skripsi - universitas muhammadiyah malangeprints.umm.ac.id/53888/1/pendahuluan.pdf ·...
TRANSCRIPT
SKRIPSI
KHAIRUN NI’MAH
STUDI PENGGUNAAN CEFTRIAXONE PADA
PASIEN SIROSIS HATI DENGAN
SPONTANEOUS BACTERIAL PERITONITIS
(SBP) (Penelitian dilakukan di Rumah Sakit Umum Daerah Sidoarjo)
PROGRAM STUDI FARMASI
FAKULTAS ILMU KESEHATAN
UNIVERITAS MUHAMMADIYAH MALANG
2019
iv
KATA PENGANTAR
Bismillahirrahmanirrahim
Assalamu’alaikum warahmatullah wabarakatuh
Puji syukur kehadirat Allah SWT. yang telah melimpahkan berkah dan
nikmat kepada hamba-Nya, karena dengan pertolongan-Nya skripsi yang berjudul
studi penggunaan ceftriaxone pada pasien sirosis hati dengan spontaneous bacterial
peritonitis (SBP) dapat diselesaikan dengan tepat waktu dan sebaik-baiknya.
Selanjutnya saya ingin mengucapkan terima kasih yang tidak terhingga kepada:
1. Bapak Drs. Didik Hasmono, M.S., Apt. selaku pembimbing I yang telah
meluangkan waktu untuk membimbing dan memberikan arahan serta ilmu,
selama menempuh pendidikan hingga terselesaikannya tugas akhir ini.
2. Ibu Dr. Dra. Lilik Yusetyani, Apt., Sp.FRS. selaku Pembimbing II yang selalu
meluangkan waktunya untuk membimbing dan memberikan arahan kepada
penulis sehingga tugas akhir ini dapat diselesaikan dengan baik.
3. Ibu Hidajah Rachmawati, S.Si., Apt., Sp. FRS. dan Ibu Dra. Uswatun
Chasanah, M.Kes., Apt. selaku penguji I dan II yang telah memberikan
masukan dan saran pada tugas akhir ini.
4. Bapak Faqih Ruhyanudin, M.Kep., Sp. Kep. MB. selaku Dekan Fakultas Ilmu
Kesehatan Universitas Muhammadiyah Malang.
5. Ibu Dian Ermawati, M.Farm., Apt. selaku Ketua Progam Studi Farmasi
Universitas Muhammadiyah Malang.
6. Direktur dan staf Rumah Sakit Umum Daerah Sidoarjo yang telah membantu
kelancaran penelitian, terutama ibu Alia.
7. Seluruh jajaran prodi, dosen dan staf tata usaha Farmasi yang telah
memberikan dedikasi yang besar kepada penulis.
8. Ketiga orang tua tercinta ayahanda Hartani, ibunda Salasiah, dan ibunda Siti
Rahma; kakakku Noor Jannah, Khairani; adikku Rusyadi, Fahdiya, Alfian
soleh. Terimakasih atas dukungan, kepercayaan, dan doa yang tidak pernah
putus dari keluarga sehingga membuat penulis bisa melangkah dalam
kehidupan sampai sejauh ini.
v
9. Sahabat-sahabatku dari MAN Model Palangka Raya, Mutia Khairun Nisa dan
Wahyu Anggun Ningtyas. Terimakasih atas nasihat-nasihat kalian sehingga
penulis tidak mudah putus asa.
10. Sahabatku dari farmasi UMM, Laura Mayang Lestari, yang selalu berbagi
suka dan duka dalam 4 tahun terakhir. Serta sahabat-sahabatku yang juga dari
farmasi UMM, terutama Rizki, Irene, Zunik, Iril, Wika, Diana, Ryan, Fauz,
dan Amat yang sudah saling dukung selama masa perkuliahan. Terimakasih
atas pemikiran-pemikiran kalian yang membuat kita akhirnya menemukan
titik temu dalam perbedaan. Semoga silaturahmi selalu terjalin diantara kita.
11. Teman-teman farmasi UMM angkatan 2015. Terimakasih atas kebersamaan
kita selama 4 tahun terakhir yang dengan suka hati selalu berbagi informasi
terkait perkuliahan.
Akhir kata, penulis memohon maaf atas kekurangan dan ketidaksempurnaan
dalam penulisan skripsi ini dan dengan senang hati menerima kritik dan saran yang
bersifat membangun. Semoga skripsi ini dapat bermanfaat bagi penulis maupun
pembaca dalam menambah wawasan dibidang farmasi klinis.
Wassalamu’alaikum warahmatullah wabarakatuh.
Malang, 24 Agustus 2019
Penyusun
Khairun Ni’mah
x
DAFTAR ISI
Halaman
Lembar Pengesahan .............................................................................................. ii
Lembar Pengujian ................................................................................................ iii
KATA PENGANTAR .......................................................................................... iv
RINGKASAN ....................................................................................................... vi
ABSTRAK .......................................................................................................... viii
ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................... ix
DAFTAR ISI .......................................................................................................... x
DAFTAR TABEL............................................................................................... xiv
DAFTAR GAMBAR ........................................................................................... xv
DAFTAR LAMPIRAN ...................................................................................... xvi
DAFTAR SINGKATAN ................................................................................... xvii
BAB I PENDAHULUAN ...................................................................................... 1
1.1 Latar Belakang.......................................................................................... 1
1.2 Rumusan Masalah .................................................................................... 4
1.3 Tujuan Penelitian ...................................................................................... 4
1.3.1 Tujuan Umum ................................................................................... 4
1.3.2 Tujuan Khusus .................................................................................. 4
1.4 Manfaat Penelitian .................................................................................... 4
BAB II TINJAUAN PUSTAKA .......................................................................... 5
2.1 Anatomi dan Fungsi Hati.......................................................................... 5
2.1.1 Anatomi Hati ..................................................................................... 5
2.1.2 Sirkulasi Hati ..................................................................................... 6
2.1.3 Metabolisme dan Fungsi Hati ........................................................... 6
2.1.3.1 Metabolisme............................................................................... 6
2.1.3.2 Metabolisme Obat ...................................................................... 7
2.1.3.3 Sintesis ....................................................................................... 7
2.1.3.4 Fungsi Imunologis ..................................................................... 8
2.1.3.5 Detoksifikasi .............................................................................. 8
2.2 Sirosis Hati ............................................................................................... 8
2.2.1 Definisi Sirosis Hati .......................................................................... 8
2.2.2 Epidemiologi Sirosis Hati ................................................................. 9
xi
2.2.3 Etiologi Sirosis Hati ........................................................................ 10
2.2.4 Klasifikasi Sirosis Hati .................................................................... 11
2.2.5 Patofisiologi Sirosis Hati................................................................. 11
2.2.6 Komplikasi Sirosis Hati .................................................................. 13
2.2.6.1 Hipertensi Portal ...................................................................... 13
2.2.6.2 Asites ....................................................................................... 14
2.2.6.3 Varises Esofagus ...................................................................... 15
2.2.6.4 Ensefalopati Hepatik ................................................................ 16
2.2.6.5 Sindrom Hepatorenal ............................................................... 17
2.2.6.6 SBP .......................................................................................... 18
2.2.7 Data Klinis dan Data Laboratorium Sirosis Hati ............................ 18
2.2.7.1 Data Klinis ............................................................................... 18
2.2.7.2 Data Laboratorium ................................................................... 19
2.2.8 Penatalaksanaan Sirosis Hati........................................................... 21
2.2.8.1 Penatalaksanaan Hipertensi Portal dan Varises Esofagus ....... 21
2.2.8.2 Penatalaksanaan Asites ............................................................ 24
2.2.8.3 Penatalaksanaan Enselopati Hepatik ....................................... 24
2.2.8.4 Penatalaksanaan Sindrom Hepatorenal .................................... 28
2.3 SBP (Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis) ............................................... 29
2.3.1 Definisi SBP .................................................................................... 29
2.3.2 Epidemiologi SBP ........................................................................... 29
2.3.3 Etiologi SBP .................................................................................... 30
2.3.4 Patofisiologi SBP ............................................................................ 30
2.3.5 Manifestasi Klinis SBP ................................................................... 31
2.4 Penatalaksanaan SBP (Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis) .................... 32
2.4.1 Albumin........................................................................................... 32
2.4.2 Terapi Antibiotik Empiris ............................................................... 33
2.4.3 Terapi Antibiotik Profilaksis ........................................................... 34
2.4.4 Antibiotik Penisilin ......................................................................... 35
2.4.5 Antibiotik Quinolon ........................................................................ 35
2.4.6 Antibiotik Sefalosporin ................................................................... 36
2.4.6.1 Klasifikasi Sefalosporin ........................................................... 36
2.4.6.2 Farmakokinetika Sefalosporin ................................................. 39
2.4.6.3 Resistensi Bakteri .................................................................... 39
xii
2.4.6.4 Efek Samping Sefalosporin ..................................................... 39
2.4.6.5 Sefalosporin untuk SBP ........................................................... 40
2.5 Tinjauan Seftriakson ............................................................................... 40
2.5.1 Mekanisme Kerja Seftriakson ......................................................... 41
2.5.2 Indikasi dan Dosis Seftriakson ........................................................ 41
2.5.3 Kontraindikasi Seftriakson .............................................................. 43
2.5.4 Sifat Farmakokinetika dan Farmakodinamik Seftriakson ............... 43
2.5.5 Interaksi Seftriakson........................................................................ 46
2.5.6 Efek Samping Seftriakson ............................................................... 46
2.5.7 Parameter dan Monitoring............................................................... 47
2.5.8 Penyimpanan dan Administrasi....................................................... 48
2.5.9 Nama Dagang Seftriakson............................................................... 48
2.6 Penggunaan Seftriakson pada SBP ......................................................... 49
BAB III KERANGKA KONSEPTUAL ............................................................ 51
BAB IV METODE PENELITIAN .................................................................... 53
4.1 Rancangan Penelitian ............................................................................. 53
4.2 Populasi dan Sampel............................................................................... 53
4.2.1 Populasi ........................................................................................... 53
4.2.2 Sampel ............................................................................................. 53
4.2.3 Kriteria Inklusi ................................................................................ 53
4.2.4 Kriteria Eksklusi.............................................................................. 53
4.2 Bahan Penelitian ..................................................................................... 53
4.3 Instrumen Penelitian ............................................................................... 53
4.4 Tempat dan Waktu Penelitian ................................................................ 54
4.5 Definisi Operasional ............................................................................... 54
4.6 Metode Pengumpulan Data .................................................................... 54
4.7 Analisis Data .......................................................................................... 55
BAB V HASIL PENELITIAN ........................................................................... 56
5.1 Data Demografi Pasien ........................................................................... 56
5.1.1 Jenis Kelamin .................................................................................. 56
5.1.2 Usia ................................................................................................. 57
5.1.3 Status Pasien.................................................................................... 57
5.2 Komplikasi Penyerta Pasien Sirosis Hati dengan SBP........................... 58
5.3 Pola Penggunaan Seftriakson pada Pasien Sirosis Hati dengan SBP ..... 58
xiii
5.3.1 Pola Penggunaan Terapi Seftriakson .............................................. 58
5.3.2 Pola Penggunaan Terapi Seftriakson Tunggal ................................ 58
5.3.3 Pola Penggunaan Terapi Antibiotik Kombinasi .............................. 59
5.3.4 Pola Penggunaan Switch Seftriakson .............................................. 59
5.3.5 Lama Penggunaan Terapi Seftriakson ............................................ 60
5.3.6 Terapi selain Seftriakson pada Pasien Sirosis Hati dengan SBP .... 60
5.4 Lama Rawat Inap Pasien Sirosis Hati dengan SBP ................................ 61
5.5 Kondisi Keluar Rumah Sakit Pasien Sirosis Hati dengan SBP .............. 61
BAB VI PEMBAHASAN .................................................................................... 62
BAB VII KESIMPULAN DAN SARAN ........................................................... 76
7.1 Kesimpulan ............................................................................................. 76
7.2 Saran ....................................................................................................... 76
DAFTAR PUSTAKA .......................................................................................... 77
xiv
DAFTAR TABEL
Tabel Halaman
II.1 Stadium ensefalopati hepatik .......................................................................... 17
II.2 Manifestasi klinis SBP (dalam %) .................................................................. 32
II.3 Klasifikasi sefalosporin .................................................................................. 38
II.4 Persentase efek samping seftriakson .............................................................. 47
II.5 Nama dagang seftriakson ............................................................................... 48
V.1 Distribusi jenis kelamin pasien sirosis hati dengan SBP................................ 57
V.2 Pengolompokkan usia pasien sirosis hati dengan SBP .................................. 57
V.3 Status pasien sirosis hati dengan SBP ............................................................ 57
V.4 Komplikasi penyerta pasien sirosis hati dengan SBP .................................... 58
V.5 Pola penggunaan terapi seftriakson pada pasien sirosis dengan SBP ............ 58
V.6 Pola penggunaan terapi seftriakson tunggal ................................................... 59
V.7 Pola penggunaan terapi antibiotik kombinasi ................................................ 59
V.8 Pola penggunaan switch terapi antibiotik....................................................... 59
V.9 Lama penggunaan terapi seftriakson .............................................................. 60
V.10 Terapi selain seftriakson pada pasien sirosis hati dengan SBP .................... 60
V.11 Lama rawat inap pasien sirosis hati dengan SBP ......................................... 61
V.12 Kondisi KRS pasien sirosis hati dengan SBP .............................................. 61
xv
DAFTAR GAMBAR
Gambar Halaman
2.1 Struktur hati anterior ......................................................................................... 5
2.2 Anatomi hati dengan sirosis mikronodular ....................................................... 9
2.3 Anatomi hati dengan sirosis makronodular....................................................... 9
2.4 Patofisiologi sirosis hati .................................................................................. 12
2.5 Sirkulasi Kolateral Portosistemik pada Sirosis Hati ....................................... 13
2.6 Anatomi sistem vena porta .............................................................................. 13
2.7 Pasien asites .................................................................................................... 14
2.8 Patofisiologi asites .......................................................................................... 15
2.9 Profilaksis primer pada sirosis dengan perdarahan varises ............................. 21
2.10 Patofisiologi SBP .......................................................................................... 30
2.11 Struktur kimia seftriakson ............................................................................. 40
2.12 Kurva konsentrasi-waktu seftriakson secara IV dan IM ............................... 44
2.13 Kurva konsentrasi-waktu seftriakson dosis 2x200 mg vs 1x400 mg ............ 45
3.1 Skema kerangka konseptual ............................................................................ 51
3.2 Skema kerangka operasional ........................................................................... 52
5.1 Skema kriteria inklusi dan eksklusi pada penelitian sirosis dengan SBP ....... 56
xvi
DAFTAR LAMPIRAN
Lampiran Halaman
1 Daftar Riwayat Hidup ........................................................................................ 91
2 Surat Pernyataan................................................................................................. 92
3 Surat Tugas Skripsi ............................................................................................ 93
4 Laik Etik ............................................................................................................. 94
5 Surat Ijin Penelitian ............................................................................................ 95
6 Data Nilai Normal .............................................................................................. 96
7 Tabel Data Induk ................................................................................................ 97
77
DAFTAR PUSTAKA
Abd-Elsalam, S., Soliman, H., Elkhalawany, W., Khalil, H., Soliman, S., Ismail, E.,
& Mansou, L. 2016. Is Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis still Responding to
Third Generation Cephalosporins? : A Single Centre Experience.
International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences,
Vol 5. No. 5(2016) pp. 392-399.
Acharya, C., & Bajaj, J. S. 2018. Definition and Changes in Nomenclature of
Hepatic Encephalopathy. In: Bajaj, J. S (Eds.). Diagnosis and Management
of Hepatic Encephalopathy A Case-based Guide. Virginia: Springer
International Publishing AG.
Alaniz, C., & Regal, R. E. 2009. Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis: a review of
treatment options. P & T : A Peer-Reviewed Journal For Formulary
Management, 34(4), 204-10.
Albillos, A., & Tejedor, M. 2014. Secondary Prophylaxis for Esophageal Variceal
Bleeding. Clinics In Liver Disease, 18(2), 359-370.
doi:10.1016/j.cld.2014.01.007
Aldred, K. J., Kerns, R. J., & Osheroff, N. 2014. Mechanism of Quinolone Action
and Resistance. Biochemistry, 53(10), 1565-74.
Amerman, E. C. 2016. Human anatomy & physiology. Chicago
Angeli, P., Bernardi, M., Villanueva, C., Francoz, C., Mookerjee, R., & Trebicka,
J., Krag, A., Laleman, W., & Gines, P. 2018. EASL Clinical Practice
Guidelines for the management of patients with decompensated
cirrhosis. Journal Of Hepatology, 69(2), 406-460.
doi:10.1016/j.jhep.2018.03.024
Arroyo, V., & Fernández, J. 2011. Management of Hepatorenal Syndrome in
Patients with Cirrhosis. Nature Reviews Nephrology, 7(9), 517-526.
doi:10.1038/nrneph.2011.96
Arroyo, V., & Fernández, J. 2018. Ascites and Spontanous Bacterial Peritonitis. In:
Schiff, E. R., Maddrey, W. C., & Reddy, K. R (Eds.). Schiff’s Diseases of
the Liver, Ed. 12th. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Ather, A. A., Chaudhary, S., Khan, I. M. 2014. Comparison of Intravenous
Ciprofloxacin and Ceftriaxone in the Management of Spontaneous Bacterial
78
Peritonitis in Cirrhosis of Liver at Mayo Hospital, Lahore. Pakistan Journal
of Medical and Health Sciences, Vol. 8, No. 1.
Bacon, B. R. 2018. Cirrhosis and Its Complications. In: Jameson, J. L., Kasper, D.
L., Longo, D. L., Fauci, A. S., Hauser, S. L., & Loscalzo, J (Eds.).
Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine, Vol. 1, Ed. 20th. New York:
McGraw-Hill Education.
Beauduy, C. E., & Winston, L. G. 2018. Beta-Lactam & Other Cell Wall- &
Membrane-Active Antibiotics. In: Katzung, B. G (Eds.). Basic & Clinical
Pharmacology, Ed. 14th. McGraw-Hill Education.
Bhat, G., Vandana, K. E., Bhatia, S., Suvarna, D., & Pai, C. G. 2019. Spontaneous
Ascitic Fluid Infection in Liver Cirrhosis: Bacteriological Profile and
Response to Antibiotic Therapy. Retrieved 14 July 2019, from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23515981
Biecker, E. 2011. Diagnosis and Therapy of Ascites in Liver Cirrhosis. World
Journal of Gastroenterology, 17(10), 1237-48.
Blachier, M., Leleu, H., Peck-Radosavljevic, M., Valla, D. C., & Roudot-Thoraval,
F. 2013. The Burden of Liver Disease in Europe: A review of Available
Epidemiological Data. Journal of Hepatology.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhep.2012.12.005
BNF. 2018. British National Formulary, Ed. 76th . London: BMJ Group.
BPOM RI. 2015. Informatorium Obat Nasional Indonesia (IONI) Badan Pengawas
Obat dan Makanan Republik Indonesia.
http://pionas.pom.go.id/monografi/seftriakson (diakses pada 10 Februari
2019).
Brenner, G. M., & Stevens, C. W. 2013. Pharmacology, Ed. 4th. Philadelphia:
Saunders/Elsevier. Brunner, F., Berzigotti, A., & Bosch, J. 2017. Prevention and treatment of variceal
haemorrhage in 2017. Liver International. https://doi.org/10.1111/liv.13277
Cai, G., Chen, Y., Zhou, B., Hu, C., Yu, Y., Xu, M., Hong, Q., Wang, Z., Liu,
K., Wang, Z., Jiang, Z., & Yao, J. 2018. Meta-Analysis of Risk Factors for
Development of Liver Cirrhosis in Chronic Hepatitis B Patients. Global
79
Journal Of Infectious Diseases and Clinical Research, 4(2), 004-006.
Retrieved from https://www.peertechz.com/articles/GJIDCR-4-118.php
Chalik, R. 2016. Anatomi Fisiologi Manusia. Kementerian Kesehatan Republik
Indonesia.
Chandrasoma, P., & Taylor, C. R. 2006. Ringkasan Patologi Anatomi, Edisi ke−2.
Jakarta: EGC.
Chang, P. E., Wong, G. W., Li, J. W. Q., Lui, H. F., Chow, W. C., & Tan, C. K.
2015. Epidemiology and clinical evolution of liver cirrhosis in Singapore.
Annals of the Academy of Medicine Singapore.
Chaulk, J., Carbonneau, M., Qamar, H., Keough, A., Chang, H. J., Ma, M., Kumar,
D., & Tandon, P. 2014. Third-generation cephalosporin-resistant spontaneous
bacterial peritonitis: a single-centre experience and summary of existing
studies. Canadian Journal of Gastroenterology & Hepatology, 28(2), 83-8.
Chawla, Y. K., & Bodh, V. 2015. Clinical clues to the diagnosis of cirrhosis. In
Cirrhosis: A Practical Guide to Management.
https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118412640.ch01
Chen, Y. I., & Ghali, P. 2012. Prevention and Management of Gastroesophageal
Varices in Cirrhosis. International Journal of Hepatology, 2012, 750150.
Cheney, C. P., Goldberg, E. M., & Chopra, S. 2013. Cirrhosis and portal
hypertension: An overview. In Handbook of Liver Disease: Third Edition.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-443-06633-7.50014-4
Cordoba, J. 2014. Hepatic Encephalopathy: From the Pathogenesis to the New
Treatments. ISRN Hepatology, 2014, 1-16. doi:10.1155/2014/236268
Davenport, A., Ahmad, J., Al-Khafaji, A., Kellum, J., Genyk, Y., & Nadim, M.
2012. Medical Management of Hepatorenal Syndrome. Nephrology
Dialysis Transplantation, 27(1), 34-41. doi:10.1093/ndt/gfr736
Dever, J., & Sheikh, M. 2015. Review article: spontaneous bacterial peritonitis -
bacteriology, diagnosis, treatment, risk factors and prevention. Alimentary
Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 41(11), pp.1116-1131.
DiPiro, J. T., & Schwinghammer, T. L. 2015. Cirrhosis and Portal Hypertension.
In: Wells, B. G., DiPiro, J. T., Schwinghammer, T. L., & DiPiro, C. V
80
(Eds.). Pharmacotherapy Handbook, Ed 9th. New York: McGraw-Hill
Education.
Drug Bank. 2018. Ceftriaxone. Open Data Drug & Drug Target Database,
www.drugbank.ca (diakses pada 22 Desember 2018).
Dundar, H. Z., & Yilmazlar, T. 2015. Management of Hepatorenal
Syndrome. World Journal of Nephrology, 4(2), 277-86.
Elwir, S., & Rahimi, R. S. 2017. Hepatic Encephalopathy: An Update on the
Pathophysiology and Therapeutic Options. Journal of Clinical and
Translational Hepatology, 5(2), 142-151.
Emiliana, W. 2013. Sirosis Hepatis Child Pugh Class Dengan Komplikasi asites
grade III dan Hiponatremi. Jurnal Medula Unila, 1(5): 51-57.
Emmanuel, A., & Inns, S. 2014. Gastroenterologi dan Hepatologi. Jakarta:
Erlangga.
Ferenci, P. 2017. Hepatic Encephalopathy. Gastroenterology Report, 5(2), 138-
147.
Flamm, S. L., Mullen, K. D., Heimanson, Z., & Sanyal, A. J. 2018. Rifaximin has
the potential to prevent complications of cirrhosis. Therapeutic advances in
gastroenterology, 11, 1756284818800307. doi:10.1177/1756284818800307
Foris, L., & Haseeb, M. 2019. Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis. Statpearls
Publishing. Retrieved from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK448208/
Franciscus, A. 2013. Disease Progression: Symptoms and Complications of
Cirrhosis. HCSP.
Fust, K. 2015. The Gale Encyclopedia of Cancer A Guide to Cancer and its
Treatments. Farmington Hills: Gale.
Gaglio, P., Marfo, K., & Chiodo, J. 2012. Hyponatremia in cirrhosis and end-stage
liver disease: treatment with the vasopressin V₂-receptor antagonist
tolvaptan. Digestive Diseases and Sciences, 57(11), 2774-85.
Gallagher, J. C., & MacDougall, C. 2018. Antibiotics Simplified, Ed. 4th. USA:
Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC.
Gao, B. 2016. Basic liver immunology. Cellular and Molecular Immunology.
https://doi.org/10.1038/cmi.2016.09
81
Garcia-Tsao, G. 2018. Ascites and Hyponatremia. In: Sanyal, A. J., Boyer, T. D.,
Lindor, K. D., & Terrault, N. A (Eds.). Zakim and Boyer’s Hepatology: A
Textbook of Liver Disease, Ed. 7th. Philadelphia: Elsevier, Inc.
Generali, J. A., & Cada, D. J. 2015. Ciprofloxacin: Spontaneous Bacterial
Peritonitis (Prevention). Hospital Pharmacy, 50(8), 678-80.
Ginès, P., Angeli, P., Lenz, K., Møller, S., Moore, K., Moreau, R., Merkel. Ring-
Larsen, H., & Bernardi, M. 2010. EASL Clinical Practice Guidelines on The
Management of Ascites, Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis, and Hepatorenal
Syndrome in Cirrhosis. Journal of Hepatology.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhep.2010.05.004
Gonzalez, H. C., & Kamath, P. S. 2016. Portal Hypertention. Talley, N. J., DeVault,
K. R., & Wallace, M. B., Aqel, B. A., Lindor, K. D (Eds.). In: Practical
Gastroenterology and Hepatology Board Review Toolkit. p. 559.
https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119127437
Guo, Z., Yu, Z., & Hu, K. 2016. Overview on Current Management of Hepatic
Encephalopathy. North American Journal of Medicine and Science, Vol
9 No.2.
Hadjihambi, A., & Jalan, R. 2015. Hepatic Encephalopathy: New
Treatments. Clinical Liver Disease, 5(5), 109-111. doi:10.1002/cld.468
Harrison, C. J., & Bratcher, D. 2008. Cephalosporins: A Review. Pediatrics in
Review. https://doi.org/10.1542/pir.29-8-264
Hotchkiss, R. S., Moldawer, L. L., Opal, S. M., Reinhart, K., Turnbull, I. R., &
Vincent, J. L. 2016. Sepsis and septic shock. Nature Reviews: Disease
Primers, 2, 16045. doi:10.1038/nrdp.2016.45
Hsu, S., & Huang, H. 2013. Management of Ascites in Patients with Liver
Cirrhosis: Recent Evidence and Controversies. Journal Of The Chinese
Medical Association, 76(3), 123-130. doi:10.1016/j.jcma.2012.11.005
Hyder, M. A., Hasan, M., & Mohieldein, A. 2016. Comparative Study of 5'-
Nucleotidase Test in Various Liver Diseases. Journal of Clinical and
Diagnostic Research : JCDR, 10(2), BC01-3.
82
Istiantoro, V. H., & Gan, V. H. S. 2007. Penisilin, Sefalosporin dan Antibiotik
Betalaktam Lainnya. In: Farmakologi dan Terapi, Ed 5th. Jakarta:
Farmakologi Fakultas Kedokteran Universitas Indonesia.
Iwakiri Y. 2014. Pathophysiology of portal hypertension. Clinics in liver disease,
18(2), 281-91.
JJustad. 2014. Health and Safety Guidelines Vital Signs.
Joshi, D., Keane, G., & Brind, A. 2015. Hepatology at a Glance. London: John
Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Kemenkes RI. 2014. Situasi dan Analisis Hepatitis. Retrieved 14 July 2019, from
http://www.depkes.go.id/resources/download/pusdatin/infodatin/infodatin-
hepatitis.pdf
Kemenkes RI. 2017. 150 ribu orang Potensial Alami Hepatitis Kronis.
Retrieved 23 March 2019, from
http://www.depkes.go.id/article/view/17072800006/150-ribu-orang-
potensial-alami-hepatitis-kronis.html
Kim, B., Peri, A. M., & Paterson, D. L. 2018. Ceftriaxone. In: Grayson M. L.,
Cosgrove, S. E., Crowe, S. M., Hope, W., Mccarthy, J. S., Mills, J., Mouton,
J. W., & Paterson, D. L (Eds.). Kucers’ The Use of Antibiotics A Clinical
Review of Antibacterial, Antifungal, Antiparasitic, And Antiviral
Drugs.
Kisgen, J. 2015. Cell Wall Inhibitors. In: Whalen, K., Finkel, R., & Panavelil, T. A
(Eds.). Pharmacology, Ed. 6th. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer.
Kuntz, E., Kuntz, H. 2006. Hepatology Principles And Practice, Ed 2nd. Wetzlar:
Springer Medizin Verlag.
Lacy, F. C., Amstrong, L. L., Goldman, P. M., Lance, L. L. 2008. Drug
Information Handbook, Ed. 17th. USA: Lexi-Comp.
Lala, V., & Minter, D. 2018. Liver Function Tests. Statpearls Publishing.
Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482489/
Le, J., & Bradley, J. S. 2016. Pharmacodynamic Considerations and Special
Populations: Pediatrics. In: Rotschafer, J. C., Andes, D. R., Rodvold, K. A
(Eds.). Antibiotic Pharmacodynamics. New York: Springer Science.
83
Lenz, K., Buder, R., Kapun, L., & Voglmayr, M. 2015. Treatment and Management
of Ascites and Hepatorenal Syndrome: An Update. Therapeutic Advances
in Gastroenterology, 8(2), 83-100.
Liou I. W., & Kim H. N. 2018. Diagnosis and Management of Ascites. Hepatitis
C Online.
Lutsar, I., Ahmed, A., Friedland, I. R., Trujillo, M., Wubbel, L., Olsen, K., &
McCracken, G. H. 1997. Pharmacodynamics and bactericidal activity of
ceftriaxone therapy in experimental cephalosporin-resistant pneumococcal
meningitis. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.
Marcellin, P., & Kutala, B. K. 2018. Liver diseases: A major, neglected global
public health problem requiring urgent actions and large-scale screening.
Liver International. https://doi.org/10.1111/liv.13682
Marciano, S., Díaz, J. M., Dirchwolf, M., & Gadano, A. 2019. Spontaneous
Bacterial Peritonitis in Patients with Cirrhosis: Incidence, Outcomes, and
Treatment Strategies. Hepatic Medicine : Evidence and Research, 11, 13-
22. doi:10.2147/HMER.S164250
Martin, P., & Friedman, L. S. 2018. Assessment of Liver Function and Diagnostic
Studies. In: Friedman, L. S., & Martin, P (Eds.). Handbook of Liver Disease,
Ed. 4th, Philadelphia: Elsevier, Inc.
Maruyama, H., & Yokosuka, O. 2012. Pathophysiology of portal hypertension and
esophageal varices. International Journal of Hepatology, 2012, 895787.
Masoud, M. S., Ali, A. E., & Nasr, N. M. 2014. Chemistry, Classification,
Pharmacokinetics, Clinical Uses and Analysis of Beta Lactam Antibiotics:
A Review. Journal of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Research,
6(11):28-58.
Mazer, L., Tapper, E. B., Piatkowski, G., & Lai, M. 2014. Dosing of ceftriaxone
and outcomes after spontaneous bacterial peritonitis. F1000Research.
https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.3-57.v1
McCormick, P. A., & Jalan, R. 2018. Hepatic Cirrhosis. In: Dooley, J. S., Lok, A.
S. F., Burroughs, A. K., & Heathcote, E. J (Eds.). Sherlock’s Diseases of the
Liver and Biliary System Ed. 13th. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
84
McEvoy, J. K. 2008. AHFS Drug information. American Society of Health-
System Pharmacists.
Meseeha, M., & Attia, M. 2019. Esophageal Varices. Statpearls Publishing.
Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK448078/
Metwally, K., Fouad, T., Assem, M., Abdelsameea, E., & Yousery, M. 2018.
Predictors of Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis in Patients with Cirrhotic
Ascites. Journal of Clinical and Translational Hepatology, 6(4), 372–376.
doi:10.14218/JCTH.2018.00001
Michelis, R., Sela, S., Zeitun, T., Geron, R., & Kristal, B. 2016. Unexpected Normal
Colloid Osmotic Pressure in Clinical States with Low Serum Albumin. PloS
One, 11(7), e0159839. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0159839
MIMS. 2017. MIMS Referensi Obat. Edisi 18. Jakarta: PT Medidata Indonesia.
Moore, K. P., & Aithal, G. P. 2006. Guidelines on the Management of Ascites in
Cirrhosis. Gut, 55 Suppl 6(Suppl 6), vi1-12.
Muir, A. J. 2015. Understanding the Complexities of Cirrhosis. Clinical
Therapeutics. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinthera.2015.05.507
Mustafa, M., Menon, J., Muniandy, R. K., Sieman, J., Sharifa, A. M., & Illzam, E.
M. 2015. Pathophysiology, Clinical manifestation and Diagnosis of
Peritonitis. IOSR Journal of Dental and Medical Sciences.
doi:10.9790/0853-141017479
Narula, N., Tsoi, K., & Marshall, J. K. 2011. Should Albumin Be Used in All
Patients with Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis?. Canadian Journal Of
Gastroenterology, 25(7), 373-6.
Nevah, M. I., & Fallon, M. B. 2016. Hepatic Encephalopathy, Hepatorenal
Syndrome, and Other Systemic Complications of Liver Disease. In:
Feldman, M., Friedman, L. S., Brandt, L. J (Eds.). Sleisenger and
Fordtran’s Gastrointestinal and Liver Disease Pathophysiology,
Diagnosis, Management, Vol. 1, Ed. 10th. Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier.
Ngo, H. and Gantioque, R. 2017. Predictors of Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis
(SBP) in Liver Cirrhosis: Current Knowledge and Future Frontiers. Open
Journal of Gastroenterology, 07(12), pp.297-307.
85
Nguyen-Lefebvre, A. T., & Horuzsko, A. 2015. Kupffer Cell Metabolism and
Function. Journal of enzymology and metabolism, 1(1), 101.
Nisha, A. R., Vanishree, H., & Mahesh, D. M. 2017. Fifth Generation
Cephalosporins: Drugs To Overcome Antibiotic Resistance. International
Journal of Scientific Research in Science, Engineering and Technology,
Vol. 3.
Niu, B., Kim, B., Limketkai, B., Sun, J., Li, Z., Woreta, T., & Chen, P. 2018.
Mortality from Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis Among Hospitalized
Patients in the USA. Digestive Diseases and Sciences, 63(5), 1327-1333.
doi:10.1007/s10620-018-4990-y
Oh-oka, H., Yamada, T., Noto, H., Umeyama, T., Kadekawa, K., & Ashitomi, K.
Nishijima, S., & Sugaya, K. 2014. Effect of carbazochrome sodium sulfonate
on refractory chronic prostatitis. International Journal of Urology, 21(11),
1162-1166. doi:10.1111/iju.12533
Oladimeji, A. A., Temi, A. P., Adekunle, A. E., Taiwo, R. H., & Ayokunle, D. S.
2013. Prevalence of Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis in Liver Cirrhosis
with Ascites. The Pan African Medical Journal, 15, 128.
doi:10.11604/pamj.2013.15.128.2702
Onufrak, N. J., Forrest, A., & Gonzalez, D. 2016. Pharmacokinetic and
Pharmacodynamic Principles of Anti-infective Dosing. Clinical
Therapeutics. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinthera.2016.06.015
Parsian, H., Nouri, M., Rahimipour, A., Hossein, M., & Qujeq, D. 2011.
Comparison of Five Liver Fibrosis Indexes with Serum Levels of Laminin and
N Terminal Peptide of Procollagen Type III in Chronic Hepatitis
Patients. Liver Biopsy. doi:10.5772/21784
Patidar, K. R., & Bajaj, J. S. 2013. Antibiotics for the Treatment of Hepatic
Encephalopathy. Metabolic Brain Disease, 28(2), 307-12.
Patidar, K. R., & Sanyal, A. J. 2018. Ascites and Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis.
In: Friedman, L. S., & Martin, P (Eds.). Handbook of Liver Disease, Ed. 4th,
Philadelphia: Elsevier, Inc.
Paul, K., Kaur, J., & Kazal, H. L. 2015. To Study the Incidence, Predictive Factors
and Clinical Outcome of Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis in Patients of
86
Cirrhosis with Ascites. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research :
JCDR, 9(7), OC09–OC12. doi:10.7860/JCDR/2015/14855.6191
Pearce, E. C. 2014. Anatomi dan Fisiologi Untuk Paramedis. Jakarta: Gramedia
Pustaka Utama.
Pedersen, J. S., Bendtsen, F., & Møller, S. 2015. Management of cirrhotic ascites.
Therapeutic Advances in Chronic Disease.
https://doi.org/10.1177/2040622315580069
Plaats, A., Maathuis, M., Hart, N., Bellekom, A., Hofker, H., Houwen, E. B.,
Verkerke, G. J., Leuvenink, H. G. D., Verdonck, P., Ploeg, R. J. & Rakhorst,
G. 2006. The Groningen Hypothermic Liver Perfusion Pump: Functional
Evaluation of a New Machine Perfusion System. Annals Of Biomedical
Engineering, 34(12), 1924-1934. doi:10.1007/s10439-006-9207-4
Qureshi, M. O., Khokhar, N., & Shafqat, F. 2014. Ammonia Levels and the Severity
of Hepatic Encephalopathy. Journal of the College of Physicians and
Surgeons Pakistan, Vol. 24 (3): 160
Regamey, C. 1985. Pharmacokinetics of Ceftriaxone and Its Relation to
Concentrations in Extravascular Compartments. Chemotherapy, 31(2), 85-
94. doi:10.1159/000238319
Riaz, A., & Zaka M. 2017. A Review on Third Generation Cephalosporins.
European Journal of Pharmaceutical and Medical Research, 4(8), 117-
119.
Ribeiro, T. C. R., Chebli, J. M., Kondo, M., Gaburri, P. D., Chebli, L. A., & Feldner,
A. C. 2008. Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis: How to deal with this life-
threatening cirrhosis complication?. Therapeutics and Clinical Risk
Management, 4(5), 919-25.
Ribeiro, T. C. R., Oliveira, J. M., Pace, F. H. L., Souza, J. F., Gaburri, P. D., Chebli,
L. A., Barbosa, K. V. B. D., Castro, A. C. S., & Chebli, J. M. F. 2016.
Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis: Is it Still a Life-Threatening Issue in
Cirrhosis?. Journal Of Gastroenterology And Hepatology Research, 5(4),
2102-2111.
Richards, D. M., Heel, R. C., Brogden, R. N., Speight, T. M., & Avery, G.S.
1984. Ceftriaxone. a Review of tts Antibacterial Activity,
87
Pharmacological Properties and Therapeutic Use. Retrieved 9 July 2019,
from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6329638
Ritter, J. M., Lewis, L. D., Mant, T. G., & Ferro, A. 2008. A Textbook of Clinical
Pharmacology and Therapeutics. London: Hodder Arnold.
Rosenfeld, G. C., & Loose, D. S. 2014. BRS Pharmacology, Ed. 6th. Philadelphia:
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Runyon, B. A. 2016. Ascites and Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis. In: Feldman,
M., Friedman, L. S., Brandt, L. J (Eds.). Sleisenger and Fordtran’s
Gastrointestinal and Liver Disease Pathophysiology, Diagnosis,
Management, Vol. 1, Ed. 10th. Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier.
Runyon, B. A. 2018. Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis in adults: Treatment and
prophylaxis
Saladin, K., Gan, C. A., & Cushman, H. N. 2018. Anatomy & Physiology: The
Unity of Form and Function. McGraw-Hill Education.
Sandhu, G. A., Ahmad, Z., Tahir, G. A., & Mumtaz, J. 2016. Comparison of
Efficacy of Intravenous Ciprofloxacin and Ceftriaxone in the Management of
Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis in patient of Liver Cirrhosis. Annals of
Punjab Medical College, Vol. 10, No. 4.
Saskara, P. M. A., & Suryadarma, I. 2012. Sirosis Hepatis. Fakultas Kedokteran
Universitas Udayana, Denpasar.
Sauerbruch, T., & Wong, F. 2018. Treatment of Oesophageal Varices in Liver
Cirrhosis. Digestion, 1-6. doi:10.1159/000492076
Savlan, I., Liakina, V., & Valantinas, J. 2014. Concise Review of Current Concepts
on Nomenclature and Pathophysiology of Hepatic
Encephalopathy. Medicina, 50 (2), 75-81.
Seaton, A. 2013. Antimicrobial Therapy. In: McKay, G. A., & Walters, M. R
(Eds.). Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics Lecture Notes, Ed. 9th.
Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Setiawan, V. W., Stram, D. O., Porcel, J., Lu, S. C., Le Marchand, L., & Noureddin,
M. 2016. Prevalence of chronic liver disease and cirrhosis by underlying cause
in understudied ethnic groups: The multiethnic cohort. Hepatology.
https://doi.org/10.1002/hep.28677
88
Shah, V. H., & Kamath, P. S. 2016. Portal Hypertension and Variceal Bleeding. In:
Feldman, M., Friedman, L. S., Brandt, L. J (Eds.). Sleisenger and
Fordtran’s Gastrointestinal and Liver Disease Pathophysiology,
Diagnosis, Management, Vol. 1, Ed. 10th. Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier.
Sharma, B., & John, S. 2019. Hepatic Cirrhosis. Statpearls Publishing. Retrieved
from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482419/
Shi, L., Wu, D., Wei, L., Liu, S., Zhao, P., Tu, B. Xie, Y., Liu, Y., Wang, X., Liu,
L., Zhang, X., Xu, Z., Wang, F., & Qin, E. 2017. Nosocomial and
Community-Acquired Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis in patients with liver
cirrhosis in China: Comparative Microbiology and Therapeutic
Implications. Scientific Reports, 7(1). doi:10.1038/srep46025
Sibulesky, L. 2013. Normal liver anatomy. Clinical Liver Disease.
https://doi.org/10.1002/cld.124
Siswandono. 2016. Hubungan Struktur-Aktivitas Obat Antibiotika. In: Siswandono
(Eds.). Kimia Medisinal, Ed. 2nd. Surabaya: Airlangga University Press.
Slavoski, L. A., & Levison, M. E. 2015. In: Schlossberg, D (Eds.). Clinical
Infectious Disease, Ed. 2nd. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Song, D. S. 2018. Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis. The Korean Journal Of
Gastroenterology, 72(2), 56. doi:10.4166/kjg.2018.72.2.56
Suhail, M., Abdel-Hafiz, H., Ali, A., Fatima, K., Damanhouri, G. A., Azhar, E.,
Chaudhary, A. G., & Qadri, I. 2014. Potential mechanisms of hepatitis B virus
induced liver injury. World Journal of Gastroenterology, 20(35), 12462–
12472. doi:10.3748/wjg.v20.i35.12462
Sundaram, V., Manne, V., & Al-Osaimi, A. M. 2014. Ascites and spontaneous
bacterial peritonitis: recommendations from two United States centers. The
Saudi Journal of Gastroenterology, 20(5), 279-87.
Suriawinata, A. A., & Thung, S. N. 2011. Liver Pathology: An Atlas and Concise
Guide. Newyork: Demos Medical Publicing, LLC.
Swati, Tiwari, S., Patel, U. D., Bhavsar, S. K., & Thaker, A. M. 2010.
Pharmacokinetics and Bioavailability of Ceftriaxone in Patanwadi
Sheep.
89
Sweetman, S. C. 2009. Martindale The Complete Drug Reference, Ed. 36th. New
York: Pharmaceutical Press.
Tatro, D. S. 2003. A to Z Drug Facts. San Fransisco: Facts and Comparisons.
Thapa, B. R., & Walia, A. 2007. Symposium: Newer Diagnostic Liver Function
Tests and their Interpretation. Indian Journal of Pediatrics.
Tözün, N. 2009. Cirrhosis of Liver. In: Mahtab, M. A., & Rahman, S (Eds.). Liver
A Complete Book on Hepato-Pancreato-Biliary Diseases. Chennai:
Elsevier.
Tripathi, D., Stanley, A. J., Hayes, P. C., Patch, D., Millson, C., Mehrzad, H.,
Austin, A., Ferguson, J. W., Olliff, S. P., Hudson, M., Christie, J. M.,
Clinical Services and Standards Committee of the British Society of
Gastroenterology 2015. U.K. Guidelines on the Management of Variceal
Haemorrhage in Cirrhotic Patients. Gut, 64(11), 1680-704.
Tsochatzis, E., & Gerbes, A. 2017. Diagnosis and Treatment of Ascites. Journal
of Hepatology, 67(1), 184-185. doi:10.1016/j.jhep.2017.01.011
Verhelst, X., Geerts, A., & Vlierberghe, H. V. 2016. Cirrhosis: Reviewing the
Literature and Future Perspectives. European Medical Journal.
Vilstrup, H., Amodio, P., Bajaj, J., Cordoba, J., Ferenci, P., Mullen, K. D.,
Weissenborn, K., & Wong, P. 2014. Hepatic Encephalopathy in Chronic
Liver Disease: Practice Guideline by AASLD and EASL. The American
Association for the Study of Liver Diseases.
Violi, F., Basili, S., Raparelli, V., Chowdary, P., Gatt, A., Burroughs, A.K., 2011.
Patients with Liver Cirrhosis Suffer from Primary Haemostatic Defects?
Fact or Fiction?. Journal of Hepatology, vol. 55 j 1415–1427.
Vlachogiannakos, J., Goulis, J., Patch, D., & Burroughs, A. K. 2000 Review article:
Primary Prophylaxis for Portal Hypertensive Bleeding in Cirrhosis.
Alimentary Pharmacology and Therapeutics.
https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2036.2000.00778.x
Vorobioff, J. D., & Groszmann, R. J. 2014. Prevention of portal hypertension: from
variceal development to clinical decompensation. Hepatology, (1), 375-81.
Whitfield, J. B., Masson, S., Liangpunsakul, S., Hyman, J., Mueller, S., Aithal, G.,
Eyer, F., Gleeson, D., Thompson, A., Stickel, F., Soyka, M., Daly, A. K.,
90
Cordell, H. J., Liang, T., Foroud, T., Lumeng, L., Pirmohamed, M., Nalpas,
B., Bence, C., Jacquet, J. M., Louvet, A., Moirand, R., Nahon, P., Naveau,
S., Perney, P., Podevin, P., Haber, P. S., Seitz, H. K., Day, C. P., Mathurin,
P., Morgan, T. M., Seth, D. 2017. Evaluation of Laboratory Tests for
Cirrhosis and for Alcohol Use, In The Context of Alcoholic
Cirrhosis. Alcohol. 66, 1-7. doi:10.1016/j.alcohol.2017.07.006
Wilson, I. D. 1990. Hematemesis, Melena, and Hematochezia. In: Walker, H. K.,
Hall, W. D., Hurst, J. W (Eds.). Clinical Methods: The History, Physical,
and Laboratory Examinations. 3rd edition. Boston: Butterworths; Chapter
85. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK411/
Wright, G., Chattree, A., & Jalan, R. 2011. Management of Hepatic
Encephalopathy. International Journal of Hepatology, 2011, 1-10.
doi:10.4061/2011/841407
Yecies, T., & Inagami, S. 2013. Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis Caused by
Listeria monocytogenes Associated with Ascitic Fluid Lymphocytosis: A Case
Report and Review of Current Empiric Therapy. Case Reports in
Hepatology, 2013, 832457.
Yecies, T., & Inagami, S. 2013. Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis Caused by
Listeria monocytogenes Associated with Ascitic Fluid Lymphocytosis: A
Case Report and Review of Current Empiric Therapy. Case Reports in
Hepatology, 2013, 832457.
Yin, C., Evason, K. J., Asahina, K., & Stainier, D. Y. R. 2013. Hepatic stellate cells
in liver development, regeneration, and cancer. Journal of Clinical
Investigation. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI66369
Zhang, C. Y., Yuan, W. G., He, P., Lei, J. H., & Wang, C. X. 2016. Liver fibrosis
and hepatic stellate cells: Etiology, pathological hallmarks and therapeutic
targets. World Journal of Gastroenterology.
https://doi.org/10.3748/wjg.v22.i48.10512
Zhou, W. C., Zhang, Q. B., & Qiao, L. 2014. Pathogenesis of liver cirrhosis. World
Journal of Gastroenterology. https://doi.org/10.3748/wjg.v20.i23.7312
