the Cornell University Library.
the United
169
Contemporaries . . .
232
Reform
of
Logic
and
Skepticism
376
54.
Knowledge
Knowledge
61. Geoeg
Wilhelm Hegel
549
577
Intellect
and
Intuition
577
Metaphysics
579
74.
Realistic
new
stages, towards
shall
the
as he
his work. They
achievement, that
naive, child-
people
own
aims
be
historico-critical.
The
man
of the
their origin
essentially resem-
are
the
history
with
these
the
secondary
to
of
examination:
philosophy (including ancient, medieval,
History
of
Philosophy;
"Weber,
History
of
10th ed.)
of
contains Oriental
Gottesgedanke
of
Materialism,
Sidg-wick,
History
of
Ethics;
Rand,
Classic
Moralists
(selections
la philosophic morale
Strunz,
of
mathematics
Philosophic
d
Gegenwart.
Philosophical
journals:
Philosophical
Review,
International
Journ
of
with
world,
We
essential
features
Greek
thinking
and
mountain
colonies enjoyed
traditions, and
institutions is
apt to
develop-
ment
and
of human thought and action. To a
people naturally
energy
and
ambition,
religion, morals, literature,
on
the
main-
land
and
in
characteristics
everywhere
we
patriarchal
monarchy.
The
the
few
leads
to
the
establish-
ment
of
as time
goes on,
of
the
Greek
tom
a
gradually
Al-
misery
and
transitoriness
the home-spun virtues and lamenting the decline of the good
old
days.
rise
of
of
men,
to
the
gods.
order of things is
gnomic poets (Solon,
Phocylides, Theognis), whose
individual is
thoughts
and
yearnings.
Eventually,
ences,
leads
a
galaxy
of
superior
its work
ethical
head
of
in
theories
mythology
as
the
belong
the
a scientific
easily
satisfied
by
superseded
by
explanation.
It
is
an
effort
of
inquiry
the
Ethics
is
made
are studied
is the
mind to solve the world-problem and
a
teareh after truth;
is
the
problem
of
conduct
happiness; the
to happiness;
according
(b)
The
theological
with
Oriental
ophy,
pp.
8-11;
Zeller,
Outlines,
pp.
7-14;
Ueberweg-Heinze,
Part
I,
§7.
that reality
is alive:
the original
to
it is unthinkable that an element, like fire,
should ever
tha
change, is the significant characteristic of
reality. The problei
ca
become
of the
he hole
change, however, is
the parts
Nothin
can
sense
but
an
do
change
to
the
prin-
mind,
Greek
colony,
about
624
as a
statesman, mathema-
give
lists
name.
Thales
prob-
has been
therefore,
b.(
He
Anaximande
of which only
he
regarded
naivel
consequence
the
hot
the cold into mois
expands and breaks
up the spher
and
thes
are
the
heavenly
bodies,
the highest
planets. The earth
is
wha
Out
sun evaporated
it, the
other
to b
an
fragment is
it is
air
soul,
and extends infi-
by
Hippo (fifth
of
all
being.
n
Hi
He
said
his
which he passed, but
in
Gree
I
colonies
in
Southern
Italy,
that his opposition to the
tyranny
t
the
He
j
as
whole.
t
1
realize this end, he emphasized the need of moral training: the
ir
t
dividual
should
his
passions,
t
harmonize
for
of self-examination
applying
them
selves
to
the
and,
watchword being: first to
th
its aim the
of these
rules were
laid down
the Pythagorean soeiet
of his
Archytas
of
Tarentum
(most
relation
in
the
world ;
of
things,
and
everything
make
as
relation,
essence of
based on the
of
bodies
can
is
harmony.
its attention to the
planets
revolve,
turned
by
means
of
transparent
moving
spheres
to
which they are The fixed stars are fastened to the
highest arch of heaven, which revolves around
the central fire
number, there must
a
counter-earth,
living
on
represents an
cit., vol. I.)
nature
of
objective
these
substances
could
be
trans-
that
some
thinker
should
becoming.
To
the]
1
it
is
unthinkable
a
thing
shoul
jj
really
and that bein
Ephesus,
his Heraclitus
fault. He
frequentl
same rivers, for other and yet other waters
are
r>'^'°'^-?
bring
out
by
him
vapo
or
To
some
interpretei
the
fire-principle
is
merely
a
o
substance,
pure
activity.
Heraclitus,
however,
most
likely,
di'
not
reason
the
thing
out
its
in its qualities, there
be
predicated
of
it.
from a union of
for
strife
or
opposition,
it is
good and just, for
things in
and opposi-
in things, the logos. The first principle
is,
~
s
the
sonl-
wbic
ji
is
akm
^o
reason,
to
th
e
law
life,
to
motion are un-
behoo 01
school
Southern
Italy,
(3)
Zeno
ism
with
and
could
men
do,
horses
gods
them with bodies accord-
"So
the
by
All
Greeks always conceived
and
grow,
arose
was
The
been a
ment
from
whatever is always
element.
Organic
beings
body,
oiTappearance and
"lo existTor
perceive"sucEli
to
Motion
and
space
are
impossible
for
space is
through
a
certain
of
that
space;
fully con-
of permanence
and change
so far
to
come
from
nothing,
to
become
nothing,
without quality.
Empedocles, two
to
unite
and
to
the
Atomists,
mo-
tion
is
son of
but a
religious teacher,
the
title
Purifications.
;
indestructible, and fill the all. Bodies are formed by the
coming
together
by
their
dis-
union.
The
other,
into
supreme.
But
gradually
accounts for
in
from the object
similar
particles
through the pores of the eye, through the attraction of the par-
ticles
Greek
influenced
all
Hellas.
Anaxagoras
(500-428
B.C.),
of
Anaxagoras
of
atheism,
clear
accepted
the
Eleatie
notion
made up
build
up
the
body.
the so-called simple elements of Empedocles
are in
as
the
observed
by
the
moist.
collected where
The
by
tion, and to the
essarily from
account
for
movements
not
other-
wise
explainable.
It
is
in
the
surrounding
the natural-
and
this
they
Atomists.
The
Atomists
agree
with
to
composed of
simpler units,
died 370.
as
a
mathematician.
is
impossible
the
Atomists
insist,
non-being,
but
it
exists:
what
is
That
is,
indivisible,
compact,
shapes of atoms, some
having hooks, others eyes,
the
larger
thus
created.
From
are
of perception
pass
though longer-
lived. There
atoms
than
organs.
Atoms,
sense-perception does not
here
made
phi-
not
body,
eration in pleasure and symmetry of life. The less we
desire,
harm
everybody.
not
merely
by
his
desires."
full
of
gods
and
occult
mytliica]
of the Greeks
are
;
study of
of observation and
in which
the construction
of great
systems of
and
de-
velop
and
sorts of
field
of
study,
and
was
greater era
many
false
zation
in
Homer,
with
the
men meditated upon
day; the
; the
object
gave
a
further
impetus
to
and the things that
success.
The
tradi-
foundations were
(Aufkldrung) .
individualism. The individual
thoughts and to work
man's opinion
"
a
man
who
lis-
popular
as
the
causes
of
your word.
us
the
zation. According
enjoyment.
picture,
the
picture
other
side
by
the
Sophists.
The
about,
he
answers
well as
and
the
soil
their
attention
to
moral
and
political
questions,
and
so
of
ethics
and
later
make their
to
by
him with all
which had,
in a
No two philosophers,
water,
again
we
cannot
know,
for
then
him
unto himself in matters
then knowledge
These
B.C.) and Gorgias, but
of the younger
The
they
may
is shameful
and unjust
his
neighbors ;
powerful than the
on
the Scythians?
Nay, but
according
according to that artificial
sufficient
force,
he
would
all this; he
against
unjust.
the just less. Secondly, in their dealings
with the State: when there is an income-tax, the just man will
pay
when
other
much. Observe also what happens when they take an office; there
is
perhaps suffering
on the large
and my
of temples,
But
when
a
man
happy
and
blessed,
at
first,
give
has
been
done
was
of
heaven
attention
forest
for
the
trees,
they
did
not
see
mere blind,
—a study
fruit.
reli-
gion,
custom,
morals,
and
the
institutions
based
on
them,
to
upon
thinkers
the
need
its laws,
what is
A
man
into
the
intellectual
and
moral
false,
liberals. The
man appeared
father
evidently
created
as he
in his old
large
mouth
and
uncouth,
in
Plato's
began to
the effect of his brilliant conversation.
Xenophon, Memorabilia, transl.
Works mentioned
Lehre
dea
Sokrates
saw clearly that
in,
construct
a
system
help them
than in
a theory
no
knowledge
at
edifice
will
tumble
to
pieces
upon
business
to
clear
is as
good as
another. This,
is an ingenious
was master
for
nothing.
by
suggesting
instances
the
truth
has
to
him
and
products
injustice
as
well.
Very
acts
what
of
injustice.
I
we put
Not
one
of
unheard-of thing.
some
cases
I suppose
are
about this
on
cheats him
him to take
have to go
just side too. Or suppose you find a friend in
desperate frenzy,
he
the
process, that
to
reach
clear
example,
that
this
man
who
he
way
be
friends
of
foes?
Doubtless.
And
he
in
he used
to say
terms
cor-
rectly,
"
being;
or
"
his studies for the
the
divine
opera-
discovered
by
base? What
knowl-
of
living?
How
ought
a
ure of
par-
ticular
good.
There
know
the
good
and
not
choose
it.
With
man's
interest.
and just.
you
that
virtue
is
as private." And
When
oh
my
friends,
trouble them
and
have received
justice at
construct
he
offer
a
theory
of
knowledge
upon foundations laid
the
turned their attention to
virtue
with
the
Bleatic doctrine of the unity of being: the notion of the
good
constitutes
the
—^has real be-
developed by
master.
they
were
intimately
connected
with
and
they
could
not
became
but
the
been compared
on two occasions
in the hope
of assisting in
the realization of
B.C.
a
abstract thought
come
by
as to
Attempts
to state with certainty
the exact time and
belong: Apology,
Hippias Minor,
Charmides, Laches,
as
the
Zeller refers
this period),
Gorgias. Meno,
article by
the
dialogue.
This
logic, in which
which
truth
is
reached.
We
a
telling
ideal. Although Plato
(practical
philosophy,
such
a
division
with logic,
or dialectics.
as mere
scious
of
they
act
ine
of truth, the Eros, which is aroused by the contemplation
of beautiful ideas: we pass
from the contemplation of beauty
to contemplation
idea, to conceptual knowledge, from the particular to the uni-
versal.
The
generalization and
we
addition
logical
notions,
knowledge,
something
real
essence
of
things.
Thought
alone,
that
same in all change
to
appeal
to
metaphysics,
Sense-knowledge,
accidental;
hence
it
cannot
be
get at
the heart
of reality.
of
consists
such ideas
the mind;
'
in the
forever.
or
insig-
nificant
to
have
its
without plurality,
organic
spiritual
unity,
idea of
meaning cannot be grasped by the
senses, which
rise
to
a
vision
Heraclitus,
that
the
How
the
idea
to
account
for
sense
a
lower
so
far
imperfection
of a
dualism.
makes
mind
the
paramount
principle
his
other
teachings,
but
a
human artist or workman, the Demiurge or Creator fashions the
world after the pattern of the ideal world; guided
by
fire, water,
this
is
the
are the
and
purposeful
shown
kinds
of
knowledge,—
sense-perception,
opinion,
and
genuine
pure reason. The
phenomenal
the soul
has
viewed
and
irrational
part,
which
fits
seek to
has
contemplated
the
least,
be
eternal;
for
only
preexistenee
and
are:
the pure rational
a material
body as
in overcoming
the lower
a stage
psychology
is
the
of the soul, for
He did not
foundations for
meaning
and
larger
ques-
meta-
physics.
The
cultivate
reason,
the senses
indeed, the
the
body
and
the
contemplation
counsel, will
pleasure, to
the instructions of reason as to what is to be feared
and
what
not.
He
is
temperate
when
will
and
appetite
agree
with
is
just
mind
brave
not repudiate
which
highest
good.
Happiness
attends
from
the
usual
Greek
concep-
dead
mysticism.
and
about
conditions
subordinate
his
virtuous, there
is,
There
are
as
the
spirited
as
their
function
and
guardian,
does
its
own
work
vulgar
question
who
ought
to
govern.
Every
individual
ought
to
us
meddle-
some.
hence, Plato opposes
supported
by
the
workers),
communism
and
the
common
pos-
session
exposure
of
art
and
literature.
Plato
of
art,
re-
is
itself
a
mere
;
its foundation
are now called kings
At
the
age
of
worthy
the dream
con-
small
city-state,
not
a
po-
litical
theory.
A
good
or
insight,
freedom
and
friendship.
a rational knowledge of the universe to be possible, as
well
in reason and not in sense-perception.
Bxperi-
£1.^,
world
or
world
is
a
the contami-
and
teleo-
logical
final
that
it
the
whole
world
is
The great
on Christian philosophy
reasonable to the
its
mys-
ticism,
its
of
teachings, and
early
Church,
until Cameades
as
needed
to
a satisfactory prin-
not
at
least
world
Macedon. At the
for twenty years
death of Plato
Mitylene,
time
the
the Lyceum. (It
death
he died
322 B.C.
in
his
judgment
his
though
Analytics
(Syllogism;
of
art
is
dealing mainly
collection
heading to
writings on
Aristotle
as
and
parts
Complete
Aristoteles-
Psychology by
Hammond, Hicks,
in
presupposi-
inter-
things, the
make them what
perceive,
but
part
to rise
accounts for
with
certain
parts
so
partial,
sciences
or
Aristotle further
to make
logic.
we have familiarized ourselves with
the Analytics.
content
language,
called
propositions;
ferent kinds
of judgments,
different
kinds
defined
and
logic to-day.
name.
The
necessarily
ence: in
all the cases.
Valid or scientific
necessarily
from
the
sions of
go
on
or principles
of
its
own,
and
there
are,
besides,
universal
Such
forms
constitute
the
essences
out,
to
thought and being coincide; truth
is the agreement of thought
with
being.
Our
us
are
the
first
principles.
be
its work, until
the universals lying
experience,
by
implicit
By the
times only
eight, such
it is
Lyceum:
(burns: activity), and
matter
with-
out
substance; Aristotle, on
to
which
is
it
is
those, it
is now
forms, a series of forms, one form following another; matter
persists,
but a
sponsible for the rich and growing world around
us.
"When
a
ing,
its
its realiza-
acorn
be-
think,
but
which
marble, matter for the statue.
In order, then, to explain our world of change we must
assume
of
forms
and
matter
have
realizes itself in
; he acts on matter
his
mind),
same
causes
organic
world;
only,
the purpose of
becomes what it
at
work
in
the
immutable
form,
how
so
totle lays the
longer mere possibility,
its
own
moving. For if
is
moving
it,
but
of their essence because of the highest good, or God
his
principle of the world, the center towards which all things
strive,
the
beauty, and
the
in the
piecemeal,
moving
along
in
this
regard
he
agrees
more
bodies,
space
ceases
to
whole,
but
only
its
parts
with
another)
; and
local
(change
of
change.
The
elements,
the things themselves.
change
by
active
the
motion
with
a
spirit
parative
zoology.
As
in
his
the
qualitative,
dynamic,
and
;
number,
size,
shape,
perceptTon;
the
universal and
l. It is
from without
course
I
an
theory of
ultimate
prin-
j
consists
realize or make
good
for
man
is
functions
which
make
him
realize
its
purpose,
the
diiferent
right way
liberality, etc.).
extremes
(the
This
teaching,
however,
fies
when
he
of nobleness, when he
his
friends
one
year
than
of
do
to love
his friend is a second
self
virtuous
man.
Justice
in
each
most
its own
"
in
power to live in
need
laws
to
teach
us
zens.
In
State
in
time,
social
life
is
however,
is
to
the
citizens
are
nearly
equal)
being
good
forms,
and
the
tyranny,
oligarchy,
and
democracy
"
of music;
succeeded Strato
(269-225) in
the headship,
the practical prob-
his mission
in
the
clear thinking
sible
to
schools,
too,
fondness
in his
God, but he,
Socratie movement
362)
brought
Sparta
to
defeat.
After
a
long
after
his
death
(323).
was delivered into
in many thoughtful minds.
institutions and the general
for
both of them saw the need of
offering
a
ing
of
in
it is necessary to
Logic answers
these questions
from
error.
whence he
of
life
happiness
it will yield.
as a
in
it;
for them is a living God. Since man is a part of this
great rational whole,
this
he
should do, not for the sake of his own narrow personal
advantage, not for the sake of pleasure,
but
for
the
sake
of
the
no
happiness
possible
for
obtain
through
Nature, consisting of
thirty-seven books), only
the
Roman
poet
Lucretius
(94-54),
the Nature
age.*
Of
the
Epicurea,
1887,
as
well
man to
„, „
,
is
teach
us
produced
knowledge
particular
concrete
a
mark.
In
addition
to
sensations
and
ideas,
we
atoms is
as
our
is the criterion
directly
perceived
them,
alone
contained
or
there
must
be
empty
space,
can
only
be
ex-
plained
as
in
them
they
are
or cut (hence
limited, according to Epicurus.
them, i.e.,
they
simply
must,
therefore,
swerve just the least
each,"
in atoms, freedom
less disturbing
inexorable
necessity.
other things;
otherwise it
of
extremely
fine,
minute,
round,
it
owes
a
directing
or
soul
is
soul
is
dissolved
us ;
Lucretius
says
this life."
Sense-perception is
mind
whole
body;
the
from
another
and
Were
just
as
is
mental
enjoyment
greater
the
joys
of
nature,
death
we
things, that
a person to
is immoderate.
a
to
follow
All laws and
individual, that is, they
been
to
judge and to live in constant fear of punishment, that
is
an
not
contribute
at
Athens,
which
the
influence
of
and Aristotle.
Cynic he
places
a large
294
Poikile
by
popular,
represented
by
Musonius
Rufus
of the
&eek school,
Roman
Empire)
we
philosophy,
though
we
are
unable
Greek and Latin writings.
Translations of Epictetus, Discourses
Die
Stoa,
Hirzel, Untersuchungen
Stoikers
nerzeit;
basis
fruit.
thoughts and dis-
inferences,
as
well
logic, and are the founders of
our traditional
science of
knowledge and discusses
do we
stamp.
Chrysippus
speaks
of
sensation
subject
concepts, however, are
to
their
likeness,
(Xoyo?)^
essence,
with
the
universal
of
the
world
according
to
its
of
the
them.
of
the
delusive.
"What shall
sensation
that
is
called
bj»
Zeno
a
conceptual
our concepts
for
error
or
eral
not, however,
advanced
on;
and
since
only
bodies
kind
as we
merely
fill the spaces between the molecules, but is present in every
smallest piece of reality and continuous throughout the
universe.
Each
particular
thing
has
qualities
to
causes can act
Stoics
approximate
to
one
all-pervasive
force
or
fire
(Heraclitus),
the
because
—intelligent,
good,
and
related
to
the
matter
of
world
to body:
the
germs
or
as
is
pantheism.
The
situated a
it
spreads
form one
single godhead,
In
these
the substance from which
process of
notions are
not consistently
The
divine
element
itself
differentiates
into
forms
of
universe is
to
tire,
the
same
law.
Every-
so
far
as
a
manifestation
of
Grod,
how
shall
we
The
Stoics
:
are
only
There are different
which all
spark
of
the
divine
fire;
he
is
thfl
microcosm, his own nature being identical with that of the All.
Hence
of
same world-soul.
The same
Virtue,
therefore,
is
the
only
this
is that
conduct
opinion
the
passions
of
a
future
is
will
or
character.
be
brave
and
their
ethics,
free
will.
As
we
have
already
sole standard
of discrimination
same universal reason
one
State;
common
good,
life in the
State. But they could
Common
morality is the
^
con-
ducive
they are at
just,
a
well-ordered,
beautiful
soul
bring happiness. All prize kind-
ness
to
love of neighbor
in himself.
placed on man as such, the ethical
philosophy of Stoicism even
are
influenced
by
national
prejudices;
both
look
upon
and just
beings are
the
sama
same
but
wise
nor
anci
and
14. Skepticism and
who
of
thought
period)
purged
which
phie, 2 vols.
sensation
is
knowledge,
sensations
here
for
us
constantly
a sensation
have
no
criterion
for
knowing
the
nature
of
things,
we
have
sufficient
certainty,
e.g.,
percept,
of
probability
judgment.
The
according
futility
ground that
if he
has sensation
he
is
unchangeable,
of
truth
reasons
given
by
edge
Proofs
existence
of
God.
The
history
Greek
and
disputations.
They
were
not
profound
thinkers,
but
were
governed
by
com-
mon-sense:
B.C.),
Posidonius
(+91
B.C.),
L. Aunseus Seneca
Plato and Aristotle,
and come now
to a period
troubling
about
God.
Nor
refused
nothing less than
peoples
achievements of
religion.
The
particularly, Jewish religions.
teaching:
are:
beings,
demons,
and
of his
science,
and
philoso-
ot
Jerusalem.
The
first
direct
by
a
Peripatetic
and asserted
in
the
Scriptures
by
means
e.g., in
died
50
A.D.
He
exegetieal of which many are extant.
Ac-
oras and Plato, and
in the inspired teachings
of Moses and the
History
of
the
Jewish
People;
; we
are
imme-
or
instruments,
making
ourselves,
which
is
a
second
faculty
of
knowledge,
or the Platonic
as
a
source of
(original
sin).
to
we
are
himself from his
our souls.
we
^"Py*
^so-
took
devote themselves once,
the early
personality
and
work
had
Nigidius
ApoUonius of
Tyana, Moderatus,
title
to
Platonists,
and
others.
Neoplatonism. Plato's system
everything
comes,
he
Plotinus
years
old.
of his teacher,
writings each.
differ-
one,
being and beyond
all being. He
or thought
as
a self-
God
is
the
sun
from
which
sun.
He
uses
these
not depend on the
ness
go
separation
preceding
one,—
its
copy,
its
shadow,
its
accident.
But
nation:
pure
thought
of
Beine*^^
however,
is as
it should
implies the oneness of
image, or
copy of
case,
contemplates
pure
ideas;
The
first
phase
he
calls
indivisible
world,
it
exercise its
powers, to
act and
it
produces
no
trace
in
it
of
God,
it
is
darkness.
"We
intelligence.
response,
say,
to
an
act
of
will.
The
the
world-soul,
the
creation
of
receive
its
time
in
as
the world-soul,
guilt.
The
virtues of the phi-
.
of
ideas ;
theory
; it
theistic
in
existence of
and in the
published the
on
asceticism
pupils
was
School
at
the history of Greek philosophy came to an official end.
Athens
on
the
writings
Consolations,
and
Philoponus.
The
civilization
grew in-
plainly
loves all his children
man
was too lowly to be saved, that there was hope for
all,
that
Christ
on earth and
be
judgment
day,
from
fear;
purity
of
external
observance
of
levitieal
Love
and
least, to
tual,—
Among
the
factors
that
existence of
message effectively,
Christianity had
it, and
to show
weapons,—their
But it
be reached,
struggled for the
exposition,
the
the world and
attitude of mind
to
accepted
the
they
sought
order
to
succeed,
In the course of time, however, the intellect began to
free
History
of
Medieval
tionnaire
de
philosophie
of
the
Warfare
of
Science
with
Theology;
Mittelalter;
books
of
new
in
Chris-
personality,
the
a
cold
philosophical
religion according to their philosophical preconceptions, to
rationalize
gnosis). This work was done in the second century by
the
Gnostics,
as
they
Jew
had
inter-
philosophy, and had
to do
of
his
followers
abode
of a fall;
of
St.
therefore,
be
their
Testament, their distinction
tween an esoteric
exoteric Christianity, their
body
a
creature
of the early writers
as follows:
philosophers have
it is revealed
losophy
themselves
to
the
educated
classes.
:
was not only
of the
clergy, whose
Christian
theology
in
which
the
by
Migne,
all descrip-
rational
the
eternal
and
proceeds
from
reason
with the
source whence
Jesus Christ,
become familiar in
by
models.
God
from him
created beings;
of
reason
and
by
the
nothing,
plan which he carried in his mind. This system of
is
conceived
by
the
Apologists
active cause,
for
him,
as
isting has had a
however, is
bodies. Man may regain his
lost
divine
grace,
through
day
of
judg-
ment,
after
a
sojourn
of all. The
man or
that there
we
God.
theologians
debated
for
centuries
to
come,
and
the logos-doctrine
quarters
and
that
efforts
a
form
intelligible
to
those
largest following
among Christian
Patri-
God assumed flesh,
modes.
But
these
views
free will,
compromise
between
Arianism
and
Athanasianism
by
declaring
that
Christ
was studied chiefly
such
teachings
in
Origen's
system
then
evidently
he
was a
lave to
support
the
doctrines
labor. But
son
a being who is free to choose between right and
wrong
can
be
The same conclusions were
saving himself from
therefore,
be
re-
sponsible
for
sin
philosophy,
Refor-
mation
and
the
consider his
Africa, in
Monica, who
exercised a
became
a
influence
was
understand
the rationality of
believe, believe in
do
not
understand
faith
in
divine
revelation
is
a
comprehended the revelation,
on
is abso-
lutely free,
intermediate
illustrations which he
time
not
earlier
than
In order to
whole;
it is
privation of
essence (privatio
the
good;
for
everything
is
good,
or
fallen
angels;
a
God,
or
of
(2)
;
or
before their
it
from
the
as
bodies
from
of
his
age,
which
continuing to
faith.
The
char-
between the
of
a
Church
right."
a
The early
the
was a kind of
God.
In
short,
we
good
for
Augustine,
the
is
not
body, not his
Adam chose
but
spring, for
freedom, but
to
sense
is,
only
the
good
a man
to
account
as
a
going
to
happen
ha^
it;
but
resents
a
last
through whom divine
in the
of the Church,
although not every
no one
in
languages, new states,
beginning
of
the
assimi-
lated
changes its
Koman
Chris-
their
own
organs
and
theological
assumed the
the great writers in the East
and
torch
Greek
European
civilization,
a
tality,
in
which
the
literary
and
was
uge, not only
of
literature,
science,
manuscripts
were
copied
and
the
kept alive.
The monasteries
the
the ninth
book which may
now
turn,
Aleuin; West, Aleuin
and the Rise
philosophy
except
as
great
to
be
sure,
who
should
teach
human
authority
of
right
futile or
organizing them
the
proc-
to defend its
to
work
with the dogmas, that is, harmonize
Science
and
Faith.
before
them,
approach
is
to
could
not
be
learned
by
for an answer
God,
concerned
which he
processes,
but,
especially,
become
a
representative.
The
comprehensive systems
the
(nomina)
consequences
and Aristotle,
an ideal
which
are
somehow
mirrored
in
the
vogue in
that the
is gradually
beyond
parts of Plato's TimcBus
twelfth
century,
to have
his
of the
Greeca,
philosophy, authority
gion
are
in his creation
form and
as exhausting
to
nothing
and
yet
Man
being
rising
above
before our minds nothing
Christian
conceptions
intel-
ligible
by
inserting
them
a welcome
expected
gustine.
the work of
his contemporary Pasehasius
Radbertus, who pre-
sented Augustinian thoughts
The
appearance
of
;
^
ex-
ist
corporeal
from
con-
crete
sensible
of
a
universals
of the
nominalistic sense;
Notker Labeo
the twelfth century. It was well
suited to ward off
real,
over the
question of
a
splendid
foundation
upon
to and
not affected in
:
thought
based
accepted
on
authority.
He
bravely
God
is
if
God
the
being than the
's
thinking
more perfect than
has more
qualities than
is
true
such
a
being
the
being
In
Alexande]*of
and
1098)
Anselm
offers
his
theory
race. God's
inflicting the punishment
The
„°?„^"'^°"
"
one
God."
The
question
that
from
i.e., they
do not
Thus,
the
particu-
Peter
Abelard
et
contra)
and
deciding the
as
methods in theology.
we are to
One,
or
Goodness
(vovs),
the
what he thinks is
is
contrary
to
pursuit
of
all
sins.
A
good
will
in obedience
to divine
command. Such
spite
of
redemption,
and
the
in
from
the
State,
in
he
thinks,
good lies in a pious
life;
we
should
faith. We have
expression
of
but
to
enter
into
him. This mys-
conservative
Augustinian
of the
Christian Mysticism;
Schmidt.
"
surrender
leads beyond sense-perception
All that man can
this
same prem-
making
it
all
possible
to
as one
with many,
eradicated
the
sect.
In
1225
independent
than
the
schoolmen,
objects; this
was to
more
fell short of absolute rational certainty. And
yet the
was a
rational universe,
was
fixed
tamper
with
the
dog-
mas;
there
monastery
philosophy, medicine
theological school of Notre
The Dominican
suddenly
to
work
out
their
own
salvation.
and medicine
were
eagerly
spirit of Neoplatonism.
study
—
of,
the
Paris,
the
"
were,
mind," and as
things
based on
(twelfth century),
with
and
through
the
systems
and
commentaries
their
zeal
to
(632)
; by
had
Jones;
Shah-
rastani,
History
of
Arabian
and
Islam
suc-
ceeded
with
the
deliverances
Greek theories
were conceived
ethical, and reli-
as
a
preparation,
and
pedia
of
Sciences,
a
return
to,
copy
which he sprang.
emphasized: the
and
natural
they identify with
and the
subjects not infected
totle and
to
for
centuries.
In
their
by making
a
process
of
emanation.
For
Alfarabi,
matter
form
his active intellect. This is, according
to Alfarabi,
the ground
One of the numerous
end in the Orient
Christian
scholars,
Arabian
ideal
our
mental
functions.
"With
gradual evolution of the natural ca-
of
a
light,
By further
the
knowledge
becomes one with
is the individual
soul immortal, not
universal
With all
of the
vice versa.
faith.—Averroes
Cordova, whose
infidels.
the
notion
also
teaches
the
of the
once
produce
any
great
change
in
the
philosophical
conceptions
of
the
was
particularly
attractive
organized
the
field
'
'
difference
between
the
Aristotelian
system
which
made
did not
was
ties showed themselves, the
The church dogma had
movement.
Dominicans
(1222).
He
commentaries
on
Aristotelian
writings,
the
Works in 36
Moral
des
Albertus
Magnus.
Albert
was
the
offer
a
scholastic
system
based
prob-
lems
having
been
called
rather
taught
by
Benedictine
At
ship, he taught
Rome,
greatest Catholic
have
revelation of
natural reason; they
—beyond reason, but not
them, but we can disprove objections
to
be
intelligible
with
all
the
and
in certain
plicit
in
it;
the
with Aristotle in
universals
mind
explanation
objects
or substance
of a
and matter:
a
thing
help of
quantum
of
mat-
ter,
makes
matter
and
form,
but
form
God is pure form, pure actuality. We have a knowledge
of
by
edge. In
to the
Everything
that
is
moved
else
is
not
thing
cause of
mere
po-
cause. As pure
out
of
nothing.
For,
if
God
be
for
but
evidently
not
so
inextricably
and
and forms
a new
The arguments for immortality
common property of
versals
the
body
in his
in-
telligence
the soul
prompts
Man
by
an
external
can
choose
between
conceives.
The
too,
knowledge
good, but
enters
deliberation
must
laws
New
Testament.
Testament has an
has
fear
for
of
an
external
Thomas follows
Such acquired virtues
which is possible in
blessedness,
a
supernatural
so far
of the senses, it
indeed, for
the moral
the
highest
good
human life,
be it
virtue or
pilgrimage
to
God,
the
realize
may
be
evil;
it
evil,
however,
doctrine
of
salvation
that
follows
In
the
Aris-
totelian
are
conceived
man
man.
Through
will,
only with
the cooperation
of his
punish-
the
resurrection
The purpose
by a
and
to
the
secular
power.
man,
:
his Divina Commedia.
A modified Thomism is taught by the Jesuit Molina, Gabriel Vasquez
(+1604),
The Dominicans made Thomas
The
stages:
transcends
itself,
enters
a
who
of St.
See
India could be
arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music) and the physical
sciences, among which he
Tliigel,
empha-
sized
the
need
the influence
guish between
holding that though these
not
as
theological
the
University
of
capacity
of
reason
to
but is able to demonstrate with absolute certainty all the
mysteries
"
concerning all ques-
a
series
of
produce
answers.
With
Thomism,
con-
nections:
expression
Duns
Scotus
(born
c.
1265),
a
native
His
dialectical
acumen
and
skill
as
a
critic,
and
authorities. The
;
purpose
(God)
made between
separation
thoroughly
convinced
accepted. Universals
;
not
think
the
individual:
every
to
which
no
other
can
be
added.
or essence or what-
of the
„, ,
cannot
be
absolutely spiritual.
infer
a
first
cause
to
which
it
is
a
necessity
of
thought
to
ascribe
conscious
men
of
his
day
Duns
will or not to will. This
is
incon-
ceivable
to
human
reason,
will it,
in-
eluded,
and
intellect
to be
will if
in
{liberum
arbitrium).
the aid
which are gifts of
to
united
with
will.
or
nobler,
more
worthy
faculty
of
mined
by
his
so
willed.
in the
sense of
ways because
polygamy
we cannot
God is a
ciple, this,
good
their reasonings,
the
most
real
the
foundations
movement, however,
Summa totius logiees,"-
Hence
follows
the
importance
of
what
he
outside
the
mind,
they
do
ourselves,
he
has
knowledge
sense-perception.
do
also,
and all knowl-
a
cannot
into
the use of
how-
1348,
Vienna
in
1365,
Heidelberg
in
1386,
Cologne
in
than sense-perception
principle of contradiction, such
consistent development
personal
with
divine
four-
the
could
ticism,
a
tura
; and
(c. 1434).
prison of his
Neo-
Eckhart
platonic
elements,
which
had
great influence;
his significance
century,
God, but
hidden darkness
of the
God
and
God
only
by
thinking
himself,
and
again as
in him dwells
eternal creation.
God was
the
oppositions and
Godhead,
I may
emphasized the practical
the Main, and later discovered
by Luther, who
published it under
be sup-
posed, however,
long process of evolution and carried over from the past
many
of
toward
of
this world
Middle Ages.
The Fathers and the doctors of the Church are eager
to under-
desire
to
know
these
they
whetted
kingdom; the occurrences of
the
struggles
of
and
to
pay
homage
Boniface
to
1415;
during
three.
The
Babylonian
captivity
at
nation have its
within the Church itself,
opposition arises within
were nearly all the
worldly ai5fairs, and
doctrine
of
popular
sovereignty,
and
move-
waged
relentless
war
against
twelfth century
by
Peter
Waldo
in
1170,
He made the Bible
and
the
of
and
schoolmen we find liberal
to
run
coun-
sole
aim
entire
life
of
Abelard
impresses
one
as
a
conflict
between
intel-
Bernard
of
John
philosophy,
And
doctrines
empiricism
and
nominalism.
then
God. Things
we must observe
and return
offered in
the inter-
PHILOSOPHY OF THE KENAISSANCE
the
antagonism
to
the
Eeformation.
The
political relations of Church
silently
the
turns
its
gaze
from
manifests itself
his standards.
hardt. The Culture
I,
§§2,
ff.;
Falckenberg,
History
of
Modern
Philosophy,
pp.
to it
orators, and historians of the times. Art and architecture are
humanized,
as
of
world-denial,
to par-
ticipate in
accessible
to
Western
the
the
fashion
to
revive
the
old
of
a
work
(1433-1499), a Florentine,
of wisdom and the
century,
God
is
the
infinite
are
of
opposites,
thinking. Indeed,
is
the
maximum
thing.
going
doctrine of
one universal
intellect and
(+1555),
Scaliger
(1484-1558),
Cremonini
(1552-1631),
to
reconcile
the
who had chafed under
more than any one
38. Philosophy
We have
was
beginning
to
manifest
unravel
tastic and charlatanical form in many of the bolder
spirits
of
observation and
Pico of
Paracelsus are: R. Fludd
terrestrial or visible body,
(the spirit), which comes
God.
Hence,
four
ruled
by
the
arts could
and
the
remedies
theories and
by
istry,
mathematics. It
way
home.
Cf.
Lecky,
nature-philosophers who,
be independent
of Aristotle
Although
the
Ee-
naissance,
uses
as
his
principles
of
ex-
elements, heat
in matter,
;
and
is explained
of
principle
striving.
a natural-scientific
and
discarded for the
chemistry
of
of
Material-
ism;
sophical acumen.
decay in the strict
ment
quantitative relations; all qualities are explained
by
quantities.
explain
dis-
covered
and
formulated
by
Leonardo,
1633,
the
discovery
by
of
the
should
says, experience
facts under laws;
of the philosopher
mechanical
theory
of motion. Pere
ment
the
as
planetary
systems
like
in the infinite universe,
necessity.
unity
many,
all things. Form
without matter does
arise
but
the
called monads,
soul
itself
to
put
into
practice.
He,
also,
tells
us
to
which, in perfect
to the
other
words,
is
conceived,
with
Neo-
emanations from God
;
we
implies
an
infinite
cause.
system.
In
prevails
in it, there being no class distinctions except according to knowl-
edge.
Philosophers
(priests)
be a
different
occupations.
Cam-
tion
by
argu-
ments
premises.
The
Christian dogma,
or even
origin;
earth and the court of last resort in matters of
faith,
See the histories of
theory
and
presented
his
views
in
his
History
of
Florence
(1532),
Essays
on
the
First
Decade
of
Livy
(1532),
the citizen and
would
be
a
republic
Rome,
of
Renaissance.*)
and disorder of his
trickery
to
this
day,
ent
of
made
a
consideration
tical
necessity.
In
working
many
of
the
the
on the other, and
Jean
Bodin
(1530-1596)
1638)
the sovereignty
functionary or function-
ought
tion is upheld.
in his Utopia
1583-1645), a
De jure
ielli et
unalterable and
God himself
cannot change
was
fre-
quent
people grew.
and
extends
its
func'
and the
have seen.
also
in
them politics
theory
of
knowledge
and
inquiry
things
or
understand
as
a
whole,
but
Skepticism,
p.
117;
and
the
It was
coercion.
heart
against
the
humanism
had
turned
to
an-
the
human
conscience
; but
it
does
not
go
and
no less
than the Renaissance. In
vidualism. This
is not
what Luther
aimed at,
tative Church and
Although
the need
of rationalizing
appeal
interpreted
the
Chris-
tian
teachings
Anabaptists
and
Iconoclasts.
With
the
the
work
of
con-
structing
a
Aris-
has
were
of
used
Nicolaus
official church
the
common
people
of the
oppositions
and
as
the
original
source
undifferentiated,
un-
qualified,
motionless
the
fathomless
tastic
into German Protestant
 
viewed as an awakening
to
rest.
The
raised
time
attacked
the
paternalism
technology, medi-
spirit
of
the
nature.
It
;
und Mathematik,
2 vols.
Dunning, Political
experi-
ence
{ifiTtEipla)
as
the
reason
instead
of philosophy
in which
the dif-
as the ideal;
knowledge,
and
this
(a)
Genuine
knowledge
but
yield
only
probable
knowledge.
This
matics.
perceived
truths,
are
certain;
their
general
theory
of
knowledge;
the
nominalistic
traditions.
It
by
their
Besides these movements,
were
mystics,
and
foundations.
In
History
of
of
opposed to
as they
of
following
opinions
and
dealing
in
words,
goal the
quiring
been
hastily
formed
or
taken
on
trust
and
kept in
can
hardly
be
does
not
know
how.
Francis
Bacon
(1561-1626)
devoted
himself
Albans,
had
never
influenced
but
an
His Neoplatonic doctrine,
which he combined with Cabalism, was opposed by Sir William Temple
(1553-1626),
De dignitate
a
proper
of the sciences, it assists
in
confirming
opinions, prejudices,
or idols, of which there are four kinds. The idols of the tribe
{idola tribus)
the authority of those whom he admires, and the like.
The
idols
of
present
are,
axioms,
in
combine
the
experimental
and
the
a
given nature or quality. By form Bacon means not what the
realists meant, not abstract forms or ideas.
Matter
form,
speaks of heat
of nature. The
of a nature or quality (heat, for example) is such
that,
is absent, and
is
better
the natural order of things than the form itself. All
this gives us the
substances the most
is
wanting
Deviation or
our
inquiry
is
present
in
discovering forms, each
and
division
itself with the axioms common to several sciences, with
what
we
should
and categories. Metaphysics
causes
; Democritus never wasted
which
is
head
(in
arteries.
The
which
be
motion and
tions,
or invention,
such knowledge
at all.
to
refute
and
convince
and
conclusion
of
to
atheism;
but
a
adapt
the
heavenly
derived, cannot
sacred
or
will be of
it. After
is
affected
by
spirit,
; by
relegating
in-
of
that
comes
a
part
of
a
barren
part
formers, he breaks
such
responsible for many
own
as
the
noblemen, and became
Mersenne. He
de cive,
of Human Nature
and the Body
ence.
Nominalist
is,-^
adding
body
(physics and psychology) and
like. By analyzing particular
are manifest
trains
knowledge
demonstration or the
These
object. The
sensations, then,
are nothing
or some internal
image
or
color
is
but
an
appearance,
an
apparition
I
the
world?
figure; all
the
like,
another,
something
to,
another
There
are
not,
as
the
schoolmen
speak
supposed
to
soul.
a God
he
is
we
Besides the faculty or
de-
from
ex-
perience.
in
proceeding
or
progress.
and aversion
is called
omit.
All
causes of our
one who
(jus and
where
resist
in-
will
be
agamst
justice and injustice have
to
contention,
enmity,
and
war,
because
the
way
of
one
com-
petitor
to
the
attaining
the very
of
consequences
that
makes
as
he
not to
good. Consequently, no
either
common-
wealth
they can all be
of
these
or
assembly
of
of
them
all,
in
one
person
taught his subjects.
horrible calamities of
private interest are
of
men.
absolute,
however
placed.
to do
right of which
the
of nature or of
„, ^ ,
,
the
discovery
the English empiricist, how-
method
: study
logic,
mathematics.
In
this
latter
certainty and
clearness he
them,
upon
leaving
school
(1612),
to
of
Nassau
(1617)
and
General
Tilly
(1619),
intellectual
interests
retirement,
stirred
him
case
his works (1629-1649). In 1649 he accepted the invitation of
Queen Christina of
philosophy,
and
(1650).
(which
appeared
Philo-
sophical
Essays),
1637;
were added
Meditations
and
Principles
in
Tannery,
10
vols.,
1897,
The
second
is
all
science of morals
presupposing an
cer-
There is not
and many
of the
of
we
ought
to
study-
he
"
Plato
nd
Aristotle
if
is not
and self-
that the sum of the angles of
a
tri-
ngle
is
eed from
absolutely certain
to new
; we
must
as
picture
to
myself,
exists
only
in
my
imagination;
outside my
think
we
to
me.
am
that
nothing
but
But one thing is
no
doubt.
And
at the
very time
here infer from
as
be
innate,
aost
of
them
seem
to
be
myself is
iffect. That which
jod, for I
the
idea
is
the
idea
)f
been
)laced
the case.
impossible.
a perfect
It
is
also
be
God
is
the
effect
of
God ;
workman imprinted
I
have
goodness and truth ;
the creator of
He has intellect
sin, for
so
as
a judgment;
it. Neither is
it
ex-
ternal
world.
We
outside of
exist?
We
have
essential
of
body
: we
are
unable
to
are
confused;
as
we
should
: the
corporeal
forms
of
depends
on
motion.
Motion
passive and cannot move
concourse alone
a
the
Bodies
can-
not
produce
it; consequently, they
it,
and
the same.
j
ing:
mind
is
are
cogitans;
I
have
my
similar
of
our
to go its
This
teaching
Descartes
applies
to
body
is,
like
the
distilled in the
arrangement of the organs,
as necessarily as the
repudiates the vitalism
of Aristotle and
one
the union of
cgnsequences of
:
without
reactions
are
mechanical,
a machine
If I were merely
intimately conjoined
hungry,
but
not
feel
a
mixture
of
two
or of
-.
which his
different
ways
of
also rea-
which
and
their
copies,
active states are absolutely in the power of the soul
and can
be changed by the soul only indirectly, except in cases
in
which
the soul is itself their cause. There are, however, other
states, or
anger,
and
the
term;
they
and
prepare
the
body :
fear
courage
but
they
can
sometimes
be
caused
by
the
wills
to
feelings
of
the strength
conflicts.
But
an absolute power over its passions. The power of the
soul,
species. They
use
the soul to consent and contribute to the actions which
tend
to
preserve
the
in some
on the inner
from
hurt
it.
And
follow
virtue
exactly.
We
note
times.
Bacon
its
own
the
reins
in
its
own
hands.
to
reach
tions
are in themselves or
Colors,
senses
ascribe
genuine
notions
innate,
or
a
of
as
the
knowledge he some-
princi-
produce such knowledge
teaching
in
a
different
form.
competence
of
which,
busy
for
centuries
to
come.
If
mind
seeks
to
escape
the only real
creatures.
inherent in
mind
are
God
yet
they
act
on
one
an-
other.
reconciliation; the function
;
mate-
rialism
;
an
absolute
substance,
lish empiricism
part.
The
philosophy
Jesuits (having
universities,
mention
other superstitions,
the
;
causally
true,
he
holds,
physical
our volitions are not
3
vols.
Monographs
by
Land,
by Descartes
from another
Oratory
of
Jesus,
among
of the entire
monographs
by
The
thing
seems
impossible.
of
a
thinking
God
are
is
an
call
him
a
whether
immediate object
"
rejected
this
unknown
from us,
but it
of causation
who examined
necessary
connection
experience:
our
right
to
assume
number,
deepest
interests.
But
in
religious
feeling
which reason
does not
authority
of
the
Works ed. by Bossut;
(3
his
monadology,
is
a
and cabalistic
is
Aufkldrung.
His
destructive
criticism
number of Englishmen
finish
the
fight.
and
to
geometrical order,
the
we
see
Nevertheless,
he
declares
that
God
of God. Then
mental
are mental
Holland,
Hebrew
as
little
to
pelled
was
the
Tractatus
de
intellectus
emendatione,
and
Letters,
appeared
in
1677.
of
the philosophy of
of
which he tries to solve, are problems
which grew
a
substance. It
modus cogitandi,
between rational
:
bearer
grounded
on
necessary
in
a
system
form in the
the Emotions,
The starting-point of the
is that which
From the definition of substance certain consequences neces-
sarily
must be
ca-usa
sui,
for
the
indif-
sake of
to
free
not
distinct
here;
God
does
not
separate
from,
and
can exist apart
natura
naturans;
as
the
plurality
of
objects,
determination being
infinite
quali-
ties
two,
extension
and
an infi-
body and mind.
are
them
can
be
noth-
be
both flow from the same
substance. The one indivisible
This
is
what
;
of
a
figured bodies,
sense they are
wills,
or
persons,
have
beings are
ideas,
calls the absolutely infinite
of
extension
although
its
parts
undergo
constant
(face)
remains
the
same.
the
ground
 
particular
one
should
have
been;
ture of God.
belong, of which
cannot
logically
derive
this
we can
of an
sarily follow.
verse
ber,
the existence,
existing. These
the idea of substance,
to
the
question.
permanent,
it
is
but
a
temporal
in the sense that the face of the universe remains
unchanged.
But
it
be
necessary
have their
and
modes
and
to
Spinoza,
on
which
there can be no
they
are,
how-
ever,
processes
of
one
the
ideas
coincident with
the order
and con-
Every thing
God.
If
all
it
to
such
modifications
of
the
body.
is
af-
fected
imagi-
nation
modifications of the
connection,
conceives
them
universal
neces-
their
so
truth
illuminates
the
causes or purposes in
as
inadequate;
they
alone
enable
that the idea
is
true
and
false,
we
call
it
too, are
particular
idea
are
the
a mode of the
deter-
:
of
extension
he forms
Spinoza identifies
but
that we are in no wise
com-
or
a
it has no
passions and ceases
impotent
and
dependent
he
is.
from love and hope, pity and repentance. He
who knows the true causes of things or in their nec-
essary
relations
part
are three fun-
mind
is
conscious
of;
this
conscious
body.
What
promotes
they
lower
psychology.
being, and this
is bad
that
but weakness, slavery.
of
reason.
rest of
good
persons for
right
to
do
what
he
can
do
live in
the
ground
that
it
makes
social
life
possible.
Spinoza's
God and the highest
love of God,
and
this
existence
of
he
is
with its infinite attributes, or he is the unified
ri°j°^
God
whole,
a
in
the
eternal and
will
not
with his
the
system ;
the
sensationalistie
of
origin,
'
many
years
(1666-1683)
of Shaftesbury, as
public offices, and spent the remaining years of his life
(1700-1704)
whose wife
the
Conduct
of
La philosophie generate
of attaining
and communi-
is
true,
as
lish
in
to
the
doctrine
of
principles
present
they
the same
way as
other truths.
uneducated,
and
savages
are
a
long
self-evident
to
emphasis, cannot
notion of
God, it
him was
innate. The
ideas. The
to be
the
knowledge
is
(
sources of all our ideas are sensation, through which the
mind
sense, which supplies the mind with ideas of its own
operations,
knowing,
willing.
to receive the impressions made on it,
either through
the senses
By idea
or is the immediate
compare, and unite, even
new
simple
is made, just as
windows
by
which
light
a
view
The mind is
simple
substances, and relations.
simple
sup-
\ posed
qualities.
idea
of
i^
The
mind
also
of
relation
are
made
up
with their
—
men, they are not
;
formable to them. They are themselves archetypes, and so can-
not be
binations of simple ideas as
are
partial or incomplete
called true or
Since
is
nothing
but
the
or disagree-
our ideas.
white and
agreement
or
disagree-
is
capable
of;
and cannot
all
the
certainty
and
evidence
of
knowl-
edge
by
intervening
ideas
or
proofs
is
certain,
have
intuitive
certainty,
mind can
ideas
We have ideas of
them is as certain
is
there
anything
more than that idea ; can we certainly infer the existence of any-
without us,
which
nothing
as
in
dreams.
is, our
God;
our
knowledge
more simple ideas than we have and
more
acute
senses.
Some
we
do
body
bility
of
more
of
these
qualities,
we
to two right
me that it is
a
self-evident
have them
to the
of
the mind's own making. The mind of its own free choice
com-
we
shall
see
triangle
of it wherever it
to
be
copies
of,
and
referred
to,
we
put
together in our ideas of substance coexist in nature, if, for
ex-
ample,
having
the
simple
it
is
to
be
us
we cannot
is
not
a
and
repair,
we
should
upon them by
do
we
know
very
content
ourselves
perfect natu-
i
and ourselves), and
upon are such that
and
assurance,
and
leaves
than the
we receive it
so
clear
reason
has
flow;
the
attributes are
extension, solidity
being
qualities, which
by
putting
together
as to
not
why
we
may
thinking
think."
a
spiritual
being
within
me
or without
power
to
move
interaction. It
a
thinking
being.
Mind
and
body
exist
as
but
motion.
comes
in
conflict
with
these
effects
to
This
is
a
by
sensation
with-
out
material being
power
which
good
God has annexed
of
mat-
ter
and
the
only
their
pri-
to
could discover the
of
the properties
edge
of
corporeal
substances.
So
long
as
theory
is
impossible
spiritual
substance,
God.
a
knowledge
of
God.
It
God's
existence.
must
have everything it has from the being that made it.
The
eternal
produce a thinking being. If God has made the knowing
beings,
he has also made the less excellent pieces of this universe,
which
establishes
his
be
of nothing,
Locke points
deny it.
an
theoretical
a knowledge of such rules,
and are
of such
actions
moral laws ever
morality,
stantly
the
will.
Hap-
Now,
also
benefit
together and made the practice of
virtue
necessary
to
society.
them
as
rules
of
did
not
have
divine law is the law which
God
has
and sins.
The civil
by
the
commonwealth,
private
censure.
of
and
Locke shows how we
derive our moral knowledge
mathematics.
goodness, and wisdom,
morality among
proposition
as
certain
to voli-
free,
power of
we
is
his
some
absent
their
their
possessions
as
they
think
fit,
no
man
having
equal
harm another in
preserve
him-
self
and
to
preserve
him. Each transgression
The state of
one
on
the
a^d executive
indifferently,
and
with
can
be
under
under
no
mous consent is next to impossible. The governments of the
world
man
his
equal,
and insecure. If it were not for the viciousness
and corruption
of
any
society
ithe state of nature. The great and chief end of men's
uniting
The
first
and
fundamental
any
edict
it
has
no
right
to
enslave,
to
destroy,
ex-
powers
of
and
peace,
without
the
com-
they
should
be
maladministration of
certain
ends.
So
But
whilst
the
rests with the
the
(Browne
Helvetius)
theory
in
his
religious
Ref-
ormation
and
in
the
there is
accepted
as
true
certain
propositions
of
natural
or
rational
the
mys-
origin
with
certain
powers
the
mate-
rials
of
sense.
attempt
From
comparison,
an
external
world,
needed.
This
—
other is, we
England and in
J.
tions in
ethics.
Aristotle
and
ties,
I,
and wrong
Bacon,
it
is
as
fundamentally
egoistic
protested
against
to
though
two and three are equal to five, they are not equal
to
two
moral
edge,
welfare
as
the
as a
in
every
as
well
as
himself and
vidual
happiness
happiness
and
happiness,
or
at
least
not
(1670-1733;
(1715-
1771;
motive
of
human
action,
the
economic
Adam
pos-
from
harmful
restraints.
See
tions.
All
We
also
know that there is an exterml world, but this knowledge
is
not
so
self-evident
as
the
knowledge
order
to
-i
knowledge
is
sensation
and
reflection,
and
we
;
''
ideas
with
If
there
Does
a
of matter?
establish missions. Among
our ignorance
it
is
to
pains,
therefore,
Prin-
that the
the case. We
we
have
idea
corre-
idea of
of the
of the same sort,
the
enlargement
of
conceive any sensible thiag or object,
distinct from the
is
mind,
ideas,
Now,
everybody
am
out
of
the
room,
it,
actually
do
not
spirit.
a
effects of the
inherent in
,
-
solidity
I
get
through
are
sensations
same
ex-
that and nothing
such a substance. But,
Moreover,
all
of
be a
There
can
be
no
idea
formed
aU ideas are passive and inert,
hence
only the
this respect
to
choose
present themselves to
other Will
experience,
which
actions
and
coherent
they are
houses,
Are
they
but
exist in
sense
that
or qualities
mean that
and
drink
is more proper, therefore,
angles,
my eyes and
Besides,
I
may
say
that
when
I
do away with
are,
in
truth,
no
new theory,
?
and
world
opinion
at
all
the mind,
was
supposed
that
qualities
it
incomprehensible
and that the
things,
or
do
really
the
are
not
be
said
to
be
from
phi-
losophy
on
spirit?
Ath^"
give
it
up
and
the
whole
fabric
falls
unthinking substance is the root and origin of all things,
we
and
the
like
then
Time
whence
their
discernible
depend.
by
the
figure,
mo-
tion,
particles.
There
There
is
nothing
necessary
or
en-
to
observations
mankind
and
and
which have
of
bodies.
Berkeley
denied
all
the
assump-
connection
or
causation
to be.
experience, and
external
retary
to
than
on
his
4
vols.,
1874,
Elkin, Hume's
Treatise and
Spieker,
Kant,
Hume,
und
a
relation
to
human
nature.
as
united
late understanding, excite our sentiments, and make us
praise or
it,
is
of the Understanding,
show
that
standing, in order
attempts to penetrate
geography,
the system of the
its
general
principle
and nature
materials
of
our
thinking
impressions.
Impressions
are
or desire
or will
pleasure
or
amining the
not
entirely
up
adjoining
one
contiguity
in
time
contiguous
in
and another.
knowledge,
what
of
the
loadstone.
For
the cause
ishment,
we
can
angles
cause and
effect is
ball
is
attended
by
that one
we
objects
in
question
are
connected,
that
the
meaning,
because
(In the Treatise
Hume is still
trusted
the
operation
of
some
meta-
physicians,
necessary
con-
nection
have
not
antecedently
felt
effect
whole
machine
is
entirely
con-
nection
idea
of
power
internal power,
of
the
we
body by
con-
scious
by
which
from
us
The motion of the body-
foUows
experience
tells
mystery. Experience does not
the will and its
cause with its
on
renders an
or
power,
or
acquired a connection
or
or necessary
j!
connected,
but
our mind by association.
so
psychological
necessity
depends
on
experi-
ence. The process is the same in animals, in children, among
the
apart,
[but
require
a
subject
idea
a perception. We
a
distinct
a
tri-
is
is
no
less
intelligible
a
asked, why trust imagina-
is
the
customary
which
are
changeable,
for
all
we
.
objects,
hence
we
cannot
conclude
from
perceptions
to
objects
as
a
notion
so
their
immate-
idea
of
sub-
stance
is
par-
ticular
perception
love
or
hatred,
mind
is
infinite
no
simplicity
The
comparison
these
together
or
the union of their
endowed
with
a
and the
consequent in-
we
have
mis-
understandings
which
kind is much
actions is
of nature,
They
believe
or
not
acting
according
thus explained,
in
like.
To
be
called
moral,
acts
must
spring
sense
:
without
end,
omnipotent,
omniscient,
immutable,
infinite,
and
in-
comprehensible.
being
cause of this
perfection. But we cannot
his
of
a
human
of
God
confidence in rea-
the
universe
and
a
which
we
find,
we dis-
more than
Can
is
here
entire
and
perfect.
The
is not compatible
? To
into
has no meaning
order,
mind do-
ing it.
nature
the universe must end in disaster. By this anthropomorphic
method of reasoning,
imcertain
be
ascribed
to
the
ere this
of
Again, men are mor-
this universal
or deities?
animal
and
actuated
plainly
resembles
a
the
imi-
those
of
men.
in
We
non-existence implies
may,
for
all
God
is
not
the
result
love,
of
truth,
but
of
death,
the
necessaries.
Polytheism
or
been the first and
impulsive nature.
chieftain
must
have
if
we
are
to
trace
this
School
tions
1688),
Chris-
Intellectual System
These
God's
's
ethical
philosophy
is
given
opponents
of
Sense
School
knowledge,
had
called
sality
are
con-
or
truths
expressing
matters
of
physical principles;
am
Kant's
Enlightenment
were
the
England
and
France,
—took
grew
up
outside
destined
to
reap
a
the truth of
matical
are,
therefore,
teachers
Thomasius,
shorter
journals,
du
corps
consiste
dans
Vetendue,
1691;
Collection of philosophical
by
Toucher
de
Careil,
1859,
1866 ; by
nizian
seit
Leibniz;
Fabre,
La
found
could
not
be
satisfactorily
explained
by
the
hy-
pothesis
of
merely
g"''
to
move
principle
of
persists
constant in quantity. Hence, there is no substance that does
not act,
Hence,
force
found
in
the
in
the
Leibnizian
philosophy,
by
exists
by
virtue
Descartes, the
as
Forces
do
called
ing
but
compressed
bodies;
without them there would be
nothing real,
vidual active
away
with
the doctrine
nothing
uncon-
scious
become successively more and more
obscure and indistinct,
focus of
the motion of each
mem-
ory,
i.e.,
consciousness;
in
man,
consciousness
becomes
still
clearer
is
individuals outside it.
will
happen,
per-
ceiving
space."
a
gradually
ascending
scale
of
clearness,
were,
they
could
not
possibly
be
distinguished
(the
principle
line from the lowest
monad, pure
monad,
the
supreme
monad.
number of them. Descartes also assumes
a
while the Leibnizian
can
ever
into
it
entire
the monad can
ones.
Hence,
a
the
watchmaker
regulates
his
clocks,
is
There
:
itself
by
means
of
the
two
realms
are
in
harmony
with
one
another."
In
All
monads
one of which has
in such
a way