rhe value of non-wood forest products for food security; a case study of kifula ward in kilimanjaro,...
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Describes about the role of non-wood forest for food security around the society.TRANSCRIPT
SOKOINE UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE
COLLEGE OF FORESTRY, WILDLIFE AND TOURISM
DEPARTMENT OF FOREST ENGINEERING AND WOOD SCIENCES
DEGREE PROGRAM: BSc. FORESTRY
FSP 300: RESEARCH PROJECT II
THE VALUE OF NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS FOR FOOD SECURITY IN A
SOCIETY; A CASE STUDY OF KIFULA WARD IN KILIMANJARO, TANZANIA
BY HAMISI, HAMISI H
REG NO: FOR/D/2018/0276
NAME OF SUPERVISOR: PROF. K.F.S HAMZA
A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN FORESTRY
OF SOKOINE UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE.
MOROGORO, TANZANIA
JULY 2021
ii
ABSTRACT
The study was conducted to assess the value of non-wood forest products (NWFPs) for food
security to the people of selected part of Kifula ward in Kilimanjaro, Tanzania.
Data were collected using Questionnaire, Direct observation and Focus group discussion. A total
of 30 respondents were involved during collection of data. Microsoft excel version of 2019 was
used for analyzing the data.
Non-wood forest products (NWFPs) that plays a greater role for food security at Kifula ward
were identified which includes Edible fruits, Vegetables, Medicinal plants, Honey and Fodders.
They play a greater role to ensure food security either directly through consuming the given
product as food or indirectly through selling the products to earn money which will be used for
buying food. The study shows that most of the people at Kifula ward uses the Non-wood forest
products collected for food purposes at a high percentage more than other purposes.
People that collects NWFPs at Kifula ward faces threats or problems in terms of Processing and
preservation of Non-wood forest products collected as they have insufficient knowledge on how
to process and to preserve the Non-wood forest products collected.
Deforestation acts as the major threats toward collection of non-wood forest products as they
lead to the decrease of non-wood forest products collected from the forest as a results of cutting
down of trees. The presence of dangerous animals such as snakes in the forest is one of the
obstacle that people faces towards collection of Non-wood forest products from the forests
around Kifula ward.
Hence the study shows that the collection Non-wood forest products should be given a greater
attention as they play a significant role in ensuring food security especially to the people around
rural areas. Therefore, enough education in terms of processing and preservation of Non-wood
forest products should be provided so as to maximize profit derived from the non-wood forest
products collected around various areas in Tanzania. People should be emphasized on
Afforestation and Reforestation programs so as to minimize and remove the problem of
Deforestation which hinder utilization of Non-wood forest products to ensure food security.
iii
DECLARATION
I, Hamisi Hamisi H, do here by declare to the Senate of Sokoine University of Agriculture that
this special project is my own original work and has neither been submitted nor concurrently
being submitted for any degree award in any other University.
……………………
Hamisi, Hamisi H Date: …………………….
BSc. Forestry Student
The above declaration is confirmed by
Prof. K.F.S. Hamza (Supervisor)
Signature: ……………………... Date: ……………………
Prof. F.B.S. Makonda (Head of Department)
Signature: ……………………... Date: ……………………...
Prof. Suzana Augustino (Principal of College)
Signature: ……………………... Date: ………………………
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COPYRIGHT
No part of this special project may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system or transmitted in
any form or by any means without prior written permission of either the author or Sokoine
University of Agriculture on that behalf.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my supervisor Prof. K.F.S. Hamza as
well as the Head of Department of Forest Engineering and Wood Sciences Prof. F.B.S Makonda,
who gave me the golden opportunity to do this wonderful research project, also helped me to
know about so many things about Non-wood forest products. I am really thankful to them.
I sincerely thank the Higher Education Students Loans Board (HESLB) of Tanzania via Sokoine
University of Agriculture for financial supports that enabled me to accomplish this study.
Also I am highly indebted to the Kifula ward Authority and my parents Ms. Swalihina Ngongi
and Mr. Hassan Mvungi who gave me a great support during Observation and Identification of
some plant species. I also extend my thanks to local communities around villages found in Kifula
ward and those who have contributed information in various ways for their great cooperation.
I also give great thanks to my fellow students; Peter Kilango, Gwalugano Hajji, Paul Pius and
Mwita Magoiga for their ideas, supports and cooperation during the preparation of this research
project.
Finally, I can say to God to be the glory, honour and praise.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................. ii
DECLARATION........................................................................................................................................ iii
COPYRIGHT ............................................................................................................................................. iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................................................................... v
TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................................................... vi
LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................................................... ix
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................................... x
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................................... xi
CHAPTER ONE ......................................................................................................................................... 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background information ...................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Problem statement and Justification ................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Study Objectives .................................................................................................................................... 4
1.3.1 Main objective .................................................................................................................................... 4
1.3.2 Specific objectives .............................................................................................................................. 4
1.4.0 Research questions ............................................................................................................................. 4
CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................................................ 5
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................................... 5
2.1 The concept of Non-wood forest products .......................................................................................... 5
2.2 Classification of Non-wood forest products ........................................................................................ 5
2.2.1 Extractive products ............................................................................................................................ 5
2.2.2 Edible products and related materials ............................................................................................. 6
2.2.3 Medicinal and pharmaceutical plant products ............................................................................... 6
2.2.4 Bees Products ..................................................................................................................................... 7
2.2.5 Animals based products .................................................................................................................... 7
2.2.6 Fibres ................................................................................................................................................... 8
2.2.7 Floral products ................................................................................................................................... 8
2.3.0 Importance of Non-wood forest products ........................................................................................ 8
2.3.1 Cultural values ................................................................................................................................... 8
2.3.2 Household subsistence ....................................................................................................................... 9
2.3.3 Food and Nutrition ............................................................................................................................ 9
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2.3.4 Fodder and Grazing ......................................................................................................................... 10
2.3.5 Medicinal uses .................................................................................................................................. 10
2.4.0 Constraints/Threats facing Non- wood forest products ............................................................... 10
2.4.1 Deforestation .................................................................................................................................... 10
2.4.2 Improper forest management regimes ........................................................................................... 11
2.4.3 Inefficient promotion on sustainable use of Non-wood forest products ...................................... 11
2.5 The concept of food security .............................................................................................................. 11
CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................................. 13
3.0 METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................................. 13
3.1 Description of the Study Area ............................................................................................................ 13
3.1.1 Location ............................................................................................................................................ 13
3.1.2 Climate .............................................................................................................................................. 13
3.1.3 Socio-economic activities ................................................................................................................. 13
3.2.0 Research Design ............................................................................................................................... 14
3.2.1 Sampling design ............................................................................................................................... 14
3.3.0 Data collection .................................................................................................................................. 14
3.3.1 Primary data ..................................................................................................................................... 14
3.3.1.1 Direct Observation ........................................................................................................................ 14
3.3.1.2 Questionnaire ................................................................................................................................ 15
3.3.1.3 Focus group discussion ................................................................................................................. 15
3.4 Secondary data .................................................................................................................................... 15
3.5 Data analysis and presentation .......................................................................................................... 15
CHAPTER FOUR ..................................................................................................................................... 16
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ....................................................................................................... 16
4.1 Non-wood Forest products (NWFPs) collected around Kifula ward ............................................. 16
4.1.1 Vegetables ......................................................................................................................................... 17
4.1.2 Edible fruits ...................................................................................................................................... 18
4.1.3 Medicinal and Pharmaceutical plant products. ............................................................................ 19
4.1.4 Fodders.............................................................................................................................................. 22
4.1.5 Honey ................................................................................................................................................ 23
4.2.0 Assessment of frequency of collection, processing and Utilization of Non-wood forest products
at Kifula ward in Kilimanjaro, Tanzania ............................................................................................... 24
4.2.1 Frequency of collection of Non-wood Forest products ................................................................. 24
viii
4.2.2 Assessment of processing and utilization of Non-wood forest products collected ...................... 25
4.2.3 Assessment of Utilization of Non-wood forest products (NWFPs) collected at Kifula ward .... 26
4.3.0 Problems/Threats facing utilization of Non-wood forest products at Kifula ward .................... 27
4.3.1 Deforestation .................................................................................................................................... 27
4.3.2 Presence of dangerous animals in the forests ................................................................................ 27
4.3.3 Insufficient knowledge on processing and preservation of non-wood forest products .............. 28
CHAPTER FIVE ...................................................................................................................................... 29
5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .............................................................................. 29
5.1 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 29
5.2 Recommendations ............................................................................................................................... 29
6.0 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................... 31
7.0 APPENDICES ..................................................................................................................................... 35
7.1 APPENDIX I ....................................................................................................................................... 35
7.2 APPENDIX II ...................................................................................................................................... 38
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Vegetables collected at Kifula ward in Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. ............................................ 17
Table 2. Edible fruits collected at Kifula ward in Kilimanjaro, Tanzania .......................................... 18
Table 3. Medicinal plants collected around Kifula ward Forests in Kilimanjaro, Tanzania ............. 20
Table 4. Fodders collected around Kifula ward in Kilimanjaro, Tanzania......................................... 22
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Types of non-wood forest products collected at Kifula ward in Kilimanjaro, Tanzania ... 16
Figure 2. Frequency of collection of non-wood forest products at Kifula ward in Kilimanjaro,
Tanzania .................................................................................................................................................... 24
Figure 3. Response of processing of Non-wood forest products at Kifula ward in Kilimanjaro,
Tanzania .................................................................................................................................................... 25
Figure 4. Utilization of non-wood forest products at Kifula ward in Kilimanjaro, Tanzania ........... 26
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
FAO- Food and Health Organization
NWFPS- Non-wood forest products
TZS- Tanzanian Shillings
TFNC- Tanzania Food and Nutrition Centre
UNICEF- United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund
URT- United Republic of Tanzania
WHO- World Health Organization
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CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background information
Non-wood forest products (NWFP) in Tanzania and worldwide play a significant role to the
people livelihoods. They cover a wide range of food, fodder fibers, Organic manures,
construction materials, tannins, gums, resins, latex, waxes, essential oils, spices, edible oils,
medicinal extracts, decorative materials, fruits and natural dyes. (Ndalangasi et al. 2007) and
(Shackleton, 2004) reported that in many developing countries including Tanzania majority
of rural household and large proportion of urban household depends on non-wood forest
products to meet some parts of their nutritional, health, construction materials and income
from selling these products.
Food security has been an important discussion in the debate of rural development and
poverty alleviation policies in many developing countries. Despite the substantial increase in
food production in many countries, 790 Million people in developing world do not have
enough to eat. Another 34 million people in the industrialized countries and countries in
transition also suffer from chronic food insecurity (FAO 1999a).
It is argued that in aggregate terms, Tanzania has no food shortage (URT and UNICEF,
1990; Kavishe and Mushi, 1993). However, some parts of the country are prone to food
shortages due to drought, flood, market and transport constraints that hinder smooth transfer
of food from surplus areas to deficit ones. Thus availability of food at national level is not
translated into household food security or equal access among all members of the household.
At a household level food security entails having adequate supply of food. Adequate refers to
quantity and quality; that is there should be enough food to meet daily requirements of all
members of household (Mosha, 1990).
The major causes of food insecurity have been identified as being crop failures, storage
deficiencies and sale of food in higher proportions than food security would require (TFNC,
1992). It is clear that the problem of food insecurity has often been looked into in a narrower
2
sense, with a bias on direct agricultural production. The problem of food insecurity is not
simply one of agricultural output, but encompasses all factors affecting household’s access to
an adequate year round supply of food. For example, it is known that in Tanzania a
widespread hunger prevailing particularly in semi-arid areas is not due to unavailability of
food in the market but due to inadequate purchasing power among the rural poor. Consumer
purchasing power has been declining over the years in Tanzania. The hardest hit is the urban
low wage earners and the rural poor who usually face food deficit and as such have to buy
food (G.C Kajembe et al. 2000).
Analyzing questions of food security in a broader sense allows us to capture the potential
contribution of forest resources to society food security. It is a known fact that most rural
poor are supplementing their food requirements from the forests. This project will synthesize
the work done along the lines of the values of non-wood forest products to the society food
security.
In this view, this study aimed at investigating the values or contributions of Non-wood forest
products to ensure food security to the livelihood of the society at Kifula ward in Kilimanjaro
region.
1.2 Problem statement and Justification
Non-wood forest products have been used by man for development since ancient times.
Local communities living adjacent to forest reserves and plantations rely heavily on
extraction of forest products including NWFPs.
Forests and trees do have an important role to play in food security, although it is clearly
wrong to suggest that forests and trees can replace agriculture as a food production system to
any significant extent (FAO, 1990). Forests and trees have the potential benefits either as a
regular dietary supplement, as a seasonal supplement or as a survival strategy, which are so
far not well captured and explained.
However, the issues of accessibility and dependency of NWFPs are not well synthesized and
documented. Moreover, scarcity of NWFPs, that contribute to the household food security
3
directly or indirectly, is already being experienced as a result of increase in population, non-
domestication of NWFP sources and dilution of indigenous knowledge in the wake of
modernization. The indigenous knowledge should be documented to ensure its widespread
use and build up an institutional memory. Tanzania is a huge country with more than 120
ethnic groups. Each of those groups has different cultural norms, beliefs and practices and
hence different food habits.
The study will seek to bring together information on the values of non-wood forest products
(NWFPs)to address problems related to food insecurity around Kifula ward in Kilimanjaro
region. An understanding of the significance of forest products to the rural communities
contributes substantially towards working out possible strategies for involving these
communities in the management of forests. It is essential also to investigate the importance
of forests to the daily life of local communities in their struggle to make ends meet, a struggle
which can sometimes threaten the forests.
4
1.3 Study Objectives
1.3.1 Main objective
To synthesize useful information on the role of non-wood forest products (NWFPs) to ensure
food security of a society at Kifula ward in Kilimanjaro.
1.3.2 Specific objectives
To assess the issue of dependency on non-wood forest products (NWFPs) in relation to
food security in a study area.
To examine the local knowledge with regard to collection, processing, and utilization of
non-wood forest products (NWFPs).
To identify potentials and problems/ threats with regard to availability of non-wood forest
products (NWFPs) for food security.
1.4.0 Research questions
What are the importance or values of non-wood forest products in a study area?
There is access and dependency on the use of non-wood forest products for food?
How non-wood forest products are managed including collection, processing and
utilization?
What are the problems/threats facing utilization of non-wood forest products and what
need to be done to overcome the problems/threats?
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CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 The concept of Non-wood forest products
Non-wood Forest Product (NWFP); According to FAO (1999) Non-wood forest products
consist of goods of biological origin other than wood derived from the forests, other wooded
land and trees outside the forests. Following this definition, the term NWFP excludes all
woody raw materials. Consequently, timber, chips, charcoal and fuel wood, as well as small
woods such as tools, household equipment and carvings are excluded. Non timber forest
products (NTFPs) in contrast generally include fuel wood and small woods, this is the main
difference between NWFPs and NTFPs.
2.2 Classification of Non-wood forest products
Classifying these products into like categories is an important first step of understanding the
Non-wood forest products. Non-wood forest products can be broadly classified into Edibles
and Non edibles. The former includes edible plants and animals, honey, oils, fish, spices
while Non edible products it includes grasses, ornamental plants, oil for cosmetic use and
medicinal products.
2.2.1 Extractive products
Extractive products include gums, resins, oleoresins, latex, tannins, dyes, oils, fats and
essential oils. Plant gums are water soluble natural hydrocolloid compounds in form of
exudates produced by plants as a protective mechanism or seed gums isolated from the
endosperm portion of some seeds. They are made up of polysaccharides and small quantities
of protein and mineral salts.
6
2.2.2 Edible products and related materials
A great variety of edible products may be obtained from forest land. Forest food, where
available and exploited, may offer the possibility of achieving a nearly perfect balance.
Feeding people is not only a matter of having sufficient quantities of food at hand; diversity
in diet is essential (Poulsen, 1982). Unfortunately, with time, forest foods availability appears
to decline in many places owing to environmental destruction, or just because they are less
used due to changes in eating habits.
Wild food plants play a very important role in the livelihoods of rural communities as an
integral part of their subsistence in many developing countries. Locally available wild food
plants serve as alternatives to staple food during periods of food deficit (Asfaw and Tadesse,
2001), are a valuable supplement for a nutritionally balanced diet (Somnasang and Moreno-
Black, 2000), are also one of the primary alternative sources of income for many resource
poor communities (Melnyk, 1996), and the source of species for domestication (High and
Shackleton, 2000; Atangana et al., 2002). It includes Wild fruits, wild nuts, Edible oils and
Spices.
2.2.3 Medicinal and pharmaceutical plant products
There are multiple benefits of medicinal plants in developing countries. Benefits include:
improved access to primary healthcare, enhanced livelihood security, potentially sustainable
use of the biodiversity and improved benefit sharing with local communities. In the broader
sense, medicinal plants can also address the chronic problem of global poverty and hunger.
Medicinal plants can help meet the basic needs of the poor rural people.
Forest medicines form the base of the African traditional medicine in terms of socio-
economic and socio-cultural heritage, servicing the majority of the population in Africa,
coming a long way from the times of their ancestors. Traditional medicine is the first-choice
healthcare treatment for more than 80% of Africans, who suffer from simple and other
common ailments. The World Health Organization (WHO) has estimated that up to 80% of
people in the developing world are dependent upon traditional medicines primarily because
of their easy accessibility, wide affordability and cultural familiarity (Agustino et al. 2011).
7
2.2.4 Bees Products
Honey is the most important product of beekeeping industry (Hamza, 1997), with several
derived products such as wax, pollen, royal jelly and propolis. Usually bee products are
renewable resources, and with appropriate techniques they can be exploited without
detrimental effect to the environment. Honey is a natural nutritious food and medicine for the
rural and urban people. Honey and beeswax are commodities which support rural livelihood
as alternative income from forests and woodlands, and can contribute to sustainable forest
management if properly integrated.
Honey and beeswax are two NWFPs with a strong relationship with plants.
Honeybees derive the nectar and pollen they need from a wide range of vegetation types.
Forests, woodlands and bush lands are major sources of nectar and pollen, which have made
traditional beekeepers acquire a profound knowledge of trees and other plants that bees
depend on (Chikamai and Tchatat, 2004). Forest types dominated by trees of the legume
family have a very great potential for honey production. Plant species highly preferred by
bees for nectar gathering include Afzelia quanzensis, Albizia gummifera, Commiphora sp.,
Ficussy comorus, Grewia spp, Parinari excelsa, Rauvolfia caffra and Syzygium guineense
(Hamza, 1997). Bees are also responsible for pollination of many flowering plants hence
important for sustaining biodiversity.
2.2.5 Animals based products
It includes animals such as Birds, Insects, Snails and fishes which all are consumed as food
in many African households. For communities residing in the vicinity of forests and
woodlands wild animals play an important role in local diets in terms of Protein supplements.
For example, animal and their products attract attention of a variety of people ranging from
hunters to tourists and zoologists (Makonda, 1997).
8
2.2.6 Fibres
Fibres obtained from forest vegetation are of great importance to African communities. They
are used for making papers, cloths, baskets, mats, cordage, furniture and in house
construction. Tropical Africa is home to about 500 species primarily used for fibres. The
group is very diverse, including species producing the well-known fibres of international
trade such as cotton (Gossypium spp.), jute (Corchorus spp.) and sisal (Agave sisalana), but
also many lesser-known fibre plants found in forest ecosystems (Achigan-Dako and Brink,
2009).
2.2.7 Floral products
It includes pine boughs, grapevines, ferns and other plant products used for decorative
applications. These unique forest products may appear in floral arrangements, dried flower
decorations and ornaments common example includes products made from pine boughs,
grape vines, moss, ferns, flowers and cone.
2.3.0 Importance of Non-wood forest products
2.3.1 Cultural values
Rural people use NWFPs for food, income and farm inputs but also for social, cultural and
religious functions.
The intangible, non-economic roles of NWFPs can be more important and even provide a
foundation for the economic roles that development programs usually address. In many
cultures, communities maintain certain areas as sacred groves where harvesting is banned or
carefully controlled (Arnold, 1995). Harvests are, in such cases, restricted to meet the needs
for religious/socio-cultural ceremonies. Certain species may play a crucial role in spiritual
ceremonies, or have taboos associated with them that forbid certain harvests. In central
Africa, parents plant a tree in the wild for a newborn child, and the child's growth is forever
9
linked to the tree's growth (Falconer, 1990). Other trees figure in burial rituals. Forest foods
play a part in wedding rites, initiation ceremonies and other events. In many places, these
cultural and spiritual roles are losing their importance, but in other places they persist and are
even renewed in the face of encroaching values from outside the community
2.3.2 Household subsistence
Among all the many NWFPs, the most common worldwide are used for food, fodder,
medicine, and construction materials. Other uses include, among others, farm tools,
household baskets, sleeping mats, pillows, sponges and brooms (Arnold, 1995).
Rural families provide for their needs not just by growing crops but also with other
household income.
Therefore, assessments of local dependence on NWFPs for food security must count local
product sales as well as direct contributions to food and nutrition. A family often changes its
strategy for food security as its economic options change. This can have varying effects; for
example, more labor-intensive harvesting methods for a product could force women to spend
less time cooking and caring for their children.
2.3.3 Food and Nutrition
Foods from the forest include fruits, leaves, seeds and nuts, tubers and roots, fungi, gum and
sap. Beekeeping for honey is often a forest-based activity. Wildlife is an important source of
food, particularly in Africa. In West Africa, more than 60 wildlife species are commonly
consumed (Falconer, 1990). In parts of Africa, bush meat provides a major source of protein
to people's diets. Smaller animals and invertebrates are more important food sources than
larger game (FAO, 1995).
Forest foods often provide essential vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates and protein besides
direct nutritional contributions, they provide variety and taste. Even where people consume
only small amounts of forest foods, they play an important role by adding variety and spice
10
and encouraging children, in particular, to eat more of otherwise bland foods that their bodies
need.
2.3.4 Fodder and Grazing
Forest fodder for stall feeding, in addition to widespread forest grazing is very important in
many developing countries where rural families keep domestic animals, especially in arid
and semi-arid areas. While fodder, almost exclusively, is used locally, uncontrolled fodder
collection and grazing often can lead to forest depletion.
2.3.5 Medicinal uses
More than 80% of people in the world rely heavily on traditional medicinal plants for their
health care and most plants used in traditional medicine system are collected from wild
sources (WHO, 2002). In Tanzania a total of 77 species plants are said to be used for
medicinal practices in Geita district. The sellers of traditional medicine had daily income
ranging from 500 to 2000 TAS (Makonda 1997). Kilonzo (2009) reported that many
traditional healers’ extracts medicinal plants just around their homestead and farm land while
others extracts from forest reserves.
2.4.0 Constraints/Threats facing Non- wood forest products
2.4.1 Deforestation
Food and other non-wood forest products are available in the wild. The problems of
availability of the non-wood forest products are therefore directly related to the problem of
disappearance of forests. This is so because as trees disappear the integrity of the ecosystem
is reduced and biodiversity is lost. Thus, the availability of NWFPs is reduced along with
deforestation and associated biodiversity loss (Otieno, 2000).
11
2.4.2 Improper forest management regimes
Lack of proper forest management regimes is one of the constraint facing the development of
non-wood forest products in various areas of Tanzania hence this made the access to non-
wood forest products to be difficult as a results of poor management of those products as they
have been destructed or deteriorated. Hence in order to avoid this constraint Proper forest
management regimes should be effectively considered.
2.4.3 Inefficient promotion on sustainable use of Non-wood forest products
The capacity to promote sustainable use of Non-wood forest products and facilitation to
increase financial benefits to local users as incentive for forest conservation is consequently
low. There are yet gaps in understanding the range of products used from forests, their
classification, socio economic values, technical packages and the policy contexts for their
sustainable use.
2.5 The concept of food security
Food security has been described by variety definitions and received varying interest in the
past.
The Committee on World Food Security defined food security as economic and physical
access to food for all people at all times (FAO, 1989a).
The World Bank defined food security as the access by all people at all times to have enough
food for a healthy and active life (Maxwell and Frankenberger, 1992).
Conventionally, Food security is defined as the balance of food supply (mainly cereal supply)
and effective demand for food.
The World Bank definition of food security cited above has been widely accepted. It
encompasses two elements:
Food supply and
12
The access or the ability of a household to acquire food, either through their own
production or purchase.
Access to food can be seen as the process through which food reaches people. It also
signifies that the level of analysis is no longer only the region or district. It must also
encompass the household or the individual.
Household food security prevails if the actual food intake of all household members
required to fulfill their dietary requirements is secured in terms of both quantity and
quality throughout the year (Mosha, 1990).
Household food security concerns the microeconomics of the household. In particular, it
describes the use of food in the household, access to it by various members in the
household, household survival strategies and the role of gender. In addition, household
decisions concerning the use of resources, output and cash income are some of the
important critical variables in the overall household food security analysis (Ishengoma,
1998).
Therefore, a household is said to be food insecure when it fails to meet its dietary food
intake in terms of quantity and quality. There is evidence to suggest that household food
insecurity is widespread and chronic in some areas of Tanzania, since there seems to be
certain degree of food deficit at one time or another during the year. This is especially true
prior to harvesting season. (Kajembe et al, 2000)
13
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Description of the Study Area
3.1.1 Location
Kifula ward is located at Ugweno division within Mwanga District in Kilimanjaro Region,
Tanzania. It is situated at latitude ranging between 3° 39' 0" S and 3º 56' 22" S while
longitude ranges between 37° 39' 0" E and 37° 49' 32" E in the Pare Mountains.
The ward is located at an altitude between 1339m and 1357 m above the mean sea level.
Kifula ward consists of villages namely Rangaa, Kisanjuni, Mwaniko, Raa and Masumbeni.
Kifula ward has a population of about 8200 according to 2012 Tanzania National census.
3.1.2 Climate
Kifula ward has Humid Subtropical Climate. The summers have a good deal of rainfall while
the winters have very little rainfall. The average temperature in Kifula is of about 20.0°C and
estimated annual rainfall of about 1150 mm. The driest month is July, with 12 mm of rain.
Most of the precipitation at Kifula falls in April, averaging 218 mm. February is the warmest
month of the year. The temperature in February averages 22.0 °C. July is the coldest month,
with temperatures averaging 17.4 °C.
3.1.3 Socio-economic activities
The area's chief produce is coffee and banana. The area also produces maize and rice which
is grown in the swampy plains, also some of the villagers are involved in livestock keeping
especially cows, sheeps and goats.
14
3.2.0 Research Design
3.2.1 Sampling design
In this study households were the sample units. The households were picked randomly from
the village for the study. Given financial and time constraints a total 30 households in a
village were chosen for study.
Simple random sampling was chosen over other sampling methods for the reason that the
method ensures the possibility of each individual element in the population to have an equal
chance of being selected and being representative, hence minimizing sampling biases.
Also simple random sampling is used when the population is uniform or has similar
characteristics such as main economic activities. Simple random sampling is considered to be
simpler and more cost effective system than systematic and clustered forms of sampling.
3.3.0 Data collection
3.3.1 Primary data
The primary data was obtained by using questionnaire as a method of primary data
collection, focus group discussions and researcher’s direct observation. The respondents were
inquired about various kinds of NWFPs harvested from the forest, amount collected, their
food value, their monetary value and the associated implications and conservations.
3.3.1.1 Direct Observation
This method of data collection involved observing various NWFPs products collected by
villagers from the forests. Apart from observing, photographs were taken on the observed
phenomena that relates to NWFPs practices based on extraction. This method provides
additional information on the collected data thus can lead to a valid conclusion.
15
3.3.1.2 Questionnaire
A questionnaire technique was a core method of data collection in this study, the
questionnaire was designed to collect the primary data which reflect the main and specific
objectives of this study. Thirty (30) households in a village were selected randomly for
questionnaire. Both open ended and closed questionnaires were used in primary data
collection. Open ended questionnaires allowed respondents to freely state what they think
and help to disclose the opinions that have been overlooked. Moreover, closed questionnaires
aim at collecting very specific information, it confines the respondent to a limited number of
answers, reduces the bulkiness of the data to be collected hence ease analysis of data. Also
this method is relatively cheap way in collecting information of a huge population.
3.3.1.3 Focus group discussion
Several focus group discussions were carried out which included village government leaders,
influential people in the village (elders) and Traditional healers who uses NWFPs for
treatments. Topic for discussions was guided by the given checklist at appendix II.
3.4 Secondary data
Secondary data were obtained from literatures available at Sokoine University of Agriculture
Library (SNAL), online journals, articles and information from Kifula ward authority.
3.5 Data analysis and presentation
The results of the data collected was handled and analyzed by using Microsoft Excel Spread
Sheet version of 2019. The analyzed data from the field were presented in form of tables,
charts, percentages and graphs for easy interpretation and understanding.
16
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 Non-wood Forest products (NWFPs) collected around Kifula ward
Non-wood forest products (NWFPs) that are collected around Kifula ward in Kilimanjaro
includes Vegetables that accounts about 37% of the total respondents, Fruits that accounts
about 27% of the total respondents, Medicinal plants which accounts about 20% of the
respondents, Fodders for feeding livestock’s which accounts about 13% of the respondents
and lastly Honey which are produced by bees which accounts about 3% of the total
respondents. These Non-wood forest products play a greater role to ensure the availability of
food among the households that surrounds the Forests at Kifula ward in Kilimanjaro,
Tanzania especially during the period of food shortage.
The results show that Vegetables are collected at a huge amount around Kifula ward forests
followed by Forest fruits, Medicinal plants, Fodders and finally Honey which are collected in
small amount as the results shows in Figure 1 below.
Figure 1. Types of non-wood forest products collected at Kifula ward in Kilimanjaro,
Tanzania
37%
27%
20%
13%
3%
Vegetables
Fruits
Medicinal plants
Fodders
Honey
17
4.1.1 Vegetables
The study mentioned that about 37% of the respondents around Kifula ward consumes wild
vegetables for food and some use them for sell. Leaves of wild plants like trees, shrubs and
herbs are good source of food for the people around Natural forests in semi-arid areas. The
wild vegetables play an important role during periods of food shortage. Around Kifula ward
the respondents mentioned about 12 species of vegetables which are consumed by people
around the ward as shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Vegetables collected at Kifula ward in Kilimanjaro, Tanzania.
S.NO SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME USES
1. Launea cornuta Mchunga/Kiruarua Food , Medicine
2. Bidens pilosa Mashona nguo, Food, Medicine
3. Cleome gynandra Mgagani Food, Medicine
4. Solanum incanum Mtula Food, Medicine
5. Solanum nigrum Mnavu/Mnafu Food
6. Amaranthus spp. Mchicha pori Food
7. Ipomeas spp. Matembele pori Food
8. Solanum betaceum Nyanya pori/Nukuria Food
9. Corchorus spp. Mlenda pori Food
10. Basella alba Inyiri Food
11. Momordica foetida Mokiki Food
12. Vigna vexillata Kunde pori Food
The results above show that wild vegetables play a greater function in ensuring food security
around various areas in Kifula ward, hence this ensures the availability of food in the study
area especially during the period of food shortage. Hence this indicates that NWFPs are very
important components for food security.
18
4.1.2 Edible fruits
The respondents (27%) mentioned to collect and use different types of fruits in various
forests around Kifula ward as shown in table 1. They reported that the forest fruits are
important food supplement around the ward because they play an important role in human
nutrition for the members of the family and also adds income to their households after selling
the fruits. The study revealed that local people mostly used the wild fruits on the period when
they are found especially in wet conditions started from November to March mostly of fruits
were found in large amount also the study revealed that the fruits were used much as fresh
for household’s consumption or for sale.
Table 2. Edible fruits collected at Kifula ward in Kilimanjaro, Tanzania
S.NO SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME USES
1. Tamarindus indica Mkwaju Fruit, Medicine
2. Vitex doniana Furu Fruit
3. Hyphanene
compressa
Mkoche Fruit
4. Andosonia dizitata Mbuyu Fruit
5. Annona senegalensis Mkonokono Fruit
6. Annona squamosa Mtopetope/Mtomoko Fruit
7. Annona muricata Mstafeli Fruit, Medicine
8. Syzygium guineense Mzambarau Fruit
9. Manilkara mochisa Msapa Fruit
10. Vangueria infausta Mviru Fruit, Medicine
11. Ficussy comorus Mkuyu Fruit
12. Grewia similis Mkole Fruit
13. Strychnos cocculoides Mtonga Fruit
14. Sclerocarrya birrea Marula Fruit juice, medicine
19
These results were compared with previous researchers such as Nyingili (2003) identified 33
species of wild fruits in Mbozi district while Hamza and Msalilwa (2004) identified about 8
species of wild fruits in Mgori Forest Reserve also the assessment of the study revealed that
potential wild fruits such as Myrianthus holstii, Uapaca kirkiana, Cyphomandra betacea,
Vitex mombassae and Caped gooseberry were mentioned to be highly used and sold by
households.
4.1.3 Medicinal and Pharmaceutical plant products.
The assessment shows that 20% of respondents mentioned to use the medicinal plants
products that are collected around forests in Kifula ward as shown in Table 3. It revealed that
the medicinal plants were among the potential NTFPs for income generation and
supplements for medicine especially for highly chronic diseases like Diabetes, urinary tract
and male and female infertility for example mostly of traditional healers as key informants
mentioned Moringa oleifera, Sena spectabilis and Custonia holstii as a supplement medicine
for Diabetes mellitus.
20
Table 3. Medicinal plants collected around Kifula ward Forests in Kilimanjaro,
Tanzania
S.NO SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME USES
1. Sphagneticola trilobata Kisapa Medicine
2. Senna occidentalis Mkunde pori Medicine
3. Cassia abbreviata Mkakatika Medicine
4. Combretum zeyheri Msana Medicine
5. Melissa officinalis Nanaa Medicine
6. Lantana camara Mzungwa Medicine
7. Aloe barbadensis Aloe vera Medicine
8. Sena spectabillis Mjohoro Medicine
9. Solanum incanum Ndula Medicine
10. Moringa oleifera Mlonge Medicine
11. Zizphus abysinica Mshao Medicine
12. Vernonia colorata Lilonga Medicine
13. Rhus natalensis Ukate Medicine
14. Albizia anthelmintica Limulimuli Medicine
15. Custonia hostii Mswisa Medicine
21
The results in the table above shows about 15 species of medicinal plants that are collected
around the study area, which are used as medicine by the indigenous people and some of them
are sold so as to obtain income for the daily uses. The medicinal plants before selling are
processed through various methods such as; drying, boiling, grinding, soaking and extracting
juices from the stem of the plants by tapping the stem of the given plant. Hence after selling the
medicines people get income that helps them to buy food for the household. Therefore, this
shows that medicinal plants play an important role in terms of ensuring food security in the
society.
22
4.1.4 Fodders
Fodders are one of the NWFPs that are collected by the people around Kifula ward, the
assessment shows that about 13% of the respondents are involved in collection of fodders that
are used for the purpose of feeding the livestock’s including cows, sheep’s and goats. The
mentioned animals are important for the provision of milk, meats and skin. Hence when the
animals or their products are sold they provide incomes that are used by the farmer to obtain
various needs including food. Hence this shows that fodders are one of the NWFPs that are
important in ensuring food security around the ward. Fodders that are collected in a study area
are shown Table 4 below. Therefore, in this essence it shows that fodders play an important role
to ensure food security around the study area.
Table 4. Fodders collected around Kifula ward in Kilimanjaro, Tanzania
S.NO SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME USES
1. Pennisetum purpureum Elephant grass Livestock fodder
2. Cajanus cajan Mbaazi Livestock fodder
3. Calliandra calothyrsus Mkaliandra Livestock fodder
4. Eleusine indica Kifunga mbuzi Livestock fodder
5. Terminalia stuhlmannii Mbukwe Livestock fodder
6. Brachystegia sp. Mguji Livestock fodder
7. Ficus sp. Mrumba Livestock fodder
8. Sapium bussei Mzejezeje Livestock fodder
9. Solanum sp. Mturatura Livestock fodder
10. Boscia indica Mtumba Livestock fodder
11. Grewia platyclada Mperemehe Livestock fodder
23
4.1.5 Honey
The assessment in the study area shows that 3% of the respondents are involved in honey bee
keeping and the respondents are engaged in traditional methods of keeping the bees such as
the use of traditional logs bee hives and the bee hives are placed inside the forests at the top
of the trees. The assessment shows that there is small number of people in the study area who
are involved in beekeeping activities. Beekeeping is an important activity that is useful for
income generation and food provision hence it is a very important component for ensuring
food security in a society.
Honeybees act as cost free bio-inputs in farming and forestry systems and increase cross
pollination in cultivated as well as wild plant species.
Storing honey starts right at the beekeeper’s apiary site in the woodland or forests whereby
the preferred vessels for storing honey is the 20 litre plastic pails, a 300 kg- drums, guard and
clay pots. The honey is stored under favorable condition for instance in the roof, which is
thatched with grass in order to avoid denaturing of honey by heat of the sun.
Honey is another valued NWFP around the world. In Tanzania it is reported that honey is a
very important food for the Sandawe agriculturalists in central part of the country, Dodoma
and Singida Regions (Kihwele et al., 1999). In this part of the country, honey is collected
three times a year. Honey provides an important source of non-proteneous animal food
product. Honey is nutritionally valuable especially due to the energy it provides. It is
estimated that 100g of honey has 280 Calories. It is normally consumed as a side dish of the
main dish "Ugali". It is also used as jam and in many parts of Tanzania. Also honey is used
for making local brew popularly known as Wanzuki. (Kihwele et al., 1999).
Honey contributes at average of TZS 62500 per annual household income as NWFPs
(Balama et al, 2016) compared with mean annual value of TZS 254000 per household
obtained from 25.7 kg of honey per household in Kilombero District, Tanzania. Also it was
mentioned by Schure, (2010) that honey have high price than other NWFPs because of its
scarcity and its value in supplementing numbered of uses such as food and manufacturing of
cosmetics.
24
4.2.0 Assessment of frequency of collection, processing and Utilization of Non-wood
forest products at Kifula ward in Kilimanjaro, Tanzania
4.2.1 Frequency of collection of Non-wood Forest products
The results from the respondents shows that 2 of them (7%) collects Non-wood forest
products daily, 6 respondents (20%) collects Non-wood forests products weekly, 9 of the
respondents (30%) collects non-wood forest products monthly and 13 respondents (43%)
collects Non-wood forest products occasionally.
These results shows that the majority of the respondents collect non-wood forest products
(NWFPs) occasionally, hence this indicates that huge number of people at Kifula ward
depends on Non-wood forest products for food. Hence this shows that Non-wood forest
products play a greater role in food security around Kifula ward in Kilimanjaro.
Figure 2. Frequency of collection of non-wood forest products at Kifula ward in
Kilimanjaro, Tanzania
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Daily Weekly Monthly Occasionally
Re
spo
nd
en
ts
Frequency of collection
25
4.2.2 Assessment of processing and utilization of Non-wood forest products collected
Assessment of processing and utilization of Non-wood forest products (NWFPs) was done at
Kifula ward and 7 of the respondents (23%) said that they are involved in processing of Non-
wood forest products after collection from the forest and 23 respondents (77%) said that they
do not process Non-wood forest products after collection from the forest as shown in Figure
3 below.
Therefore, this shows that the majority of the respondents they are not processing the NWFPs
collected from the forest while the minority of them they are processing NWFPs which are
collected from the forest.
Some of the respondents said that they do not process them because they use the NWFPs
collected urgently after collection especially fruits and Vegetables and some of them said that
they have little knowledge in terms of processing NWFPs.
Most of the respondents that are involved in processing of NWFPs collected they are
engaging in processing Medicinal plants which is done through applying methods such as;
Boiling the plant parts to extracts the active medicinal ingredients, Drying, Grinding the part
after drying into powder, soaking in cold/boiled water and Extracting juice by tapping the
stem of some plants.
Figure 3. Response of processing of Non-wood forest products at Kifula ward in
Kilimanjaro, Tanzania
23%
77%
Yes No
26
4.2.3 Assessment of Utilization of Non-wood forest products (NWFPs) collected at
Kifula ward
The study shows that 13 of the respondents utilizes NWFPs collected as food, 2 respondents
utilizes them for selling purposes, 4 respondents utilizes them for treatments, 5 of the
respondents utilizes the NWFPs collected for both Food and Selling, 2 respondents utilizes
NWFPs collected for both Food and treatments, 3 of the respondents utilizes NWFPs for
selling and treatments and finally 1 of the respondent utilizes NWFPs collected for both
Food, selling and Treatments as shown in figure 4 below.
Hence the results show that high percentage of the respondents utilizes the Non-wood forest
products (NWFPs) collected for food more than other utilization purposes in Kifula ward.
Therefore, this indicates that NWFPs collected have a greater role in ensuring Food security
at Kifula ward in Kilimanjaro, Tanzania.
Figure 4. Utilization of non-wood forest products at Kifula ward in Kilimanjaro,
Tanzania
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Food Selling Treatments Food andSelling
Food andTreatments
Selling andtreatments
Food,selling andTreatments
Nu
mb
er
of
resp
on
de
nts
Purpose of utilization
27
4.3.0 Problems/Threats facing utilization of Non-wood forest products at Kifula ward
4.3.1 Deforestation
Food and other non-wood forest products are available in the forest. The problems of
availability of the non-wood forest products are therefore directly related to the problem of
disappearance of forests. Cutting down of forest trees without planting others is one of the
major threat or problem facing Forests in Kifula ward hence this made the availability of non-
wood forest products around Kifula ward to decrease as a result of clearing of trees. This is so
because as trees disappear the integrity of the ecosystem is reduced and biodiversity is lost.
Thus, the availability of NWFPs is reduced along with deforestation and associated
biodiversity loss (Otieno, 2000).
A loss of diversity in farms also leaves crops more vulnerable to pests and diseases. Serious
economic loss and human suffering are inevitable when pests attack mono-cultural and
uniform varieties. In addition, there has been serious decline in soil organisms, which are vital
for soil fertility and structure, and beneficial insects and fungi are also disappearing. Such
losses, along with reduced diversity of farming systems types, further increase risks and reduce
productivity.
4.3.2 Presence of dangerous animals in the forests
The presence of dangerous animals in the forests was stated as one of the obstacle facing
utilization of non-wood forest products to the people around Kifula ward. Dangerous animals
such as snakes, hyena, scorpions, sting bees and poisonous spiders are the example of animals
which are dangerous that found inside forests, hence in that essence some of the people creates
fear during the collection of Non-wood forest products. Also some of the respondents said that
they do not allow their Childs to go for collection in the forests as a result of the existence of
dangerous animals in the forests.
28
4.3.3 Insufficient knowledge on processing and preservation of non-wood forest products
This is one of the problems facing people that collect non-wood forest products in Kifula
ward. Hence as a result of lack of enough knowledge on how to process NWFPs they go into
deterioration in a short time, in this essence insufficient knowledge on processing and
preservation of non-wood forest products became one of the major threats with regards to
utilization of non-wood forest products.
29
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusion
It has been further established that NWFPs contribute either directly or indirectly to
household food security. They contribute directly by providing food for consumption, and
indirectly by income generation. The income can then be used to purchase food from the
market.
Integration of modern technologies in activities related to wild foods has not been widely
reported. It is therefore pertinent that efforts be made to incorporate modern technologies in
identification, preparation, preservation and storage of wild foods.
The study has revealed that deforestation, presence of dangerous animals in the forest and
insufficient knowledge on processing and preservation of non-wood forest products are the
main threats against collection and utilization of NWFPs for household food security.
5.2 Recommendations
Large numbers of people already depend on collection of Non-wood forest products as a
source of food and income. By supporting those activities and helping to make them more
profitable and sustainable, the livelihood of those concerned can be improved and their food
security enhanced. This is of particular relevance for the landless and other disadvantaged
groups, as these are the people who generally depends the most on these activities.
It is also recommended that knowledge on processing and preservation of non-wood forest
products should be provided to the people in various parts of the country so that people will
obtain enough knowledge that will make them benefit from Non-wood forest products
collected to raise their living standards and the country economy.
Establishment of clear marketing channels for non-wood forest products will provide income
to households. Transparency and promotional activities will increase demand for the forest
30
foods. In general, indirect contribution of NWFPs to household food security through income
generation depends on availability of market. Most policy makers have not acknowledged the
need for markets for such products. It is therefore recommended that detailed studies on
establishment of good marketing system of all types of wild foods be conducted.
To ensure mass production and sustainability of non-wood forest products efforts aimed at
domestication of these resources should be enhanced. To this end, studies should be done on
suitable agronomic practices of various species producing non-wood forest products.
31
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Ndoumbe, M. and Leakey, R.B.B. 2002. Domestication of Irvingia gabonensis: 2. the
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Chikamai, B. and Tchatat, M. 2004. Forest management for non-wood forest products and
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Forest management in Africa.” KSLA/AFORNET/FAO. 35 pp.
FAO (1990). The major significance of minor forest products. The local use and value of
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and Kilosa districts PhD Thesis SUA. pp 371.
Hamza, K.F.S(1997). Introduction to Non-wood forest products NWFPs. Compendium for
Teaching BSc. Forestry, Faculty of Forestry, Sokoine University of Agriculture,
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Hamza, K. F. S, Msalilwa, U.L and Mwakimbullah, R.J.L (2007). Contribution of Non-Timber
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Kajembe G.C. (1994). Indigenous Management System as a basis for community forestry in
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7.0 APPENDICES
7.1 APPENDIX I
RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE
Section A: Background information
1. Name of respondent......................................................
2. District…………. Division…….…. Ward……………Village………….
3. Age…………
4. Sex………….
5. Marital status: Single…… Married…. Divorced……. Widow…….
6. Education level: ……………...
7. Ethnic group: ………………...
8. Size of household: …………….
9. Main occupation of household: ……………
Section B: Availability of Non-wood forest products
1. For how long have been residing in this village?.............................. years
a) Do you collect NWFPs? Yes/No…………
b) If yes, what types of NWFPs do you collect? ............................
2. How frequent do you go for collection of NWFPs?
a) Daily…….
36
b) Weekly……
c) Monthly……
d) Occasionally….
3. How much do you collect?
a) Enough for meal ( )
b) As much as possible ( )
4. What is the current availability of NWFPs as compared to the past years?
a) Constant ( )
b) Increasing ( )
c) Decreasing ( )
d) Fluctuating ( )
Section C; Collection, Processing & Utilization of NWFPs
1. Do you use food plants?
a) Yes ( )
b) No ( )
2. If yes where do you get them?
a) Collect yourself from the forest ( )
b) Buy from the collectors ( )
3. What type of plant species do you use?
Plant species Quantity collected Frequency of collection
4. Are you processing the NWFPs collected?
37
a) Yes ( )
b) No ( )
If yes how?
5. Are you preserving the NWFPs collected?
c) Yes ( )
d) No ( )
6. If yes, why are you preserving them?
a) To use them during shortage ( )
b) For sale ( )
c) Others Specify ( )
7. Do you sell NWFPs?
a) Yes ( )
b) No ( )
8. If yes, how much money do you get per week from selling NWFPs in Tsh?
a) Less than 5,000/= ( )
b) 5,000/= to 10,000/= ( )
c) More than 10,000/= ( )
9. What are uses of money you get from selling NWFPs?
38
7.2 APPENDIX II
Focus Group Discussion
1. Village Leaders
i. What is the name of the village?
ii. What is the population of your village?
iii. What are the main economic activities in this village?
iv. What are NWFPs available and how used in this village?
Main product of NWFPs Uses
Honey
Medicinal Plants
Thatching grasses
Vegetables
Fruits
Edible Mushrooms
Fibres
Others specify
2. Village Elders
i. For how long have you been in this village?
ii. How is the situation with respect to the availability of NWFPs in the past years as
compared to now?
39
iii. What are commonly used NWFPs in this village? List them
iv. When is NWFPs mostly used?
v. What are the constraints/threats with regard to utilization of non-wood forest
products?
3. Traditional Healers
i. When did you start this activity?
ii. Which plant species do you use in your activities?
Plant species Diseases Part used
iii. What is the number of patients treated per week?
iv. How much money is earned per week?
v. What are the uses of money you earn from selling Medicinal products?
vi. Do you have any other alternative economic activity (s)?
a) Yes ( )
b) No ( )
vii. If yes list them.
viii. How much money you earn from them?