penelitian toksikologi lingkungan oleh drs.sudrajat,s.u. dosen pada : 1). fmipa, 2). fak.kedokteran,...

PENELITIAN TOKSIKOLOGI LINGKUNGAN

Oleh

Drs.Sudrajat,S.U.

Dosen pada :

1). FMIPA,

2). Fak.Kedokteran,

3). Fak. Kesmas,

4). Program S-2 Ilmu Lingkungan

Universitas Mulawarman

Samarinda

2005

PROSES INDUSTRI

LIMBAH( SENYAWA BERBAHAYA BAGI

LINGKUNGAN)

PENILAIAN EFEK YANG MERUGIKAN TERHADAP BEBERAPA KOMPONEN

LINGKUNGAN

STUDI TOKSIKOLOGI LINGKUNGAN

TUJUAN PENELITIAN 1. Melihat perjalanan, perubahan senyawa toksis di

lingkungan : dimulai dari sumber; perjalanan di lingkungan; efek paparan terhadap mikroorganisme,hewan, tumbuhan, manusia;sifat-sifat fisika kimia toksikan, sehingga hasilnya dapat dipergunakan antara lain untuk penentuan standar kualitas lingkungan.

PENDEKATAN PENELITIAN- Studi pengaruh suatu jenis limbah terhadap satu

jenis sp- Studi pengaruh suatu jenis limbah terhadap

komunitas- Studi pengaruh limbah terhadap mortalitas- Studi pengaruh limbah terhadap efek kronis - Studi pengaruh limbah X terhadap kerusakan

sistem reproduksi hewan - dll

PENDEKATAN PENELITIAN

- TES MONOSPESIFIK- TES KOMUNITAS- EKOSISTEM TERKENDALI- PENELITIAN LAPANGAN

INDIKATOR PENCEMARAN LINGKUNGAN

Beberapa contoh kegiatan penelitian toksikologi lingkungan :-Penentuan toksisitas suatu polutan-Identifikasi sumber-Jumlah -Karakteristik fisik-kimia suatu polutan-Distribusi dan fate suatu polutan di lingkungan-Transformasi polutan secara fisik-kimia- biologi-Efek terhadap lingkungan : Identifikasi dan kuantifikasi efek dan respon terhadap lingkungan ( mikroorganisme, hw, tumb,manusia)

ORGANISME UJI untuk studi toksikologi lingkungan

-Dipilih berdasarkan tujuan dan target organisme ( apakah hewan/tumbuhan akuatik, organisme darat atau laut-Organisme tropik I : Chlorella vulgaris, Selenastrium sp, Scendesmus, kiyambang, dll. Syaratnya organisme tersebut tumbuah dengan cepat dan mudah dikultur-Organisme tropik II : Daphnia sp/ Kutu air untuk perairan tawar dan artemia salina untuk perairan laut

-Organisme tropik : Konsumen II Misalnya Ikan mas ( Cyprinus carpio),ikan nila ( Oreochromis niloticus), Mujair ( Tilapia mozambica).-Organisme tropik : Konsumen III Burung dara, Puyuh

-Hewan Tanah : cacing tanah

Penelitian pada perairan :Dapat dilakukan untuk mengetahui atau mengidentifikasi apakah efluen dan badan air penerima mengandung senyawa toksis dalam konsentrasi yang menyebabkan toksisitas akut atau toksisitas kronis. Penenilitain ini dapat juga untuk menentukan suatu senyawa spesifik yg terdapat dalam efluen, uji ini dapat dilakukan di laboratorium atau secara on site. Data yang diperoleh dapat digunakan untuk memprakirakan potensial toksisitas akuta atau kronis dari efluen dan badan air penerima berdasarkan nilai LC50 dan dengan pengenceran yang sesuai.

HISTOPATOLOGIK ORGAN HEWAN SEBAGAI TOLOK UKUR PENCEMARAN

LINGKUNGAN

Tumbuhan air Egeria densa, Tumbuhan air Egeria densa, a potential a potential bioindicator to sediment pollution?bioindicator to sediment pollution?

• Urban pollution is increasingly becoming a major concern. Whether it is through runoff, leaching of soils, or even through effluent release, pollutants are finding their way into our waterways.

• There are varying methods for testing for the presence of pollutants. Many are time consuming and costly. One valuable method is through the use of bioindicator species - where the response of plants and animals to pollutants in the environment, are assessed.

Egeria densa was selected as a potential bioindicator species as it is robust, fast growing and readily available. It is a submerged aquatic plant, commonly used in fish tanks and can be highly branched, with branches sprouting from 'double nodes' along the stem. Egeria densa is a very bushy plant ( semak), with dense whorls, containing four leaves per whorl (gelungan). Occasionally 3 to 8 leaves may be present.

Following previous studies, a field collection experiment was conducted in 2004, where samples of the plant were collected from ten different sites, nine of which were in Melbourne and surrounding suburbs, and one on the Victorian/New South Wales Border.

The ten sites were of ranging concentrations in heavy metals and nutrients. Plant and sediment samples were collected from each of the sites, and taken back to the laboratory for analysis.

The plants were measured for morphological traits that were found to show trends in previous findings. One of the traits measured in particular was looking at the number of leaves per whorl. From previous experiments, it was determined that the plants from the unpolluted sites on average contained four leaves per whorl, where as those planted in the polluted sediments contained whorls with leaves in varying amounts. The whorls found to contain any number other than four were named 'abnormal whorls'. From this particular study, it was determined that as pollution increases, the number of abnormal whorls increased, similarly to that of the previous studies.

Currently another experiment is underway, involving the spiking of a clean sediment, with varying amounts of a polluted urban sediment, forming a gradual increase in pollution. Plants, originating from a clean site were then added to the sediments. The aim of this experiment is to determine at what concentration we begin to see changes to this morphological trait, and consequently at what concentration the plants are becoming stressed. It is aimed from this study, that it will follow similar trends from previous experiments and hence will allow us to determine whether the plant will be particularly useful as a bioindicator species.

Use of Pollen in Plant Biomonitoring of Air Pollution

Introduction

Numerous studies have been devoted to the impact of air pollutants on pollens but in contrast, only few works are available on the use of pollen to evaluate atmospheric pollution (i.e. pollen as bioindicator).

Pollen as other plant or animal bioindicators, does not provide information on absolute concentrations of pollutants in the air, however, it indicates, with accuracy, their relative levels.

Bioindicators can give relevant information on pollutants: their identities, their levels and their geographical localisation, and may eventually help us drawing pollution maps.

Actually, the methods using plants for biomonitoring of air quality may turn out to be successful, as they are simple, cheap and fast and can supplement the classical physico-chemical methods.

Pollen as Air Pollution Bioindicator

The information on the pollutants is derived from the study of the biological response of pollen to air pollution. As a lot of primary and secondary physiological processes are involved, the physiological responses usable for bioindication could be numerous ranging from molecular level to pollen functioning.

Pollen used as bioindicator gives, from its physiological perturbations, time integrated information on doses of pollutants present in the air. We can say that pollen does not indicate levels of pollutants, but it measures their biological impact.

Thereby pollen, as other bioindicators, provides particularly original and interesting information on the potential adverse effects of pollutants on living organisms. This direct assessment of risk by bioindication methods is of greater importance compared to the physicochemical methods.

If in the atmosphere the pollutants have a direct impact on the physiology of pollen, they have also an indirect impact on its ontogenesis via their effects on the producing plants. It may be pointed out that this ontogenesis is also subordinated to the other environmental factors (atmospheric and/or edaphic) acting on the producing plants.

When pollen is used as bioindicator and we want to eliminate these indirect effects, we have to work with pollen coming from plants cultivated in an unpolluted area (greenhouse) and then introduce “in situ” at the beginning of the study (active bioindication), and not with pollen coming from local endemic plants (passive bioindication) with unknown environmental history.

Another easier solution is the “transplant method”. In this case the pollen is first collected from flowers in an unpolluted area, and then exposed in the polluted sites inside narrow-mesh bags.

These active bioindication methods have the advantage of being easily standardized at the level of the producing plant and allow to control the pollen characteristics, origin and quality. The “transplant methods” inform with precision how long the pollen has been contaminated.

Pollen as Air Pollution Bioaccumulator

In this case, information on the pollutants is based on the study of their accumulation on the pollen. The accumulated pollutants are quantified after extraction from the pollinic matrix and from physico-chemical analysis.

Due to the rugosity of the micro relief at the surface of pollen (exine), and also due to its lipophilicity, the pollen is a very good accumulator of all types of pollutants: gaseous or particulate on one hand and organic or non-organic on the other hand. This accumulation is mainly dependent on physico-chemical processes at the surface level, and for this reason is not much influenced by the physiological condition of the pollen or of the producing plant. Practically, all the pollutants (pesticides, HAP, heavy metals, fluoride, etc…) can be accumulated on pollen for passive or active bioindication.

Pollen used as bioaccumulator gives information directly linked to pollutant concentrations. The accumulation of pollutants is dependent on the fluctuating characteristics of the air as it is influenced by the dynamic equilibrium between pollen and atmosphere. Indeed, numerous factors tend to continuously eliminate, chemically or mechanically, the pollutants accumulated on the pollen surface: rain, wind, dust, rubbing, etc…

But this information is never instantaneous, as we have to take into account an equilibrium time between atmosphere and pollen which is not very well known.To collect enough biological material, pollen is always directly sampled from the flowers, but in polluted areas, by active or passive bioindication, we never know precisely the contact time between pollutants and pollen. To eliminate this problem, we have to use, as with other bioindicators, the “transplant methods”.

Ozone injury on clover (Photo: I Fumagalli, Italy)

Ozone pollution can cause visible injury to develop on the leaves of sensitive plant species. Typical injury is present on the older leaves as small bronze, brown, or yellow flecks on the upper surface (see photo). In severe cases, the flecks can join to form large lesions covering most of the leaf surface.

Heavy metals resulting from mining and industrial activities are pollutants. They can be toxic not only to plants but also to animals and humans through their entry in the food chain through agricultural production. The increasing size of areas polluted by heavy metals makes necessary the use of new strategies to limit the diffusion of this pollution. One of these new strategies is phytoremediation, which consists in using plants to stabilise a polluted soil or to extract metals from such a soil.

Phytoremediation could represent an ecologic, alternative and “cheap” option adapted to mild polluted soils. To develop a phytoremediation strategy, one needs plants that are primarily tolerant to metals and, if possible, that are also able to accumulate high concentrations of metals in their tissues. Such plants exist. They are irreplaceable materials to understand the physiological and genetic bases of metal tolerance and hyper accumulation. They unfortunately have reduced biomasses, which limits their potential use for phytoremediation. We need to understand the mechanisms involved in metal tolerance and metal homeostasis and use that information to breed plants that could be used for phytoremediation.

The objective of our group is to unravel mechanisms:

(i) that allow plants to sustain their growth and development in toxic metal environments and

(ii) that are involved in the control of metal accumulation in plant aerial tissues.

In the past four years, we focused our studies on the metal tolerant and hyper accumulating species Thlaspi caerulescens and Arabidopsis halleri.

Thlaspi caerulescens (left) and Arabidopsis halleri (right) are hyperaccumulators of zinc and cadmium and they are tolerant to these metals. In addition, the Ganges ecotype of Thlaspi caerulescens is tolerant to nickel and hyperaccumulates this metal. The species were photographed in their natural habitats: settling sludge from the Saint Laurent le Minier mine (near Ganges) that contain 12% (w/w) zinc, and the zinc contaminated industrial site of Auby (north of France)

The main achievements of the team have been to shed light on two original mechanisms involved as components of metal tolerance and homeostasis in plants. We showed that the metal tolerance of T. caerulescens and A. halleri occurs, at least in part, at the cellular level. Screening yeast cells expressing cDNA libraries from T. caerulescens and A. halleri for metal tolerance revealed that expression of nicotianamine synthase from T. caerulescens and of type I defensins from A. halleri resulted in nickel and zinc tolerances, respectively. Further analyses showed that (i) nicotianamine plays an important role in nickel tolerance and metal transport in metal hyper accumulating plants; (ii) plant type I defensins have a potential and never mentioned specific role in zinc tolerance.

The Atmosphere

With With Water Water VaporVapor

No Water No Water Vapor Vapor

MoleculaMolecular weightr weight

GasGas

75.6575.65 78.0978.09 28.01628.016 22NN

20.2920.29 20.9420.94 32.00032.000 22OO

3.123.12 -- 18.01618.016 OO22HH

0.900.90 0.930.93 39.94439.944 ArAr

0.030.03 0.030.03 44.01044.010 22COCOCommentsThese ratios are the same through most of the atmospheric height. Total - is almost 99.99%.Where the pollution goes to ???Typical atmosphere: N2 - 79%, O2 - 21% and MW - 28.85.

Minor Constituents

Conc., ppmConc., ppm Molecular WeightMolecular Weight GasGas

0.180.18 20.18320.183 NeNe

5.25.2 4.0034.003 HeHe

1-2.21-2.2 16.0416.04 CHCH44

1.01.0 83.883.8 KrKr

0.25-1.00.25-1.0 44.0144.01 NN22OO

0.0020.002 30.00830.008 NONO

0.0040.004 46.00846.008 22NONO

0.50.5 2.0162.016 22HH

0.080.08 131.3131.3 XXee

0.010.01 48.00048.000 33OO

Other constituents of the atmosphere include pollen, bacteria, fungi, particles (smoke, sea spray, dust), oxides of carbon, sulfur and nitrogen, and organic gases.

Major Groups of Atmospheric Pollutants

Main DivisionsMain Divisions Sub DivisionsSub Divisions Main PollutantsMain PollutantsParticulatesParticulates Solid and liquid Solid and liquid

ParticlesParticlesDust, Smoke,Dust, Smoke,

Fog, mistsFog, mists

Inorganic GasesInorganic Gases Sulfur OxidesSulfur Oxides 22SO, SO, 33SOSO

Nitrogen OxidesNitrogen Oxides NO, NO, 22NO, NO, 33HNOHNO

Other CompoundsOther Compounds CO, HCO, H22S, S, 22CO, CO, 33O, O, 33NHNH

Organic GasesOrganic Gases HydrocarbonsHydrocarbons 44CH, CH, 66HH66CC

Aldehydes Aldehydes HHCH:0CH:0

OthersOthers PANPAN

3,4-Benzopyrene3,4-Benzopyrene

Air Pollution EpisodesAir Pollution Episodes

Various ParametersVarious Parameters LondonLondonDec 5-9, 1952Dec 5-9, 1952

Meteorological Meteorological ConditionsConditions

High pressure system, High pressure system, Strong night Inversion, fog, Strong night Inversion, fog, poor visibilitypoor visibility

TopographyTopography Flat low terrainFlat low terrain

Major air pollution Major air pollution sourcessources

Coal home heatingCoal home heating

Concentration rangesConcentration ranges SOSO22 levels: 0.09-1.34 ppm; levels: 0.09-1.34 ppm;

Particulates: 400-4500 Particulates: 400-4500 mg/mmg/m33

Health effectsHealth effects 4000 deaths; bronchitis, 4000 deaths; bronchitis, emphysema, heart problemsemphysema, heart problems

Mechanism to produce Mechanism to produce the health effectsthe health effects

Both sulfur oxides and Both sulfur oxides and particles, synergetic effectparticles, synergetic effect

Air pollutantAir pollutant Relative Relative Ranking*Ranking*

Basis of RankingBasis of Ranking

CarcinogensCarcinogens 0.0010.001 ToxicityToxicity

Beryllium, mercuryBeryllium, mercury 0.010.01 ToxicityToxicity

Highly toxic metals (Cd, Cr, Pb, Highly toxic metals (Cd, Cr, Pb, Se, V, etc.)Se, V, etc.)

11 ToxicityToxicity

Asbestos, silica, silicatesAsbestos, silica, silicates 55 ToxicityToxicity

Very toxic metals (As, Sb, Cu, Ni, Very toxic metals (As, Sb, Cu, Ni, W)W)

55 ToxicityToxicity

Hydrogen sulfideHydrogen sulfide 3030 Toxicity, corrosion (paint), (odor?)Toxicity, corrosion (paint), (odor?)

Sulfates, nitrates, fluorides (as Sulfates, nitrates, fluorides (as salts)salts)

5050 Toxicity, vegetation damage, electrical Toxicity, vegetation damage, electrical conductivityconductivity

Sulfur oxidesSulfur oxides 5050 Toxicity, vegetation damageToxicity, vegetation damage

Nitrogen oxidesNitrogen oxides 5050 Toxicity, color, atm. reactionsToxicity, color, atm. reactions

Soot, smoke, carbon blackSoot, smoke, carbon black 5050 Soiling, toxicitySoiling, toxicity

Inert particulatesInert particulates 100100 Soiling, visibilitySoiling, visibility

Oxidants (ozone, etc.) totalOxidants (ozone, etc.) total 100100 corrosion, toxicitycorrosion, toxicity

AmmoniaAmmonia 500500 Toxicity, atm. Reactions, (odor?)Toxicity, atm. Reactions, (odor?)

Carbon monoxideCarbon monoxide 3,5003,500 ToxicityToxicity

Ozone Effects On VegetationOzone Effects On Vegetation

Agricultural cropsAgricultural crops

Yield, ProductivityYield, Productivity

Leaf necrosis Leaf necrosis

QualityQuality

ACID RAINACID RAIN

F O S S IL -F U E LP O W E R E D IN D U S T R Y

F O S S IL -F U E LP O W E R E D IN D U S T R Y

O Z O N EO Z O N E

A U T O M O B IL EE X H A U S T

A U T O M O B IL EE X H A U S T

(G A S O L IN E C O M B U S T IO N )

(G A S O L IN E C O M B U S T IO N )

H O2H O2

H O2H O2 N ON O

++

++

++

++

++

++

==

==

====

S O 3S O 3

S O 2S O 2

S O 2S O 2

N ON O

(H C O )(H C O )

N O xN O x

N O xN O x

O 2O 2

N O 2N O 2 NONO

(H C O )(H C O ) OO

U V L IG H TU V L IG H T

PA NPA N

H FH F

O X ID AT IO NO X ID AT IO N

OO

OO

H S O2 4H S O2 4

H N O 3H N O 3

O 3O 3

V O C sV O C s

A tm o sp h er ic O 3A tm o sp h er ic O 3

C a n o p yC a n o p y

N o n -lea fd ep ositio n

N o n -lea fd ep ositio n

C u tic led ep ositio n

C u tic led ep ositio n

O zo n e in sid e

lea f

O zo n e in sid e

lea f

L ig h tL ig h tV P DV P DW a ter stressW a ter stressTem p era tu reTem p era tu re

O zo n e d etox ifica tionO zo n e d etox ifica tion

P h o to sy n th esisP h o to sy n th esis

N u tr ien tsN u tr ien ts

S to m a ta l co n d u ctan ceS to m a ta l co n d u ctan ce

O zo n e in ju ryO zo n e in ju ry T issu e R ep a irT issu e R ep a ir

O zo n e d a m a g eO zo n e d a m a g e

O zo n e co n cen tra tio na t th e lea f b o u n d a ry

la y er

O zo n e co n cen tra tio na t th e lea f b o u n d a ry

la y er

tra n sp o rttra n sp o rt

o zo n eflu x

o zo n eflu x

Variables Influencing Plant Variables Influencing Plant Response to OzoneResponse to Ozone

Nutrition, primarily nitrogenNutrition, primarily nitrogen

Species/genotypeSpecies/genotype

Moisture: relative humidity and soil moistureMoisture: relative humidity and soil moisture

Solar radiation, temperature Solar radiation, temperature

Day length/photoperiod Day length/photoperiod

Regional climatic differencesRegional climatic differences

Age of plant, phenological state of developmentAge of plant, phenological state of development

Population/ecosystem interactionsPopulation/ecosystem interactions

Injury and DamageInjury and Damage

Injury:Injury: All physical or biological responses to All physical or biological responses to pollutants, such as changes in metabolism, reduced pollutants, such as changes in metabolism, reduced photosynthesis, leaf necrosis, premature leaf drop, photosynthesis, leaf necrosis, premature leaf drop, and chlorosis.and chlorosis.

Damage:Damage: Reduction in the intended use or value of Reduction in the intended use or value of the biological or physical resource; for example, the biological or physical resource; for example, economic production, ecological structure and economic production, ecological structure and function, aesthetic value, and biological or genetic function, aesthetic value, and biological or genetic diversity that may be altered through the impact of diversity that may be altered through the impact of pollutants.pollutants.

EnvironmentalEffects of Pesticides

EnvironmentalEffects of Pesticides

Photograph by Ken Hammond.

Stephen J. Toth, Jr. Wayne G. BuhlerDepartment of Entomology Department of Horticultural ScienceNorth Carolina State University North Carolina State University

Erwin W. Cole

What is theWhat is theEnvironmentEnvironment

?? The “environment” The “environment”

is everything is everything around us natural around us natural and manmade; not and manmade; not limited to the limited to the outdoors, but outdoors, but including indoor including indoor areas in which we areas in which we live and work.live and work.

Ken Hammond

How do Pesticides EffectHow do Pesticides Effectthe Environment?the Environment?

Point-Source PollutionPoint-Source Pollution: contamination that : contamination that comes from a specific, identifiable place (a comes from a specific, identifiable place (a point)point)

Includes pesticide Includes pesticide spills, wash water spills, wash water from cleanup sites, from cleanup sites, leaks from leaks from storage storage sites, and improper sites, and improper disposal of pesticides disposal of pesticides and their containers and their containers

Tim McCabe

How do Pesticides EffectHow do Pesticides Effectthe Environment?the Environment?

Nonpoint-Source PollutionNonpoint-Source Pollution: : contamination that comes contamination that comes from a wide area from a wide area

Includes the drift of Includes the drift of pesticides through pesticides through the air, pesticide run- the air, pesticide run- off off into waterways, into waterways, pesticide movement pesticide movement into ground water, etc. into ground water, etc.

Bob Nichols

Environmentally-Sensitive AreasEnvironmentally-Sensitive Areas

areas where ground areas where ground water is near surface water is near surface or easily accessed or easily accessed through wells, through wells, sinkholes, etc.sinkholes, etc.

areas near surface areas near surface waters (oceans, waters (oceans, lakes, streams)lakes, streams)

Sensitive areas include sites or living things that are easily injured by pesticides, including:

NCSU Communication Services

Environmentally-Sensitive Environmentally-Sensitive AreasAreas

areas heavily areas heavily populated with people populated with people (schools, playgrounds, (schools, playgrounds, hospitals, nursing hospitals, nursing homes, etc.)homes, etc.)

areas populated with areas populated with livestock and petslivestock and pets


Ken Hammond

Environmentally-Environmentally-Sensitive AreasSensitive Areas

areas near the habitats areas near the habitats of endangered species of endangered species and other wildlifeand other wildlife

areas near honey beesareas near honey bees areas near food crops areas near food crops

and ornamental plantsand ornamental plants


Steve Bambara

Environmental Impact of Environmental Impact of Pesticides in AirPesticides in Air

The atmosphere is an important part of the hydrologic cycleThe atmosphere is an important part of the hydrologic cycle Pesticides enter the Pesticides enter the

atmosphere through atmosphere through drift, wind erosion drift, wind erosion and and

evaporationevaporation Pesticides can move Pesticides can move

great distances in the great distances in the atmosphere atmosphere

Pesticides reach the Pesticides reach the earth’s surface via earth’s surface via dry deposition and dry deposition and precipitationprecipitation

U. S Geological Survey


DDT and other organochlorine pesticides DDT and other organochlorine pesticides detected in Arctic and Antarctic fish and detected in Arctic and Antarctic fish and mammals; used in 1960s and 1970s mammals; used in 1960s and 1970s

Toxaphene is still transported Toxaphene is still transported into Great Lakes region by into Great Lakes region by winds from the Gulf of winds from the Gulf of Mexico; used on cotton in Mexico; used on cotton in the South, banned in the South, banned in 1982 1982

USDA/ARS

Long-range movement of long-lived pesticides documented:


Organochlorine insecticides (DDT, dieldrin and Organochlorine insecticides (DDT, dieldrin and lindane): widespread use in 1960s and 1970s; lindane): widespread use in 1960s and 1970s; resistant to environmental degradationresistant to environmental degradation

Organophosphate insecticides (chlorpyrifos, Organophosphate insecticides (chlorpyrifos, diazinon, malathion and methyl parathion): diazinon, malathion and methyl parathion): not long-lived in environment; used heavily in not long-lived in environment; used heavily in the past and at presentthe past and at present

Triazine herbicides (atrazine): heavily-used Triazine herbicides (atrazine): heavily-used herbicides, persistant in environment herbicides, persistant in environment

Acetanilide herbicides (alachlor and Acetanilide herbicides (alachlor and metolachlor): used heavily, but not as metolachlor): used heavily, but not as persistant as triazine herbicidespersistant as triazine herbicides

Pesticides frequently detected in the atmosphere:


Number of pesticides detected in air, rain, snow and fog. U. S. Geologic Survey (1995).


Source of exposure to pesticides Source of exposure to pesticides through inhalation (lungs have through inhalation (lungs have surface area equal to tennis court)surface area equal to tennis court)

Source of contamination of surface Source of contamination of surface waters and ground water through waters and ground water through dry deposition and precipitationdry deposition and precipitation

Transport of pesticides from Transport of pesticides from application sites to sensitive areasapplication sites to sensitive areas

Accumulation of pesticides in the Accumulation of pesticides in the environment (soil, wildlife, etc.)environment (soil, wildlife, etc.)

Gene Alexander

Hazards of atmospheric pesticides to humans and environment:

Environmental Impact of Environmental Impact of Pesticides in SoilPesticides in Soil

Pesticides can move in the environment via Pesticides can move in the environment via the soil by two methods: erosion and leachingthe soil by two methods: erosion and leaching

ErosionErosion: soil particles : soil particles which are transported which are transported by wind and water; by wind and water; pesticides pesticides attached attached to soil particles to soil particles

LeachingLeaching: downward : downward movement of pesticides movement of pesticides in the soil through in the soil through cracks and pores cracks and pores

USDA Photograph

Environmental Impact of Pesticides in Environmental Impact of Pesticides in SoilSoil

LeachingLeaching Soil normally filters water Soil normally filters water

as it moves downward, as it moves downward, removing contaminants removing contaminants such as pesticidessuch as pesticides

Soil and pesticide Soil and pesticide properties, geography and properties, geography and weather can influence the weather can influence the movement of pesticides movement of pesticides (leaching)(leaching)

Pesticides that leach Pesticides that leach through soils may reach through soils may reach ground waterground water

USDA Photograph


Soil Properties That Affect LeachingSoil Properties That Affect Leaching Organic matterOrganic matter: plant and : plant and

animal material animal material decomposing in the soil; decomposing in the soil; organic matter binds organic matter binds pesticides; the more organic pesticides; the more organic matter in the soil, the less matter in the soil, the less likely pesticides will leachlikely pesticides will leach

Soil textureSoil texture: determined by : determined by the percentage of sand, silt the percentage of sand, silt and clay; the higher and clay; the higher percentage of sand, the percentage of sand, the more likely pesticides will more likely pesticides will leachleach

USDA Photograph


Soil Properties That Affect LeachingSoil Properties That Affect Leaching

Soil aciditySoil acidity ( (pHpH): the ): the acidity of the soil affects acidity of the soil affects chemical properties of chemical properties of pesticides; as the soil pesticides; as the soil pH decreases (becomes pH decreases (becomes more acidic), pesticides more acidic), pesticides bind more to the clay bind more to the clay in the soil making the in the soil making the pesticides less likely to pesticides less likely to reach the ground waterreach the ground water

Scott Bauer


Pesticide Properties That Affect Pesticide Properties That Affect LeachingLeaching

SolubilitySolubility: ability to dissolve in water; the more : ability to dissolve in water; the more soluble the pesticide, the more likely it will leachsoluble the pesticide, the more likely it will leach

AdsorptionAdsorption: the ability of the pesticide to bind : the ability of the pesticide to bind tightly and quickly to organic matter in the soil tightly and quickly to organic matter in the soil affects leaching; the greater the ability to bind to affects leaching; the greater the ability to bind to organic matter, the less likely pesticides will leachorganic matter, the less likely pesticides will leach

PersistencePersistence: how long the pesticide remains in the : how long the pesticide remains in the soil; pesticides degraded primarily by sunlight, soil soil; pesticides degraded primarily by sunlight, soil microbes and chemicals in the soil; the more microbes and chemicals in the soil; the more persistent a pesticide, the more likely it will leach persistent a pesticide, the more likely it will leach into ground waterinto ground water

Environmental Impact of Environmental Impact of Pesticides in Soil Pesticides in Soil Effects of Effects of

Pesticide Application on LeachingPesticide Application on Leaching Rate of applicationRate of application: the higher the rate : the higher the rate

(amount) of pesticide applied, the greater (amount) of pesticide applied, the greater the chance the pesticides will leachthe chance the pesticides will leach

Application methodApplication method: pesticides applied to : pesticides applied to growing plants can be absorbed by the growing plants can be absorbed by the plants or broken down by sunlight before plants or broken down by sunlight before reaching soil; soil incorporated pesticides are reaching soil; soil incorporated pesticides are not exposed to sunlight and have greatest not exposed to sunlight and have greatest chance of leaching into ground waterchance of leaching into ground water

Environmental Impact of Environmental Impact of Pesticides in SoilPesticides in Soil

Effects of Geography & Weather Effects of Geography & Weather on Leachingon Leaching GeographyGeography: depth from soil surface to ground : depth from soil surface to ground

water (closer ground water is to soil surface, water (closer ground water is to soil surface, the more pesticide leaches into ground water)the more pesticide leaches into ground water)

WeatherWeather: pesticides : pesticides break down faster break down faster in warm, moist soil; in warm, moist soil; therefore, less therefore, less likely likely to leachto leach

Gene Alexander

Environmental Impact of Pesticides in Environmental Impact of Pesticides in Ground WaterGround Water

Ground water is Ground water is water located water located beneath the beneath the earth’s surface, earth’s surface, usually in rock or usually in rock or soilsoil

Ground water is Ground water is the primary the primary source of drinking source of drinking water for 50% of water for 50% of population, 95% of population, 95% of rural residents in rural residents in the United States the United States

Ron Nichols


At least 143 pesticides and 21 of their At least 143 pesticides and 21 of their transformation products have been found in transformation products have been found in ground water, from every major chemical ground water, from every major chemical classclass

Pesticides commonly Pesticides commonly found at low levels found at low levels in agricultural areas in agricultural areas (seldom (seldom exceed water- exceed water- quality standards) quality standards)

Pesticides also found in Pesticides also found in non-agricultural setting non-agricultural setting such as golf courses and such as golf courses and residential areas residential areas

Ken Hammond


Triazine (atrazine) and Triazine (atrazine) and acetanilide (alachlor acetanilide (alachlor and metolachlor) and metolachlor) herbicides: used herbicides: used extensively on corn and extensively on corn and soybeans in Midwestsoybeans in Midwest

Carbamate insecticide Carbamate insecticide aldicarb (Temik): aldicarb (Temik): ground water ground water contamination contamination problems, sampled for problems, sampled for extensivelyextensively

Pesticides most frequently detected in ground water:

Bill Tarpenning


High pesticide usage High pesticide usage in the areain the area

High recharge of High recharge of ground water by ground water by precipitation or precipitation or irrigationirrigation

High soil permeabilityHigh soil permeability Well contamination is Well contamination is

greatest in shallow, greatest in shallow, inadequately sealed inadequately sealed wellswells

Tim McCabe

Factors strongly associated with pesticide contamination ofof ground water are:

Environmental Impact of Pesticides in Environmental Impact of Pesticides in Surface WatersSurface Waters

Surface waters Surface waters include streams, include streams, rivers, lakes, rivers, lakes, reservoirs and reservoirs and oceansoceans

Streams and Streams and reservoirs supply reservoirs supply approximately 50% approximately 50% of the drinking water of the drinking water in United Statesin United States

Ken Hammond


Pesticides enter surface Pesticides enter surface waters through run-off, waters through run-off, wastewater discharges, wastewater discharges, atmospheric deposition atmospheric deposition (dry and precipitation), (dry and precipitation), spills and ground waterspills and ground water

Pesticide Pesticide concentrations in concentrations in surface waters follow surface waters follow the seasonal patterns the seasonal patterns of pesticide application of pesticide application and run-offand run-off

U. S Geological Survey


Low levels of pesticides are widespread in Low levels of pesticides are widespread in surface waters in the United Statessurface waters in the United States

Herbicides are detected Herbicides are detected more frequently than more frequently than insecticides, due to their insecticides, due to their greater use greater use

Some pesticides exceed Some pesticides exceed water-quality standards water-quality standards during certain seasons, during certain seasons, but the annual but the annual average average concentrations seldom concentrations seldom exceed standards exceed standards Doug Wilson


Triazine (atrazine) and Triazine (atrazine) and acetanilide (alachlor and acetanilide (alachlor and metolachlor) and 2,4-D metolachlor) and 2,4-D herbicides: widely used herbicides: widely used in agriculturein agriculture

Carbofuran and diazinon Carbofuran and diazinon were the most frequently were the most frequently detected insecticides in detected insecticides in current usecurrent use

Pesticides most frequently detected in surface waters:

Bill Tarpenning

Environmental Environmental Impact Impact

of Pesticides on of Pesticides on PlantsPlants Pesticides can move Pesticides can move

from the intended from the intended target and damage target and damage nearby plants, nearby plants, including crops, including crops, forests and forests and ornamental plantsornamental plants

PhytotoxicityPhytotoxicity: plant : plant injury resulting from injury resulting from contact with contact with pesticides and/or inert pesticides and/or inert ingredients in ingredients in pesticide formulationspesticide formulations

Scott Bauer

Bruce Fritz

Environmental Impact of Environmental Impact of Pesticides on WildlifePesticides on Wildlife

Fish kills caused by pesticide residues carried into Fish kills caused by pesticide residues carried into waterways by run-off, drift, etc. (e.g., fish kills in waterways by run-off, drift, etc. (e.g., fish kills in Mississippi River resulting from Guthion use in Mississippi River resulting from Guthion use in Louisiana)Louisiana)

Bird kills caused by birds Bird kills caused by birds consuming pesticide-treated consuming pesticide-treated vegetation/insects, pesticide vegetation/insects, pesticide granules, bait or treated seed granules, bait or treated seed (e.g., birds poisoned by (e.g., birds poisoned by eating granular eating granular carbofuran) carbofuran)

Ken Hammond

Acute Poisoning: short exposures to some pesticides may kill or sicken wildlife


Populations of bald eagles and other Populations of bald eagles and other birds of prey were reduced by the birds of prey were reduced by the widespread use of organochlorine widespread use of organochlorine insecticides (DDT) in 1950s and insecticides (DDT) in 1950s and 1960s1960s

These compounds and metabolites These compounds and metabolites caused caused reproductive effects in birdsreproductive effects in birds

Reduction in use of organochlorine Reduction in use of organochlorine insecticides in the insecticides in the 1970s and early 1970s and early 1980s resulted in greatly 1980s resulted in greatly improved improved reproduction and increasing bird reproduction and increasing bird populations populations

Tim McCabe

Chronic Poisoning: exposure to non-lethal levels of pesticides over extended periods can cause reproductive effects, etc.


Predators become sick Predators become sick after feeding on dead after feeding on dead or dying animals or dying animals poisoned by pesticidespoisoned by pesticides

Pesticide residues Pesticide residues move up the food move up the food chain (plants eaten by chain (plants eaten by plant feeding animals plant feeding animals which in turn are which in turn are eaten by predators) eaten by predators)

USDA Photograph

Secondary Poisoning: occurs when animals consume prey that contain pesticide residues and concentrate the pesticide in their bodies (i.e., bioaccumulation) resulting in their poisoning


Herbicides can reduce Herbicides can reduce food, cover and nesting food, cover and nesting sites for wildlifesites for wildlife

Insecticides can reduce Insecticides can reduce insects that serve as insects that serve as food supply for other food supply for other animalsanimals

Plant pollination can be Plant pollination can be effected by reductions effected by reductions in populations of bees in populations of bees and other plant and other plant pollinatorspollinators

Ken Hammond

Indirect Effects: adverse effects caused by the modification or elimination of wildlife habitat or food supply

Endangered and Threatened Endangered and Threatened SpeciesSpecies

of Plants and Animalsof Plants and Animals Endangered speciesEndangered species: “any : “any

species which is in danger of species which is in danger of extinction throughout all or a extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its significant portion of its range”range”

Threatened speciesThreatened species: “any : “any species which is likely to species which is likely to become an endangered become an endangered species within the species within the foreseeable future”foreseeable future”

Endangered / threatened Endangered / threatened species of plants and species of plants and animals protected by the U. animals protected by the U. S. EPA under the federal S. EPA under the federal Endangered Species ActEndangered Species Act

Tim McCabe

Harmful Effects of Pesticides on Harmful Effects of Pesticides on SurfacesSurfaces

Pesticides can leave Pesticides can leave a visible deposit a visible deposit on surfaces (i.e., on surfaces (i.e., clothes, carpets, clothes, carpets, walls, etc.)walls, etc.)

Pesticides can Pesticides can corrode metal corrode metal surfaces (i.e., paint surfaces (i.e., paint on automobiles)on automobiles)

Pesticides can Pesticides can short-circuit short-circuit electrical equipmentelectrical equipment N. C. Pesticide Applicator Training Program

penelitian toksikologi lingkungan oleh drs.sudrajat,s.u. dosen pada : 1). fmipa, 2). fak.kedokteran,...

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