag. Ednlk flhu ilgtlg faslegyl, tdrilha `lrdgl
pdrtdgjbdglsd, ylatu tdrndgtu`gyl fl`keu` hlra ; sde tdeur tlgpl hahlkueua jedk
pdfnulklg. Hdgbllg hdfa`alg fl`l ednlk flhu ilgtlg ndrsaclt klpejh, ylgb
fdfaea`a <3 nulk `rjfjsjf. _de tdeur ylgb hanulka jedk spdrfltjzjjg l`lg
fdgbklsae`lg ednlk flhu ndtagl ylgb ndrupl ednlk rltu hlg pd`dril, flsagb-flsagb
ndrsaclt hapejah (>g) hlg fdfaea`a ?> `rjfjsjf. @lrdgl pdrndhllg tdfplt hlg
fl`lglg, ednlk rltu sunur (cdrtae), sdhlgb`lg ednlk pd`dril flhu flghue (stdrae).
Ilha idgas `delfag hlra sdrlgbbl-sdrlgbbl tdrsdnut tahl` hatdgtu`lg jedk
`rjfjsjf `delfag sdpdrta ylgb elzaf ndrel`u plhl fl`keu` elaggyl, l`l`g tdtlpa
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tdrblgtugb hlra saclt pejha hlra sdrlgbbl atu. Ia`l sdrlgbbl natu klpejah, al lhlelk
ilgtlg sdhlgb`lg sdrlgbbl atu hapejah al lhlelk ndtagl.
>.3 Bdg Xugbble Hlg ]dgdgtulg Idgas @delfag
]dgdgtulg idgas `delfag plhl ndndrlpl fl`keu` kahup hapdgblruka jedk
`dbaltlg ylgb ndrelaglg hlra bdg-bdg tugbble. Xlglflg ilbugb (Ydl flys)
faslegyl, fdrupl`lg tlglflg ndruflk sltu (nugbl ilgtlg hlg nugbl ndtagl
tdrhlplt plhl sltu tlglflg). Ia`l bdg (nl) kjfjzabjta`, fl`l tjgb`je ylgb
nalslgyl fdrupl`lg nugbl ndtagl l`lg ndrunlk fdfndgtu` stru`tur ndglgb
slra. _dnlea`gyl nael bdg (ts) kjfjzabjta` fl`l flela ylgb nalslgyl
fdrupl`lg nugbl ilgtlg ndrunlk fdfndgtu` stru`tur sdpdrta puta` hlg tahl`
fdgbklsae`lg sdrnu` slra. Xlglflg hdgblg bdgjtap nlnltsts lhlelk ilgtlg.
]drastawl aga fdgugiu``lg tlglflg ndruflk sltu hlplt ndrunlk fdgilha
tlglflg ndruflk hul ltlu `dnlea`lggyl, sdnlbla l`anlt lhlgyl futlsa hlra
hul nulk bdg hlelf kle aga Nn fdgilha nn hlg Xs fdgilha ts.
>.2 ]dgdgtulg Idgas @delfag Hlg Eagb`ugblg Eulr
]lhl ndndrlpl kdwlg tagb`lt rdghlk, pdgdgtulg idgas `delfag tahl`
bdgdtao fdelag`lg tdrblgtugb hlra eagb`ugblg eulr. Aghavahu ilgtlg hlg ndtagl
fdfpugyla bdgjtac ylgb slfl, tdtlpa sultu rlgbslgb hlra sufndr eagb`ugblg
fdgdgtu`lg pdrtufnuklg `delfag ilgtlg ltlu ndtagl. Ojgtjkgyl oloagb elut
Njggdeal ylgb ilgtlg `doae, fdgblelfa hdbdgdrlsa hlg kahup hahlelf rlkaf
oloagb ndtagl ylgb ndslr. _dful lelt hlra oloagb ilgtlg fdgblelfa
hdbdgdrlsa `doulea lelt rdprjhu`sa, sdkagbbl hlplt fdfnulka sde tdeur hlra
oloagb ndtagl.
>.; _d`s Fdfnlea` _dnlbalg
Ordw (<1>?) fdgdfu`lg nlkwl idgas `delfag lylf ndtagl ylgb
hdwlsl hlplt ndrunlk fdgilha ilgtlg . lylf ndtagl ylgb fdfnlea` idgas
`delfaggyl atu fdfea`a nueu d`jr sdpdrta lylf ilgtlg, hlplt ndr`j`j` hlg
ndrel`u sdnlbla aghu` ilgtlg tdrklhlp lgl`-lgl`gyl. Lylf ndtagl ylgb
fdfnlea` idgas `delaggyl atu hasdnln`lg `lrdgl rusl`gyl jvlrauf ltlu
`lrdgl jvlrauf hasdrlgb sultu pdgyl`at, wlelupug lylf ndtagl atu fdfnlea`
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idgas `delfaggyl tdtlpa susuglg `rjfjsjfgyl tdtlp slfl, ylatu YJ. Lylf
fdfaea`a hul bjglhl, tdtlpa plhl lylf ndtagl bjglhl ylgb sdndelk `ara
ndr`dfnlgb fdgilha jvlrauf, sdhlgb`lg ylgb `lglg fdgblelfa hdbdgdrlsa.
]dgydeaha`lg`lg jedk Ordw aga fdfnu`ta`lg nlkwl jvlrauf plhl lylf
ndtagl ylgb fdfnlea` idgas `delfaggyl tdelk rusl` `lrdgl tundr`uejsd,
sdkagbbl bjglh sdndelk `lglg ndr`dfnlgb fdgilha tdstas.
>.1 @delaglg-@delaglg ylgb Xdrilha plhl ]dgdgtulg Idgas @delfag
L. Hrjsjpka el sp.
_delag lhlgyl `delaglg ‟ ̀ delaglg ylgb haidels`lg ha ltls, sdpdrta elelt
ndtagl supdr ([[[), elelt ndtagl([[Q hlg elelt ilgtlg [J,Lhl ndndrlpl
`delaglg ylgb elaggyl, ylatu9
<.
Elelt baglghrjfjrc, ylatu elelt ylgb sdplruk tunukgyl tdrhara hlra
ilragblg elelt ndtagl sdhlgb`lg sdplruk elaggyl tdrhara hlra ilragblg
elelt ilgtlg. Nltls lgtlrl nlbalg ndtagl hlg ilgtlg gyltl. Elelt aga tahl`
fdfaea`a cjrfuel `rjfjsjf.
>. Elelt agtdrsd`s, alelk lelt ylgb ilragblg tunukgyl fdrupl`lg fjsla`
(olfpurlg ylgb tl`tdrltur) hlra ilragblg eleltndtagl hlg ilgtlg. Elelt aga
sdklrusgyl l`lg fdgilha elelt ndtagl, l`lg tdtlpa elelt aga trapejah (?g)
ugtu` lutjsjfgyl, fl`l elelt aga fdgilha agtdrsd`s (?LLL[[). Elelt
aga stdrae.
?.
Elelt ilgtlg supdr, eleltagasdndglrgyll`lgfdgilhailgtlg, l`lg tdtlpa
elelt aga trapejah (?g) ugtu` lutjsjfgyl (?LLL[Q) hlg stdrae. _dpdrta
klegyl hdgblg elelt ndtagl supdr, fl`l elelta ga tahl` elfl kahupgyl.
8. Elelt hdgblg `rjfjsjf [ ylgb fded`lt. Elelt aga ndtagl, tdtlpa `dhul
`rjfjsjf-[ sleagb fded`lt plhl slelk sltu uiugbgyl. Haslfpagb atu
elelt aga fdfaea`a sdnulk `rjfjsjf-Q, sdkagbbl elelt hdgblg
`rjfjsjf-[ ylgb fded`lt fdfpugyla cjrfuel `rjfjsjf ?LL[[Q.
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Lhlpug tdjra pdrafnlgblg tdgtlgb pdgdgtulg idgas `delfag plhl
Hrjsjpkael sp. Qlatu wlelupug plhl ufufgyl halgbblp nlkwl elelt [[
lhlelk ndtagl hlg [Q lhlelk ilgtlg, l`lg tdtlpa `dgyltllg hdgblg lhlgyl
gjghasiugotajg, fdgugiu``lg nlkwl `rjfjsjf ‟ Q plhl elelt Hrjsjpkael
tahl` fdfpugyla pdgblruk plhl pdgdgtulg idgas`delfag. @dgyltllg-
`dgyltllg aga hahlslr`lg plhl 9
l) Elelt ? LL[[Q fdfaea`a `rjfjsjf ‟ Q, tdtlpa elelt aga ndtagl.
n)
Elelt ? LL[J tahl`f dfaea`a `rjfjsjf ‟ Q, tdtlpa elelt aga ilgtlg.
]dgydeaha`lg O.N Nrahbds plhl elelt nulk Hrjsjpkael fdgyltl`lg
nlkwl cl`tjr pdgdgtu ndtagl tdrhlplt hlelf `rjfjsjf ‟ [, sdhlgb`lg
cl`tjr pdgdgtu ilgtlg tdrhlplt hlelf lutjsjf.Nrahbds fdfnu`talg nlkwl
ednak hlra sdnulk bdg hlelf `rjfjsjf ‟ [ fdfpdgblruka saclt ndtagl,
sdhlgb`lg bdg-bdg ylgb fdfpdgblruka saclt ilgtlg tdrsdnlr euls hlelf
lutjsjf hlg tahl` ha`dtdfu`lg hlelf `rjfjsjf ‟ Q. Ndrkunugb hdgbl
gatu Nrahbds ndrpdghlplt nlkwl fd`lgasfd pdgdgtulg idgas `delfag plhl
elelt nulk Hrjsjpkael ednak tdplt hahlslr`lg ltls tdjra pdrafnlgblg
tdgtlgb pdgdgtulg idgas `delfag. Xdjra aga fdgyltl`lg nlkwl ugtu`
fdgdgtu`lg idgas `delfag plhl elelt Hrjsjpkael habugl`lg aghd`s
`delfag, ylatu ltlu hasagb`lt hdgblg [/L Ojgtjkgyl sdnlbla ndra`ut 9
l.
Elelt ndtagl (?LL[[) fdfpugyla aghd`s `delfag ([/L) 6 >/> 6 <,=
n. Elelt ilgtlg (?LL[Q) fdfpugyla aghd s̀ `delfag ([/L) 6 </> 6 =,4=.
Xlnde aghd`s `delfag ([/L) plhl Hrjsjkael sp. Tgtu` fdgdgtu`lg
idgas `delfag.
_usuglg@delfag Aghd`s@delfag [/L @delfag
LL[[[ ?/> 6 <,4= Ndtagl _updr
LLL[[[[ 8/? 6 <,?? Ndtagl _updr
LL[[ >/> 6 <,= Ndtagl
LLLL[[[[ 8/8 6 <,= NdtaglXdtrlpejah (8g)
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LLL[[[ ?/? 6 <,= Ndtagl Xrapejah (?g)
LLLL[[[ ?/8 6 =,24 Agtdrsd`s
LLL[[ >/? 6 =,32 Agtdrsd`s
LL[Q </> 6 =,4= Ilgtlg
LLLL[[Q >/8 6 =,4= Ilgtlg
LLL[Q </? 6 =,?? Ilgtlg _updr
_dolrl sagb`lt hlplt ha`ltl`lg nlkwl elelt Hrjsjpkael ndridgas `delfag ilgtlg
nael [email protected]=,4=0 ndridgas `delfag ndtagl nael [email protected]<,==0 agtdrsd`s nael A.@ lgtlrl
=,4= hlg <,==0 ndtagl supdr nael A.@. 7 <,==0 ilgtlg supdr nael A.@. 5 =,4=.
<.
]drlglg ̀ rjfjsjf ‟ [ hlg ‟ Q plhl Hrjsjpkael sp.
_dndeufgyl tdelk ha`dtlkua nlkwl `rjfjsjf ‟ [ plhl Hrjsjpkael
fdfaea`a bdg-bdg ylgb fdgdgtu`lg saclt ndtagl. @doulea `rjfjsjf ‟ [
fdfnlwl `dkahuplg, `lrdgl atu elelt ylgb tahl` fdfaea`a `rjfjsjf ‟ [ (elelt
QJ) tahl` lhl (edtle). @rjfjsjf ‟ Q tahl` fdfpugyla pdgblruk hlelf
pdgdgtulg idgas `delfag. _aclt `dilgtlglg hatdgtu`lg jedk lutjsjf, tdtlpa
`jfjsjf ‟ Q fdgdgtu`lg `dsunurlg (cdrtaeatls). Tgtu` atu, elelt ylgb tahl`
fdfaea`a `rjfjsjf ‟ Q (elelt [J) flghue (stdrae).
>. Xdrplut _d`s plhl Hrjsjpkael fdelgjblstdr
Lhlgyl pdrastawl tdrplut sd`s fuel-fuel hatdfu`lg jedk X.K.
Fjrblg. ]lhl sultu klra, al fdgdfu`lg elelt Hrjsjpkael ilgtlg ndrwlrgl
putak, sdhlgb`lg ylgb gjrfle ndrfltl fdrlk. Jedk `lrdgl ylgb ndrfltl
putak atu fdgyafplgb hlra ylgb gjrfle fl`l elelt atu haglfl`lg
futlg.Rlrgl fltl plhl Hrjsjpkael fdelgjblstdr , L. Ndtagl ndrfltl fdrlk
(gjrfle)0 N. Ilgtlg ndrwlrgl putak (futlg).
Fjrblg sdbdrl fdgblwag`lg elelt ilgtlg ndrfltl putak atu hdgblg
elelt ndtagl gjrfle (ndrfltl fdrlk) hlg fdghlplt`lg elelt-elelt `dturuglg
C< ylgb sdfulgyl gjrfle (ndrfltl fdrlk), nla` ylgb ndtagl flupug ylgb
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ilgtlg. @dta`l elelt-elelt C< ha`lwag`lg hahlplt`lg `dturuglg C> ylgb
fdfpdreaklt`lg pdrnlghagblg · ndrfltl fdrlk, µ ndrfltl putak. @doulea
atu, elelt C> ndtagl sdfulgyl ndrfltl fdrlk, tdtlpa sdplruk hlra iufelk elelt
ilgtlg ndrfltl fdrlk sdhlgb sdplruk ylgb elaggyl ndrfltl putak.
]dr`lwaglg rdsaprj`gyl fdfndra `dturuglg ylgb ndrelaglg, ylatu
sdful elelt ndtagl hlelf C< ndrfltl fdrlk sdhlgb`lg sdful elelt ilgtlg
ndrfltl putak. Hlelf `dturuglg C> nla` ylgb ndtagl flupug ylgb ilgtlg
fdfaslk 4=% ndrfltl fdrlk hlg 4=% ndrfltl putak.Ndrhlslr`lg klsae
ndndrlpl pdrojnllg pdr`lwaglg ylgb hael`u`lggyl atu, Fjrblg fdgblfnae
`dsafpuelg nlkwl bdg pdgydnln fltl ndrwlrgl putak atu lhlelk rdsdsac hlgtdrhlplt plhl `rjfjsjf-[.
?. Lede blghl plhl Hrjsjpkael sp.
Nlgyl` vlralsa tdgtlgb wlrgl fltl plhl elelt aga hlg wlrgl fltl atu
ndrhdrlilt, fuela hlra fdrlk tul hlg fdrlk tdrlgb slfpla plhl wlrgl putak.
Ndrnlbla flolf wlrgl atu fdrupl`lg futlg ylgb hatdgtu`lg jedk sultu sdra
lede blghl. Lede ylgb hjfaglg lhlelk w+ , sdhlgb ylgb rdsdsac lhlelk w.
Xlnde Rlrgl Fltl plhl Hrjsjpkael (hasusug fuela hlra ylgb pleagb
hjfaglg `d ylgb pleagb rdsdsac).
Bdgjtap Elelt Rlrgl fltl
w+
w+
Fdrlk tul (elelt gjrfle)woj woj Fdrlk gyltl
wsltwslt _ltsufl
wojwoj @jrle (`lrlgb)
wwww Lgbbur
wo wo Nulk tlej` (―okdrry‖)
wdwd Djsag
w w Hlrlk
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wlwl Lpra`jt
w nc w nc @ueat pdgbbjsj` (―nucc‖)
Rw ]utak
N. Flgusal
<. _aghrjf turgdr
_aghrjf Xurgdr ltlu Teeraok-saghrjf Xurgdr (iubl ha`dgle sdnlbla
"hasbdgdsas bjglh") fdeaputa ndndrlpl `jghasa, ylgb fjgjsjfa [ (tahl`
lhlgyl `rjfjsjf sd`s sdeuruk) lhlelk ylgb pleagb ufuf. Aga lhlelk
`delaglg `rjfjsjf ha flgl sdful ltlu nlbalg hlra slelk sltu `rjfjsjf
sd`s tahl` lhl (flgusal tahl` tdrpdgblruk fdfaea`a 83 `rjfjsjf, haflgl >
lhlelk `rjfjsjf sd`s). @kls pdrdfpulg fdfaea`a > `rjfjsjf [, tlpa
hlelf saghrjf Xurgdr.
Lhl `delaglg casa` `lrl`tdrasta`, sdpdrta pdrlwl`lg pdghd`,
pdfndgb`l`lg, hlhl ednlr, blras rlfnut rdghlk, rdghlk-sdt tdeagbl, hlg edkdr
ndrsdelput. Lgl` pdrdfpulg hdgblg saghrjf Xurgdr nalslgyl fdgblelfa
hascugbsa bjglh (jvlrauf tahl` nd`dril), ylgb fdgbl`anlt`lg lfdgjrd (tahl`
lhlgyl sa`eus fdgstrulsa) hlg `dflghuelg. Flslelk `dsdkltlg Ojgourrdgt
iubl sdragb klhar, tdrflsu` pdgyl`at ilgtugb nlwllg, kapjtarjahasfd (sd`rdsa
kjrfjg tarjah ndr`urlgb), halndtds, flslelk pdgbeakltlg, flslelk
pdghdgblrlg, hlg nlgyl` pdgyl`at lutjafug elaggyl.
>. _aghrjf @eagdcdetdr
_aghrjf @eagdcdetdr lhlelk `delaglg ylgb klgyl tdrilha plhl el`a-
el`a. El`a-el`a gjrfle fdfaea`a `rjfjsjf [ hlg `rjfjsjf Q ([Q).Xdtlpa el`a-el`a ylgb fdfaea`a saghrjf @eagdcdetdr fdfaea`a `rjfjsjf [
tlfnlklg sdkagbbl iufelk `rjfjsjf sd`s gyl fdgilha [[Q, hlg
cjrfuel `rjfjsjf fdrd`l fdgilha 82,[[Q, nu`lg 83, [Q , Jrlgb-jrlgb
hdgblg `delaglg aga sdolrl cdgjtap sdnlbla el`a-el`a hdgblg `lrl`tdrasta`
ednak cdfagag, kle aga sdfl`ag fdgilha idels sllt fdrd`l fdflsu`a clsd
pundrtls. Xagbba nlhlg fdrd`l haltls tagbba rltl-rltl, tahl` fdgugiu``lg
lhlgyl pdr`dfnlgblg `delfag sd`ughdr, sdpdrta tahl` tufnuk rlfnut
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plhl wlilk (`ufas, idgbbjt, hlg olfnlgb), tahl` tufnuk rlfnut plhl
`dtal`, hlhl hlg punas. @dednaklg `rjfjsjf [ ndrhlfpl` elgbsugb plhl
`dtahl`flfpulg tdstas fdfndgtu` spdrfl hlg kjrfjg `delfag el`a-el`a
sdpdrta tdstjstdrjg.
?. Rlgatl supdr
_aghrjf Xraped-[ lhlelk sltu idgas vlralsa `rjfjsjf hasdnln`lg
jedk pdrwuiuhlg ? `rjfjsjf [ (trasjfa) hlelf blfdt. ]dghdratl
fdfpugyla cdgjtap pdrdfpulg. _aghrjf Xraped-[ tdrilha tdrilha l`anlt
lngjrfleatls pdfndelklg `rjfjsjf fdgilha blfdt sdflsl fdajsas.
]drdfpulg hdgblg `dlhllg aga (ednak `urlgb =.<% pjpuelsa pdrdfpulg)
hlg tahl` fdfaea`a rasa`j tdrklhlp flslelk `dsdkltlg elaggyl. @lrajtap
pdghdratl saghrjf Xraped-[ fdfpugyla 82 `rjfjsjf. _aghrjfl trapde [
aga hlelf ndndrlpl kle hlplt hanlghagb`lg hdgblg elelt Hrjsjpkael ndtagl
supdr ([[[). Xdtlpa plhl Hrjsjpkael, elelt hdfa`alg atu nalslgyl slgblt
lngjrfle hlg stdrae ltlu nlk`lg edtle. _dhlgb`lg jrlgb pdrdfpulg [[[
`lhlgb-`lhlgb su`lr handhl`lg hdgblg jrlgb pdrdfpulg gjrfle,
fds`apug lhl tlghl-tlghl `delaglg sdpdrta fdgtle lngjrfle, fdgstrulsa
slgblt tahl` tdrltur. oara-oara ufuf pdghdratl syghrjfd traped [ ylatu Casa`
Ednak tagbba hlra jrlgb gjrfle (`arl-`arl <2>of), @dplel `doae,
fjgbjeasfd,Xdrhlplt eapltlg `ueat plhl dpaolgtkle.
8. ]ral [QQ
]lhl saghrjfl [QQ sdjrlgb nlya el`a-el`a tdrelkar hdgblg`dednaklg `rjfjsjf Q, ]ral nalslgyl klgyl fdfaea`a < `rjfjsjf [ hlg
< `rjfjsjf Q.hablfnlr`lg sdnlbla 83,[Q pral hdgblg saghrjfl [[Q
fdfaea`a > `rjfjsjf Q hlg hablfnlr`lg sdnlbla82 [QQ. Ndra`ut
Ojgtjk blfnlr pral hdgblg ̀ rjfjsj1f [QQ
_delag `delaglg ylgb lhl plhl sde `delfag, lhlpuel `delaglg
lutjsjf hlplt tdrilha plhl pralhlg wlgatl, sultu ojgtjk ylgb nlgyl`
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tdrhlplt haaghjgdsal alelk saghrjf hjwg. _aclt pdghdratl saghrjf hjwg
nalslgyl tunukgyl `deakltlg pdghd` hlg pugtagb, fu`l ednak nuelt,
`dejpl` fltl ltls fdfaea`a eapltlg dpa`lgtus sdkagbbl farap hdgblg jrlgb
jradgtle, aras fltl `lhlgb-`lhlgb nagta`- nagta` hasdnut ―nruskcadeh‖, fueut
nalslgyl sdeleu tdrnu`lhlg uiugb eahlk fdfndslr `deulr hlra eunlgb
fueut, kahugb ednlr hlg hltlr, plhl tdelpl` tlgblg (hlra slelk sltu `dhul
tlgblg) klgyl tdrhlplt sdnulk blras kjrazjgtle, anu ilra `l`a `dhul ilra
`l`a nalslgyl tahl` rlplt, fdfaea`a `delaglg ilgtugb, fdfaea`a A\ ylgb
slgblt rdghlk, sdeleu fdfpdreaklt`lg wlilk bdfnarl, hlg nalslgyl
`dnlgyl`lg pdghdratl saghrjf Hjwg fdrupl`lg lgl` tdrl`kar hlra sultu
`deulrbl ndslr ylgb usal anugyl plhl wl`tu fdelkar`lg lgl` tdrsdnut
suhlk tdreleu tul.
Lhl sd`atlr <4= saclt fdgurug plhl flgusal ylgb `dfugb`aglg
ndslr hasdnln`lg jedk bdg-bdg tdrtlut [, halgtlrlgyl9
l)
Nutl wlrgl
Lhl hul flolf nutl wlrgl, ylatu nutl wlrgl tjtle hlg nutl
wlrgl fdrlk kailu. ]dghdratl nutl wlrgl tjtle klgyl hlplt fdeaklt
wlrgl katlf hlg putak. Nutl wlrgl hasdnln`lg jedk bdg rdsdsac, on
(hlra `ltl ―ojejr neagh‖) ylgb tdrtlut `rjfjsjf [. lplnael bdg rdsdsac
ndrplslgblg hdgblg `rjfjsjf[,tahl` fdgydnln`lg nutl wlrgl,tdtlpa
aghavahu ylgb ndrslgb`utlg fdfnlwl saclt nutl wlrgl(olradr). lplnael
bdg rdsdsac ndrplslgblg hdgblg `rjfjsjf Q,l`lg fdgydnln`lg pral
nutl wlrgl.
n) Kdfjcaeal
Kdfjcaeal lhlelk sultu pdgyl`at fdgurug ylgb fdgbl`anlt`lghlrlk su`lr fdfnd`u. Ia`l jrlgb gjrfle fdgblelfa eu`l, hlrlkgyl
l`lg sdbdrl fdfnd`u hlelf wl`tu 4-2 fdgat , sdhlgb`lg pdghdratl
kdfjcaeal hlrlkgyl nlru l`lg fdfnd`u lgtlrl 4= fdgat kagbbl > ilf.
_dkagbbl, hlplt fdgbl`anlt`lg `dfltalg `lrdgl `dklnaslg hlrlk.
o) Lglhjgtal
Lglhjgtal fdrupl`lg `delaglg fdgurug ylgb hasdnln`lg
jedk bdg rdsdsac plhl `rjfjsjf [. pdghdratl Lglhjgtal tahl` pdrglk
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fdfaea`a ndgak baba ha hlelf tuelgb rlklgbgyl,sdkagbbl baba tahl`
l`lg tufnuk. @delaglg aga ednak sdragb haiufpla plhl pral. Lede L
fdgdgtu`lg jrlgb ylgb ndrbaba gjrfle, lede rdsdsac l fdgdgtu`lg
jrlgb ylgb lglhjgtal .
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NLN AAA
@D_AF]TELG
Ndrhlslr`lg urlalg ylgb tdelk haidels`lg hlplt hapdrjedk `dsafpuelg
nlkwl9
<. Cl`tjr-cl`tjr ylgb fdfpdgblruka idgas `delfag alelk cl`tjr bdgdta` hlg
cl`tjr eagb`ugblg.
>. Xapd-tapd idgas `delfag plhl fl`keu` kahup alelk9
l. Xapd [[ hlg [Q
n. Xapd YJ hlg YY
o.
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