Memahami Perkembangan (Manajemen) Sumber Daya Manusia dalam Era Globalisasi

Kelompok 3

Andriani Putri Nan Sati (46110010032)

Monica Gita Noverry (46110010050)

Raudhatul Syahria Ngabalin (46111010053)

Fakultas Psikologi

Jurusan Psikologi

Universitas Mercu Buana Jakarta

2013

Manajemen sumber daya manusia telah menjadi komponen utama dalam sekolah

bisnis dan secara cepat menjadi fokus yang dominan dalam penelitian tentang

manajemen. Bahkan akhir-akhir ini, artikel dalam jurnal Inggris dan Kanada

mulai mempertanyakan apa manajemen sumber daya manusia dan apa dampaknya

secara normatif terhadap serikat pekerja dan hubungan kerja (Barkin, 1989;

Blyton & Turnbull, 1992; Tamu , 1987; Godard, 1991; Ichniowski, Delaney, &

Lewin, 1989).

A. Definisi Sumber Daya Manusia (SDM) dan Manajemen Sumber

Daya Manusia (MSDM)

a. Sumber Daya Manusia

Sumber daya manusia adalah orang-orang yang merancang dan

menghasilkan barang dan jasa, mengawasi mutu, memasarkan produk,

mengalokasikan sumber daya finansial, serta merumuskan seluruh

strategi dan tujuan organisasi. Sumber daya manusia inilah yang

membuat sumber daya lainnya dapat berjalan. Tanpa orang-orang yang

memiliki keahlian dan kompeten maka mustahil bagi organisasi untuk

mencapai tujuannya. Banyaknya keunggulan yang dimiliki organisasi

atau perusahaan, tidak dapat memaksimalkan produktivitasnya dan

laba usaha tanpa adanya komunitas karyawan yang berkeahlian,

kompeten, dan berdedikasi tinggi terhadap organisasi atau perusahaan.

b. Manajemen Sumber Daya Manusia

Manajemen sumber daya manusia adalah rancangan sistem-sistem

formal dalam sebuah organisasi untuk memastikan penggunaan bakat

manusia secara efektif dan efisien guna mencapai tujuan-tujuan

organisasional. Sehingga di dalamnya ada kegiatan pengelolaan yang

meliputi pendayagunaan, pengembangan, penilaian, pemberian balas

jasa bagi manusia sebagai individu anggota organisasi atau perusahaan

bisnis. Manajemen sumber daya manusia juga menyangkut cara-cara

mendesain sistem perencanaan, penyusunan karyawan, pengelolaan

karir, evaluasi kinerja, kompensasi karyawan, dan hubungan

ketenagakerjaan.

B. Perkembangan Globalisasi SDM

Dalam sebuah lingkungan di mana angkatan kerja terus berubah,

hukum berubah, dan kebutuhan-kebutuhan dari pemberi kerja juga

berubah, manajemen SDM harus terus berubah dan berkembang. Hal ini

sangat benar ketika manajemen beroperasi secara global.

Ada beberapa pengaruh yang secara bersamaan telah menyebabkan

peningkatan perdagangan dunia sebesar 60% dalam dekade terakhir.

Berikut ini adalah pembahasan mengenai beberapa pengaruh yang

dianggap paling penting.

a. Perubahan Populasi Global

Di negara-negara industrialisasi dan berkembang di seluruh dunia,

seperti Uni Eropa (UE), Jepang, Amerika Serikat, pertumbuhan

populasi menurun secara signifikan. Di area-area tersebut, populasi

yang semakin tua dan angka kelahiran yang menurun memberikan

kontribusi dalam bentuk pertumbuhan yang lebih lambat dalam jumlah

pekerja dan konsumen. Bagaimanapun juga, populasi Cina, India,

Afrika, Amerika Latin, serta negara-negara dan wilayah-wilayah lain

terus tumbuh secara signifikan.

Untuk memanfaatkan pertumbuhan ini, perusahaan-perusahaan

diseluruh dunia telah mengadakan operasi-operasi, membentuk

perusahaan-perusahaan modal ventura, atau bergabung dengan

perusahaan-perusahaan di negara-negara ini. Prospek dari bermiliar-

miliar konsumen baru di negara-negara yang tumbuh lebih cepat

merangsang investasi-investasi dan operasi-operasi global.

Permintaan-permintaan konsumen akan produk-produk dari

negara-negara lain juga merangsang globalisasi. Sebagai contoh,

mobil-mobil Jerman dan Jepang, kosmetika Prancis, makanan cepat

saji AS, bir Meksiko, dan peralatan elektronik Korea semuanya

tersedia secara global dan diinginkan oleh konsumen-konsumen di

banyak negara.

b. Ketergantungan Ekonomi Global

Ahli-ahli ekonomi memperkirakan bahwa pada tahun 2020 enam

perekonomian terbesar adalah AS, Cina, Jepang, Indonesia, India, dan

Korea. Perusahaan-perusahaan yang berbasis di banyak negara

merespon peluang-peluang ini. Oleh karena itu, masa depan ekonomi

organisasi-organisasi di seluruh dunia berhubungan dengan

pertumbuhan perekonomian dunia. Sebuah contoh menganai hubungan

adalah kerusuhan, seperti yang terjadi di Indonesia, Turki, Argentina,

dan beberapa negara lainnya. Kerusuhan in telah memengaruhi bursa

saham di seluruh dunia. Contoh ini mengindikasikan tingkat

ketergantungan yang tinggi di antara perekonomian negara-negara

individual.

c. Aliansi Daerah

Perkembangan beberapa aliansi politik dan perdagangan daerah

juga memberikan kontribusi terhadap globalisasi. Yaitu North

American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) dan European Union

(EU).

d. Komunikasi Global

Kontribusi utama globalisasi yang lain adalah pekembangan dan

evolusi telekomunikasi dan teknologi yang membantu pengiriman

informasi yang cepat. Teknologi satelit telah menghadirkan televisi

dan layanan telepon nirkabel ke desa-desa terpencil di afrika, India,

Cina, dan Amerika Latin. Pertumbuhan penggunaan internet di seluruh

dunia yang terjadi secara tiba-tiba ini berarti bahwa orang-orang dan

perusahaan-perusahaan dapat dengan mudah berkomunikasi dan

memiliki akses menuju informasi dan dalam dalam jumlah yang sangat

besar.

Sebagaian besar komunikasi di Internet menggunakan bahasa

Inggris. Sebagai bahasa bisnis global, bahasa Inggris memungkinkan

arus komunikasi dan informasi yang lebih mudah.

e. Jenis-jenis Organisasi Global

1. Impor dan Ekspor

Tahap pertama interaksi internasional terdiri atas impor

(importing) dan ekspor (exporting). Di sini, sebuah organisasi

mulai menjual dan membeli barang dan jasa dengan organisasi-

organisasi di negara-negara lain. Sebagian besar hubungan

internasional dilakukan oleh staf penjualan dan pemasaran dan

sedikit eksekutif lain yang menegosiasikan perjanjian-perjanjian.

Pada umumunya, aktivitas-aktivitas SDM tidak terpengaruh

kecuali kebijakan bepergian bagi mereka yang pergi keluar negri.

2. Perusahaan Multinasional

Perusahaan multinasional (Multinational enterprise - MNE)

adalah sebuah perusahaan di mana sebuah organisasi memiliki

unit-unit operasi yang beralokasikan di negara-negara asing.

Biasanya, unit-unit ini menyediakan barang dan jasa untuk area-

area geografis yang mengelilingi negara-negara tersebut dimana

terdapat daerah operasional. Posisi manajemen utama di

operasional luar negeri dipenuhi oleh karyawan dari perusahaan

negara asal. Ketika MNE meluas, perusahaan tersebut

mempekerjakan karyawan dari negara-negara di mana perusahaan

tersebut beroperasi.

3. Organisasi Global

Organisasi global (global organization) memiliki unit-unit

perusahaan di beberapa negara yang digabungkan untuk beroperasi

sebagai satu organisasi di seluruh dunia.

Manajemen SDM dalam organisasi yang betul-betul global

menggerakkan orang-orang, terutama manajer-manajer dan

profesional-profesional utama, di seluruh dunia. Individu-individu

yang menguasai beberapa bahasa dengan baik sangat dihargai, dan

mereka bergerak di antara divisi-divisi dan negara-negara ketika

mereka memikul tanggung jawab lebih dan mengalami

perkembangan karier. Sebisa mungkin, manajemen SDM

internasional harus dipandang secara strategis dalam organisasi ini.

Kebijaksanaan dan aktivitas SDM global perlu dikembangkan,

tetapi dibutuhkan adanya desentralisasi pembuatan keputusan pada

unit dan operasi tambahan di negara lain untuk melakukan

penyesuaian terhadap negara tertentu.

C. Dinamika Permasalahan SDM

Di tengah meningkatnya kebutuhan SDM dalam organisasi-

organisasi dunia maupun negara individual, ternyata, ada beberapa

masalah yang harus dihadapi oleh beberapa negara besar di dunia, tidak

terkecuali, Indonesia.

Masalah pertama, adanya ketimpangan antara jumlah kesempatan

kerja dengan angkatan kerja. Jumlah angkatan kerja nasional pada krisis

ekonomi tahun pertama (1998) sekitar 92,73 juta jiwa. Sementara jumlah

kesempatan kerja yang ada hanya sekitar 87,67 juta orang dan ada sekitar

5,06 juta orang menjadi penganggur terbuka (open unemployment). Angka

ini meningkat terus selama krisis ekonomi yang kini berjumlah sekitar 8

juta.

Kedua, tingkat pendidikan angkatan kerja Indonesia relatif masih

rendah. Struktur pendidikan angkatan kerja Indonesia masih di dominasi

oleh pendidikan dasar, yaitu sekitar 63,2%. Kedua masalah tersebut

menunjukkan bahwa ada kelangkaan kesempatan kerja dan rendahnya

kualitas angkatan kerja secara nasional di berbagai bidang kehidupan. Di

samping itu, rendahnya alokasi APBN untuk sektor pendidikan-tidak lebih

dari 12%-pada pemerintahan di era reformasi menunjukkan belum adanya

perhatian serius dari pemerintah pusat terhadap perbaikan kualitas SDM.

Masalah SDM inilah yang menyebabkan proses pembangunan

yang berjalan selama ini kurang didukung oleh produktivitas tenaga kerja

yang memadai. Keterpurukan ekonomi nasional yang berkepanjangan

akibat dari rendahnya kualitas SDM dalam menghadapi persaingan

ekonomi global atau liberalisasi ekonomi.

D. Peran MSDM dalam Era Globalisasi

Tanggung Jawab dan Tantangan

a. Tanggung Jawab

1. Penyediaan Staf

Penyediaan staf (staffing) merupakan proses yang

menjamin suatu organisasi untuk selalu memiliki jumlah karyawan

yang tepat dengan keahlian-keahlian yang memadai dalam

pekerjaan-pekerjaan yang tepat, pada waktu yang tepat, untuk

mencapai tujuan organisasi. Penyediaan staf mencakup analisis

pekerjaan, perencanaan SDM, perekrutan dan seleksi.

Analisis pekerjaan adalah proses sistematis penentuan

berbagai keahlian, kewajiban, dan pengetahuan yang diperlukan

untuk menjalankan pekerjaan-pekerjaan dalam suatu organisasi.

Perencanaan SDM adalah proses sistematis untuk mencocokkan

pasokan orang-orang internal dan eksternal dengan peluang-

peluang pekerjaan yang diperkirakan terjadi sepanjang periode

waktu tertentu. Perekrutan adalah proses menarik para individu

pada waktu tertentu, dalam jumlah cukup, dan dengan kualifikasi-

kualifikasi yang memadai, untuk melamar pekerjaan-pekerjaan

dalam sebuah organisasi. Seleksi adalah proses memilih

sekelompok pelamar individu yang paling sesuai untuk posisi

tertentu dalam organisasi.

2. Pengembangan SDM

Pengembangan SDM adalah fungsi MSDM utama yang

tidak hanya terdiri atas pelatihan dan pengembangan namun juga

aktivitas-aktivitas perencanaan dan pengembangan karier individu,

pengembangan organisasi, serta manajeman dan penilaian kinerja.

Pelatihan dirancang untuk memberi para pembelajar

sejumlah pengetahuan dan keahlian yang diperlukan untuk

pekerjaan mereka saat ini. Pengembangan melibatkan

pembelajaran yang beranjak ke luar pekerjaan saat ini dan memiliki

fokus lebih berjangka panjang.

Perencaan karier adalah proses berkelanjutan di mana

individu menetapkan tujuan-tujuan karier dan mengidentifikasi

cara-cara untuk mencapainya.

Pengembangan karier adalah pendekatan formal yang

digunakan oleh organisasi untuk memastikan bahwa orang-orang

dengan kualifikasi-kualifikasi dan pengalaman-pengalaman yang

memadai tersedia ketika dibutuhkan.

Pengembangan organisasi adalah proses perbaikan

organisasi yang terencana dengan mengembangkan struktur-

struktur, sistem-sistem, dan proses-prosesnya untuk memperbaiki

efektivitas dan mencapai tujuan yang diinginkan.

Manajemen kriteria adalah proses berorientasi tujuan

yang diarahkan untuk memastikan telah berjalannya proses-proses

organisasi untuk memaksimalkan produktivitas para karyawan,

tim, dan akhirnya, organisasi.

Penilaian kinerja adalah suatu sistem formal peninjauan

dan evaluasi kinerja tugas individu atau tim. Sistem tersebut

memberi peluang kepada para karyawan untuk memanfaatkan

kelebihan-kelebihan mereka dan mengatasi kekurangan-

kekurangan yang teridentifikasi, dan dengan demikian membantu

mereka menjadi karyawan yang lebih puas dan produktif.

3. Kompensasi

Kompensasi mencakup semua imbalan total yang diberikan kepada

para karyawan sebagai timbal balik untuk jasa mereka. Suatu

sistem kompensasi yang terencana matang memberi para karyawan

imbalan-imbalan yang layak dan adil atas kontribusi mereka dalam

mencapai tujuan-tujuan organisasi. Imbalan tersebut dapat berupa

salah satu atau kombinasi dari hal-hal berikut ini:

Kompensasi Finansial Langsung: Bayaran yang diterima

seseorang dalam bentuk upah, gaji, komisi, dan bonus.

Kompensasi Finansial Tidak Langsung (Tunjangan):

Semua imbalan finansial yang tidak termasuk dalam

kompensasi langsung seperti cuti bayar, absen karena sakit,

liburan, dan asuransi pengobatan.

Kompensasi Nonfinansial: Kepuasan yang diperoleh

seseorang dari pekerjaan itu sendiri atau dari lingkungan

psikologis dan/atau fisik dimana orang tersebut bekerja.

4. Keselamatan dan Kesehatan

Keselamatan adalah perlindungan bagi para karyawan dari luka-

luka yang disebabkan kecelakaan-kecelakaan yang terkait dengan

pekerjaan. Kesehatan adalah bebasnya para karyawan dari sakit

secara fisik atau emosi. Aspek-aspek dari pekerjaan tersebut

penting karena para karyawan yang bekerja dalam lingkungan yang

aman dan menikmati kesehatan yang baik akan cenderung lebih

produktif dan memberikan manfaat jangka panjang bagi organisasi.

5. Hubungan Kekaryawanan dan Perburuhan

Suatu perusahaan dituntut oleh hukum untuk mengakui serikat

pekerja dan berunding dengannya dengan itikad yang baik jika

para karyawan perusahaan yang bersangkutan menginginkan

serikat pekerja mewakili mereka. Di masa lalu, hubungan

semacam ini adalah norma yang dapat diterima bagi banyak

pemberi kerja, namun sebagian besar perusahaan dewasa ini lebih

cenderung memiliki lingkungan yang bebas serikat pekerja. Ketika

suatu serikat pekerja mewakili para karyawan perusahaan, aktivitas

SDM seringkali disebut sebagai hubungan industrial, yang

menangani pekerjaan untuk melakukan perundingan kolektif.

b. Tantangan

1. Perhatian Terhadap Lingkungan

HRD Manager tidak hanya sekedar memperhatikan lingkungan di

departemennya, tetapi menjadi kewajibannya memperhatikan serta

membina seluruh departemen yang ada dalam struktur organisasi

perusahaan. Bahkan pendekatan terhadap hubungan eksternal atau

internal lingkungan sekitar perusahaan sangat diperlukan. Juga peran

sosialnya sehingga terjadi keharmonisan dan dukungan lingkungan

terhadap keberadaan perusahaan.

HRD Manager harus melihat seluruh individu yang ada dalam

perusahaan merupakan sumber kekuatan yang harus di pompa

semangat kerjanya dengan pendekatan-pendekatan secara profesional

melalui pelatihan, pengarahan dan harapan. Dengan demikian

karyawan merasakan bahwa dirinya merupakan bagian/aset dari

perusahaan.

Intinya, HRD Manager harus sadar, bahwa dia adalah representatif

dari management/owner, kalaupun ada kelemahan dari sistem dan

kebijakan yang ada, HRD Manager harus mampu

mengkomunikasikannya dengan baik kepada karyawan, karena tugas

berat itu adalah bagian dari tanggung jawabnya.

2. Pemberian Penghargaan

Pemberian penghargaan (reward) biasanya sudah menjadi tradisi

yang dilakukan oleh semua perusahaan dalam rangka memberikan

pengakuan atas karya setiap individu, selain itu dapat menjadikan

semangat karyawan untuk meraih dan berprestasi. HRD Manager

harus sudah bisa memberikan pertimbangan kepada

manajemen/direksi/owner bentuk penghargaan apa yang dimunculkan

dan bagaimana kriterianya. Sebagai alat ukur kriteria dalah statistik

kehadiran dan kondite (performance apprasial). Dalam merumuskan

penghargaan tersebut sebaiknya melibatkan semua departemen,

sehingga terciptalah bentuk dan kriteria yang ideal untuk diajukan ke

pimpinan puncak.

3. Peraturan Perusahaan

Sebenarnya persoalan yang dihadapi HRD Manager, tentang

hukum ketenagakerjaan lebih banyak pada persoalan implementasinya,

yaitu bagaimana agar para karyawan dapat mematuhi aturan yang

sudah dibuat. Sedangkan untuk konsep dan penafsirannya sangat jelas

dan tertuang dalam Undang-Undang Ketenagakerjaan No. 13 Tahun

2003 serta beberapa Peraturan/Keputusan Menteri Tenaga Kerja.

4. Etika Profesi

HRD Manager harus memiliki etika didalam melaksanakan fungsi

manajemennya, khususnya dalam pengadaan tenaga kerja, misalnya:

apakah yang di rekrut tersebut masih aktif atau masih terkait dalam

kontrak pada perusahaan sebelumnya, penelusuran perlu dilakukan,

minimal kalaupun harus dilakukan bukan bersifat membajak.

5. Komitmen dalam Asosiasi

Pada umunya, karyawan ahli atau spesialis yang terikat kontrak,

sebagian kecil berpindah kerja sebelum habis masa kontrak/ikatan

dinas dengan mengabaikan konsekuensi isi perjanjian, dan pihak

perusahaan tidak bisa berbuat apa-apa. Untuk mengantisipasi hal ini,

sebaiknya perlu dibangun suatu prosedur didalam asosasi. Misalnya

asosiasi membuat/merumuskan beberapa ketentuan-ketentuan tentang

etika penerimaan karyawan. Setelah itu, diminta secara sukarela

kepada perusahaan-perusahaan yang tergabung dalam asosiasi untuk

meratifikasinya, dan bagi perusahaan yang meratifikasi maka terikat

dengan ketentuan-ketentuan etika yang berlaku.

Adapun rumusan etika penerimaan karyawan atau etika profesi

tersebut perlu mengatur hal-hal yang berkaitan dengan etika itu sendiri,

atau bagaimana mengatur pengembalian uang ganti rugi (bilamana

ada), apakah dibebankan kepada perusahaan penerima atau dengan

cara lain, semua itu perlu perumusan secara komprehensif.

Journal

Abstract (summary)

Human resource management (HRM) has become a major component of business

schools and is quickly becoming a dominant focus of management research.

However, discussions of HRM's history are very limited. HRM's origins and

development are traced by examining: 1. the concepts developed by the 2 ignored

originators of HRM, Peter F. Drucker (1954) and E. Wight Bakke (1958), and 2.

the evolution of HRM's definition.

Human resource management has become a major component of business schools

and is quickly becoming a dominant focus of management research (Kaufman

1993; Lewin, 1991; Storey 1992). It has almost universally displaced personnel,

and in many schools is threatening to supplant industrial relations and

organizational behavior. Of late, articles in British and Canadian journals are

beginning to question what human resource management is and what impact its

nonnative prescriptions will have on unions, workers, and employment

relationships 0.e., Barkin, 1989; Blyton & Turnbull, 1992; Guest, 1987; Godard,

1991; Ichniowski, Delaney, & Lewin, 1989).

These articles frequently note -- few attempt to resolve -- the definitional fog that

surrounds the term "human resource management" Sadly, efforts at defining

human resource management (HRM) are grounded on current descriptions of

HRM and do not attempt b resolve the issue by tracing the term's history. There

has been little success in clarifying the definition of HRM, in identifying its

boundaries, or in distinguishing it from related disciplines. The histories of these

related disciplines have been occasionally discussed (for example, Baron, Dobbin,

and Jennings (1986) and Ling (1965) for personnel management, Jacoby (1985)

and Wren 1987) for American management theory, and Kaufman (1993) and

Adams (1993) for industrial relations), however, the history of human resource

management has not.

This paper very briefly traces the origins and development of human resource

management through a review of books and articles. It begins with a brief

exploration of the three original uses of the term "human resource management"

or i variants-two of which have been completely ignored--and then follows the

development of the main families of definitions of HRM found in the literature.

This paper observes that HRM exists in multiple versions, reflecting the

disciplinary and ideological orientations of each versions' adherents. The lack of

an effort to resolve the definitional opacity surrounding HRM may be responsible

for the strong growth of the discipline. Human resource management's lack of

specificity and its strong institutional position within business schools, a product

of its popularity as a practitioner's philosophy, may allow academics to pursue a

wide variety of research interest, while legitimating these pursuits by calling them

HRM.

COINING HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Drucker and the "Human Resource"

The term "human resource" was coined by management gun Peter F. Drucker

(1954) in The Practice of Management. In this seminal work, Drucker presents

three broad managerial functions: managing the business, managing other

managers, and managing workers and work. It is in the discussion of the

management of workers and work that Drucker (1954:263) introduces the concept

of the worker as "the human resource": "comparable to all other resources but for

the fact that it is human" and, as such, having "specific properties" which must be

considered by managers. Drucker argues that the human resource possesses a

quality that is not present in other resources: "the ability to coordinate, to

integrate, to judge and to imagine." Unlike other resources utilized by managers,

the human resource can only utilize itself. "The human being ... has absolute

control over whether he works at all" (Drucker, 1954:264).

Drucker calls on managers to consider the moral and social needs of human

beings in the design of work. He calls on managers to take positive actions to

encourage worker motivation, and to create jobs that challenge and develop

workers. In the process, Drucker (1954: 273-289) disparages the personnel

management discipline of his day, detailing its three basic misconceptions: (1) it

assumes people do not want to work; (2) it looks upon the management of work

and the worker as a specialist's job rather than a key part of any manager's job;

and (3) its tendency to be a "fire fighting" and "trouble-shooting" activity, rather

than focusing on the positive and building harmony. However, Drucker

(1954:287) expresses a hope for the improvement of the managing of workers. He

answers his own rhetorical question "Is personnel management bankrupt?" with a

no, choosing rather to see personnel management as temporarily insolvent.

According to Drucker, the personnel management of his day was not meeting its

promises of effectively managing workers; it had the necessary expertise and was

aware of the right approaches; but had yet to apply them.

Bakke and "The Human Resources Function"

E. Wight Bakke (1958), a sociologist by training and a multidisciplinary industrial

relations scholar in his research choices, elaborated a more detailed discussion of

the managing of human resources as a function of general management. In a

poorly circulated monograph, Bakke (1958) describes an ignored managerial

function, the human resources function, which he describes as being as important

to business success as accounting, production, financing, marketing and the other

managerial functions. According to Bakke, the human resources function

subsumes all of personnel administration, industrial and labor relations, human

relations, human engineering, executive development and the like.

Bakke (1958) details how the human resource function of management is but a

part of the general management function, and then sets out principles for a

thoughtful and deliberate approach to this function. He views the general job of

management as the effective use of resources (money, materials, market, ideas,

nature, and people) to achieve organizational objectives. Bakke argues that poor

management of any one of these resources weakens the effectiveness of the whole

organization. Thus, he argues that "attention to the human resource is required not

because managers are humanitarian, but because they are managers" (1958:198).

Bakke (1958:200) lays out seven points that detail why the human resources

function goes beyond the work of the personnel or industrial relations manager:

(1) The human resource function is not a special function, it must meet the

standards that Bakke (1958) sets out for all the other functions of management:

"[t]o understand, to maintain, to develop, to employ or utilize effectively, and to

integrate these resources into a working whole ... ".

(2) The levers of the human resource function are not new gadgets or tools to be

afforded when the "really important" functions, such as production and finance, a

running smoothly and profitably. Rather, the management of human resources

must be done from the startup of any organization.

(3) The objective of the human resource function "is not personal happiness but

productive work and the maximum opportunity for all the company's people to

utilize to the fullest possible extent all the skills they have relevant to making that

work more productive."

(4) The human resource function includes not only the welfare and compensation

activities associated with personnel and labor relations, "but the human resources

aspect of every working relationship [italics in original] between people in the

company." It should improve the "work process, work associations and work

opportunities" of employees so as to reduce the need for rewards which

compensate for boredom and hardship.

(5) The human resource function is not solely concerned with employees but with

every person "at all levels" of the organization, including the chief executive

officer.

6) The human resource function is necessarily performed by every person in the

organization who is responsible for supervising others. This includes managers in

a unionized environment. In such cases, "line management carries out its basic

human resource functions within a framework of expectancies, controls, and other

activities of the union."

(7) "The focus of concern for all human resources effect must be the simultaneous

achievement of the central and essential interests of the company and its people."

The interests need not be the same, but they must not be incompatible.

Surprisingly, Bakke's detailed discussion seems to have had little implict. Even

though it appears in Unions, Management and the Public (1960) (1967), an

influential text and book of readings, his human resources function has been

completely ignored in academic circles.(1)

These two original perspectives on HRM emphasize the management actions that

come from viewing all individuals within the enterprise as valuable resources that

must be thoughtfully managed. This view appears to have made an initial impact

on the business world and academia: the term "human resources" begins appear

very occasionally, though it is not described in depth. In 1964, Pigors, Myers and

Malm edited a book of readings called Management of Human Resources:

Readings in Personnel Administration.(2) This work, partly based on an earlier set

of readings by Pigors and Myers (1952) called Readings in Personnel

Administration, takes a tone reminiscent of Drucker's (1954). Pigors et al. (1964)

strive to emphasize that the management of people is central to management and

not a secondary issue. They view "the management of human resources" as being

a broader and more inclusive term than personnel administration (Pigors et al.,

1964:vii).

Miles and the "Human Resource Model"

The next appearance of the term "human resources" to attract serious academic

and managerial attention was Raymond E. Miles' (1965) article in Harvard

Business Review.(3) Miles' survey research on managerial attitudes showed that

most managers preferred using a human relations model of management on their

subordinates, but preferred that their superiors apply what Miles termed a human

resource model to them.

The human relations model, instructs managers to fulfil more than workers

economic needs. Managers should view workers as individuals and demonstrate

an interest in their welfare and happiness. In short, the worker is made to feel

useful and important to the organizations through constant communication and

reassurance from his supervisor. On the other hand, Miles' (1965) human

resources model--a composite which he attributes to McGregor (1960), Likert

(1961) and others--(4) suggests that the experience and knowledge of workers is

of great value to the organization. Worker participation, the full use of their

resources, can lead to improved decisions and self-control, which in turn improves

worker productivity and satisfaction.

Miles (1965) advocated that management view its employees as "human

resources", with all the attendant implications, arguing that the almost universal

desire of managers to be treated this way by their own bosses, spoke to the

effectiveness of the approach in raising morale and performance.

From 1965 until 1970, the terms "human resources" or "human resource

management" do not appear to have been much used in academic writings.

However, the concept of human resources seems to have been well received in

management circles, no doubt due to the prominence of Miles' (1965) article. For

example, Pyle (1970:19) starts a discussion of human resource accounting(5) by

stating: "The importance of human resources to the success of an enterprise is

widely acclaimed in corporate pronouncements..." Unfortunately, he does not

provide any examples.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF HRM

The early 1970's saw a few developments which popularized HRM in

management circles. In 1972, the American Management Association (AMA), an

educational organization for managers, published Innovative Human Resource

Management by R. L. Datnick. This how-to-manual for senior managers and

"employee relations" executives (1) emphasizes the harmonization of employee

needs, interests, and desires with corporate objectives and (2) begins with "The

human beings in an organization are its most important resource"(Desatnick,

1972:i). The AMA began its existence as a personnel managers' association, and

has worked ever since to promote the role and importance of the personnel

manager (Ling, 1964). This book was part of the AMA's efforts to capitalize on

the attention given to Miles' (1965) article in North American business increase

the profile of personnel managers.

Purloined by Personnel Management

During the middle to late 1970's the definition of HRM changes. As the term

"human resource management" became more welt known and widespread in the

business world, the dominant definition of HRM in most textbooks becomes very

closely linked to the work being done in personnel management. A series of

authors, generally scholars with a background in traditional personnel

management or human relations, put out a series of textbooks which equate HRM

with personnel management. For example, Robbins (1978:4), in Personnel: The

Management of Human Resources, states that:

Today the academic discipline described as "personnel" represents the study of an

organization's human resources and how their contribution to the organization's

goals can be most effectively attained.

Peterson and Tracy (1979:3), in The Systematic Management of Human

Resources, go even further:

Human resource management, or personnel and industrial relations [italics added],

consists of the activities within a given firm that deal with the recruiting,

selecting, appraising, rewarding, and developing of employees (including

managers) as well as negotiating with labor unions.

Henneman, Schwab, Fossum and Dyer 1980) deal with the issue choosing for a

title the composite term Personnel/Human Resource Management and using it or

the abbreviation P/HRM throughout their textbook.

This equation of human resource management with personnel management and

the traditional functions of the personnel department becomes the one of the

dominant perspectives on HRM. It still appears in survey textbooks, for example,

Werther, Davis, Schwind, and Das (1990:9) state that:

Human Resource Management also called personnel management...[italics in

original] ...focuses on what managers--especially human resource specialists--

[italics added] do and what they should do.

Human Resource Management Re-Theorized in the 1980's

Drucker's (1954) and Bakke's (1958) broader perspective on HRM resurfaces in

the early 1980's. During this period, HRM underwent some intense scrutiny as

many scholars attempted to produce a general theory of HRM which could be

used for explanation and prediction, and to direct practitioners and researchers

towards understudied or overlooked aspects of the employment relationship. Most

of these efforts at theory-building focused on integrating HRM with strategic

planning, with a view to making HRM a planned central component of an

organization's efforts at effectiveness. In many ways, this reflects a full turn back

to Bakke (1958) with its emphasis on HRM being a general management function

of importance equal to accounting, production, and the others.

The first such work was by Tichy, Fombrun, and Devanna (1982), though there

were a rapid succession of others (i.e., Baird, Meshoulam & DeGive, 1983;

Burack, 1985; Dyer, 1993, 1984; Golden & Ramanujam, 1985; Odiome, 1984;

Smith, 1982). All of these works emphasised the need for a fuller theory of

strategic human resource management (SHRM) and suggested approaches to take.

The term appears to have been coined to distinguish it from the purloined HRM,

by then often equated with personnel management. This SHRM differed from

personnel because of its focus on planned proactive measures which are linked to

the organization's overall strategic plan, opposing personnel's reactive "fire-

fighting" approach.

Probably the most influential effort at HRM theorizing is the model of Beer,

Spector, Lawrence, Mills and Walton (1984) work on integrating the various

aspects of managing individuals within the organization. Beer et al. (1984:ix)

define human resource management as the synthesis of perspectives from

organizational behavior/development, labor relations, and personnel

administration. As a field of study, Beer et al. (1984:1) view HRM as "the study

of all management decisions and actions which affect the nature of the

relationship between the organization and employees." Their application of the

definition is broader, as they also discuss work system design as an important

function in HRM.(6)

Interestingly, Beer et al. (1984) does not explicitly mention strategy. Rather they

focused on four areas of HRM policy choices: (1) choices regarding employee

influence mechanisms, (2) choice regarding human resource flows in, through,

and out of the organization, (3) choices regarding reward systems, and (4) choices

regarding the work systems employed. Specific choices are made within the

constraints of shareholder interests and situational factors, with a view to

achieving four HRM outcomes: commitment, competence, congruence, and cost

effectiveness. It is the focus on commitment and congruence which brings in

strategic planning and the linking of different policies to make a cohesive unit.

This is in contrast to the traditional personnel management perspective which

focused on the cost effectiveness and competitiveness outcomes almost

exclusively.

The British Experience in the Late 1980's

The late 1980's saw an interesting development in the definition of HRM. as a

management philosophy using the name "human resource management" made a

bold appearance in Thatcher's Britain (Storey, 1989). Unlike other management

fads or movements which occasionally gain brief popularity in the business

community, British researchers encountered a profound acceptance of the

management philosophy and vocabulary of HRM at all levels of management

within British enterprises (Blyton & Turnbull, 1992; Storey, 1989). However,

unlike North America where HRM had sprung from, and was encouraged, by

academic perspectives, in Britain the importation of HRM was management led,

and most academics remain sceptical, if not critical, of its view points (Legge,

1989; Storey, 1989, 1992; Blyton & Turnbull, 1992). British scholars appear to be

more sensitive to the opacity and lack of agreement in definitions about HRM

(Blyton & Turnbull, 1992; Guest, 1987; Legge, 1989; Noon, 1992; Storey, 1989;

Storey & Sisson, 1989).

British academics have focused their criticism on the unitarist/managerialist

perspective of HRM (Guest, 1987; Keenoy & Anthony, 1992; Legge, 1989).

British research into work and workers has generally been pluralist in its

orientation, refusing generally to accept that workers and capitalists/managers

have the same interests or even common interests (Keenoy & Anthony, 1992).

British managerialist researchers have generally followed the definitions of Beer

et al. (1984) and Tichy et al. (1982) and are now creating HRM journals and

occupying HRM chairs. Others chose to view and define HRM as a sophisticated

set of union-avoidance practices and as a mechanism designed to erode pluralist

industrial relations in Britain. Keenoy and Anthony (1992:235), for example, call

HRM

a meta-narrative locating, informing and legitimizing managerial practice in a

time of rapid economic restructuring: the 'messages' carried by HRM are far more

important than the devices employed.

A milder form of this critical perspective has also appeared in the journal

Relations Industrielles (Barkin, 1989; Godard, 1991; Ichniowski, Delaney, &

Lewin, 1989; Wells, 1993).

THREE FAMILIES OF DEFINITIONS

From this review, emerge three general families of HRM definitions. The first,

laid out by Drucker (1954), Bakke (1958) and reiterated by Beer et al. (1984) and

others (Lewin, 1991; Schuler, 1990), holds that HRM is a broad general managers'

function which deals with the proper management -understanding, maintenance,

development, utilization, and integration -- of individuals in the work place. It

implies a management philosophy consistent with the view that employees, all

employees, are valuable organizational resources, rather than expenses which the

personnel department should assist in minimizing.

The second family of definitions -- Henneman et al. (1980), Peterson and Tracy

(1979), Robbins (1978), Strauss and Sayles (1980), Werther et al. and others --

holds that HRM is a new synonym for personnel management, the management of

employees by specialist staff. It assumes the existence of a set of best or

acceptable practices for making effective use of workers and attempts to detail

these.

The third family of definitions results from the managerialist/unitarist resurgence

in Britain during the Thatcher years. Many scholars with workerist/pluralist

orientations hold that HRM is essentially a sophisticated form of union avoidance,

and a camouflaged method of managerial control. They focus not on the tools or

levers which HRM encourages or uses but rather on the different way that HRM

conveys managerial legitimacy.

CONCLUSION

Human resource management is, and was, an attempt to resolve the failures of

personnel management, human relations, and industrial relations to provide

direction as to how organizations should handle people so that organizational

effectiveness and individual satisfaction would be maximized. The resulting

discussion and conception of humans as valuable resources had a broad appeal

which attracted many proponents of personnel management, human relations, and

industrial relations. In the exchange, the meaning of HRM became so diffuse and

uncertain that it is now idiomatic.

Human resource management now exists in several versions, each tied to the

philosophical and institutional position of its adherents. Human resource

management continues to enjoy managerial support and attract managerial

attention. Conducting HRM research is a more legitimate and socially desirable

endeavour than conducting research on industrial relations, with its pro-union

slant, or conducting research on organizational behavior with it ethereal findings.

This broad acceptance of the goals and purposes of human resource management

may result in its imperialization of the study of work and employment within

business schools.

Daftar Pustaka

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Edison, Emron, 2009. Pengembangan Sumber Daya Manusia. Bandung: Alfabeta

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Mathis, Robert L, John H. Jackson, 2002. Manajemen Sumber Daya Manusia. Jakarta: Salemba Empat

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