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Isu saat ini dan arsip teks lengkap dari jurnal ini tersedia di Emerald Insight di: www.emeraldinsight.com/0143-770.htm

I!" 3#$3

Bagaimana untuk memberdayakan karyawan:

menggunakan pelatihan untuk meningkatkan

pemberdayaan kolektif unit kerja '354

%risten &oegtlin

'iterima 14 (kto)er 01 *e+isi 3 !anuari 013

Jurusan Administrasi Bisnis, Universitas Zurich, Zurich, Swiss 18 April 2013 Diterima 25 Juni 2013

Stephan A B!ehm "usat #acat $nte%rasi, Universit& !' St (allen, St (allen, Swiss, dan )ei*e Bruch

$nstitut +anaemen Sum-er Da&a .epemimpinan dan +anusia, Universit& !' St (allen, St (allen,

Swiss

,)strak tujuan - tujuan makalah ini adalah untuk menguji$ secara teoritis dan empiris$ apakah program pelatihan karawan

dapat meningkatkan persepsi kolekti pem)erdaaan unit kerja dalam se)uah organisasi. ara penulis )erhipotesis )ahwa

partisipasi pelatihan )erkaitan dengan pem)erdaaan dengan meningkatkan potensi$ ke)ermaknaan$ dampak$ dan otonomi

karawan. 'esain / metodologi / pendekatan - ara penulis mengumpulkan data pada dua titik waktu$ se)elum dan setelah

inter+ensi pelatihan. elama dua periode$ sampel terdiri dari rata-rata .33 karawan )ersarang di 3# unit kerja dari se)uah

perusahaan multinasional )esar. 2emuan - asil penelitian menunjukkan hu)ungan ang positi antara partisipasi pelatihan

dan peningkatan tingkat pem)erdaaan psikologis kolekti$ dengan eek dierensial pada dimensi pem)erdaaan. Implikasi

praktis - tudi ini mem)erikan )ukti hu)ungan positi antara pelatihan dan pem)erdaaan$ menunjukkan eek pelatihan di

tingkat analisis. asil penelitian menunjukkan dimensi pem)erdaaan ang le)ih dan sehingga kurang rentan terhadap

pelatihan. engetahuan terse)ut dapat mem)antu untuk menginormasikan organisasi dalam mengem)angkan strategi

pelatihan. ara penulis mem)erikan rekomendasi untuk program pelatihan masing-masing. (risinalitas / nilai - ini adalah

salah satu dari studi pertama untuk menelidiki hu)ungan antara partisipasi pelatihan karawan indi+idu dan persepsi

pem)erdaaan )ersama dalam unit kerja mereka$ menam)ahkan anteseden penting untuk penelitian tentang pem)erdaaan.

elain itu$ penulis mengusulkan cara )agaimana karawan indi+idu dapat mempengaruhi persepsi )ersama di antara anggota

kerja unit. tudi ini menawarkan wawasan ke dalam pengem)angan unit kerja di)erdaakan$ transer +ertikal pelatihan di

tingkat analisis dan implikasi untuk program pelatihan. %ata kunci elatihan$ "oti+asi psikologi5$ keterli)atan

karawan$sum)er daa manusia !enis manajemen %ertas kertas enelitian

pem)erdaaan psikologis%arawan adalah aspek kunci untuk setiap organisasi ang ingin mencapai tingkat

ang le)ih tinggi dari keterli)atan karawan$ leksi)ilitas$ dan respon pasar "athieu et al.$ 00#5. 2idak

mengherankan$ pem)erdaaan dan eek organisasina telah menerima )anak perhatian selama dekade terakhir

dari

International !ournal 2enaga %erja &ol. 3# 6o. 3$ 01 pp. 34-373 8 Emerald 9rup ener)itan 2er)atas

kedua ulama dan praktisi. em)erdaaan psikologis$ dipahami se)agai meningkatkan moti+asi tugas intrinsik

2homas dan &elthouse$ 1;;0$ hal. ##75$ telah ditunjukkan untuk meningkatkan eekti+itas dan kinerja indi+idu

dan unit kerja misalna ,ree 0143-770 '(I 10$110 / I!"-10- 01-01

et al$ 01


2/20

elain pem)erdaaan indi+idu$ sarjana telah semakin )erokus pada persepsi kolekti pem)erdaaan$ tercermin

dari meningkatna jumlah penelitian ang diter)itkan pada topik ini misalna =hen et al$ 007. < %irkman et al$

004er 1;;#5$ eek pada pem)erdaaan itur desain kontemporer lainna seperti kepemimpinan$

pengem)angan keterampilan melalui pelatihan$ penghargaan$ dan struktur tim juga harus diperiksa hlm. 005.

enelidikan teoritis dan empiris dari dri+er potensi pem)erdaaan karena itu telah diidentiikasi se)agai salah

satu jalur penting untuk penelitian le)ih lanjut untuk mengikuti =hen et al.$ 0075.

tudi ang ada telah )erulang kali diidentiikasi aktor organisasi se)agai sum)er penting untuk

meningkatkan tingkat pem)erdaaan misalna "athieu et al.$ 00#5. alah satu g sehingga mampu

meningkatkan persepsi pem)erdaaan unit kerja termasuk set tertentu ke)ijakan sum)er daa manusia$ seperti

kegiatan pelatihan khusus %irkman dan *osen$ 1;;;< "athieu et al$ 00#.5. ada tingkat kolekti$ telah

menunjukkan )ahwa pelatihan-silang aitu rekan pelatihan untuk pekerjaan lain dalam unit kerja mereka

sendiri5 %irkman dan *osen$ 1;;;5 dan pelatihan tim ormal aitu anggota tim ditana apakah mereka )erpikir

)ahwa rekan mereka terlatih dalam keterampilan tim ang penting untuk pekerjaan mereka5 "athieu et al.$

00#5 dapat mene)a)kan peningkatan pem)erdaaan psikologis kolekti.

"engingat ini jarang tetapi menggem)irakan hasil$ serta 1;;#5 panggilan langsung preit>er untuk

menganalisis peran pelatihan dalam pengem)angan pem)erdaaan karawan$ tampakna mengejutkan )ahwa

sampai saat ini$ hana studi %irkman dan *osen 1;;;5 dan "athieu dan rekan 00#5 telah dieksplorasi

pelatihan se)agai cara untuk mempengaruhi persepsi pem)erdaaan kolekti. 'engan demikian$ kami )erusaha

untuk mengam)il )aris ini penelitian dan menelidiki le)ih lanjut peran pelatihan pem)erdaaan dalam

penciptaan pem)erdaaan unit kerja ?.

'engan demikian$ kami juga )erusaha untuk menghu)ungkan literatur pem)erdaaan dengan literatur

tentang pelatihan dalam pengaturan kerja lihat $ misalna ,rthur et al$ 003


3/20

356

%edua$ penilaian transer +ertikal pelatihan ang di)utuhkan %o>lowski et al$ 000


4/20

I!" 3#$3

358

1;;7$ 1;;;5 empat dimensi pem)erdaaan konstruk kolekti ini adalah potensi$ dampak$ ke)ermaknaan$ dan

otonomi. e)uah rasa tinggi potensi$ ang mencerminkan dimensi kolekti sel-eicac indi+idu$ adalah

kompetensi dirasakan )ahwa unit kerja dapat menelesaikan tugas-tugas ang menggunakan kemampuan

sendiri. 'ampak menilai dirasakan pentingna pekerjaan unit )agi organisasi. %e)ermaknaan kolekti adalah

sejauh mana anggota unit menganggap pekerjaan se)agai )erharga dan )ermakna. ,khirna$ otonomi )erasal

dari dimensi indi+idual pilihan. al ini mencerminkan ke)e)asan dan kemerdekaan untuk memilih )agaimana

merancang pekerjaan unit untuk deinisi dari empat dimensi$ melihat %irkman dan *osen$ 1;;7$ 1;;;<

%irkman et al$ 0045.)ersama.

Indi+idu dalam unit kerja mengem)angkan rasa pem)erdaaan dalam )ahwa mereka melampirkan arti ang

sama untuk pekerjaan mereka dan merasakan rasa ang sama potensi$ otonomi$ dan dampak. etiap dimensi

merupakan persepsi ang rele+an tentang )agaimana di)erdaakan karawan merasa ketika melakukan

pekerjaan mereka. 'imensi didirikan konstruksi dalam diri mereka sendiri dan ketika diga)ungkan$ merekamencerminkan estimasi komprehensi moti+asi tugas unit kerja$ atau se)agai preit>er et al. 1;;75 menatakan$

2he empat dimensi telah ditemukan untuk )erkontri)usi secara keseluruhan ?gestalt? pem)erdaaan ang telah

ditemukan untuk menjadi sta)il dari waktu ke waktu dan andal diukur hlm. #05.

engaruh pelatihan pem)erdaaan karawan pada psikologis dimensi pem)erdaaan %ami menarankan )ahwa

pelatihan pem)erdaaan )erhu)ungan positi terhadap pem)erdaaan ang dirasakan para peserta dengan

mempengaruhi persepsi psikologis mereka potensi$ ke)ermaknaan$ dampak$ dan otonomi lihat misalna

preit>er et al.$ 1;;75. %ami memeriksa setiap dimensi secara terpisah$ karena hal ini memungkinkan untuk

pemahaman ang le)ih )aik dari proses ang mendasari )agaimana partisipasi pelatihan mungkin mendorong

pem)erdaaan kolekti. elain itu$ pendekatan seperti itu dapat mem)antu menganalisis ang dimensi dapat

terlatih dan dimensi ang mungkin akan le)ih sulit untuk mempengaruhi dengan cara pelatihan. 'alammelakukanna$ metode ang eekti untuk memperkuat pem)erdaaan kolekti mungkin dikem)angkan

)erdasarkan instrumen * ang )er)eda dan praktek.

el-eicac atau potensi adalah keakinan )ahwa tugas ang di)erikan dapat diselesaikan dengan

menggunakan kemampuan dan keterampilan %irkman dan *osen$ 1;;7$ 1;;; indi+idu atau kolekti < preit>er$

1;;5. elatihan )isa memperkuat rasa sel-eicac indi+idu dengan menediakan peserta dengan keterampilan

)aru mereka dapat diterapkan ke tempat kerja. elatihan juga dapat mempengaruhi keakinan )ahwa mereka

dapat menelesaikan tugas-tugas ang di)erikan menggunakan keterampilan )aru mereka dengan mendorong

mereka dan menediakan mereka dengan umpan )alik positi "athieuet al.$ 00#5. elain mengajar

keterampilan )aru$ program pelatihan harus mengga)ungkan pengem)angan penguasaan pri)adi enge$ 1;;0<

enge et al$ 1;;.5. enguasaan pri)adi ang enge 1;;05 di)atasi se)agai disiplin diri )im)ingan dan pengem)angan diri. enguasaan pri)adi secara positi terkait dengan sel-eicac lihat preit>er$ 1;;<

2homas dan &elthouse$ 1;;05. "engajar penguasaan pri)adi menawarkan peserta kemungkinan untuk

mempelajari le)ih lanjut tentang diri mereka sendiri. !ika mereka mencerminkan le)ih jelas tentang model

mental pri)adi mereka dan menerima umpan )alik tentang )agaimana orang lain memandang mereka$ mereka

mungkin dapat le)ih )aik memperkirakan kompetensi mereka sendiri enge$ 1;;05. ecara )ersama-sama$ ini

)isa meningkatkan kepercaaan peserta dalam kemampuan dan keterampilan mereka sendiri dan mene)a)kan

rasa tinggi potensi.

%e)ermaknaan adalah sejauh mana seorang karawan menganggap na )ekerja se)agai )erharga dan penting

%irkman dan *osen$ 1;;7$ 1;;;5 . Amumna$ rasa ke)ermaknaan dapat diatasi melalui program pelatihan ang

mem)antu karawan melihat gam)aran )esar dan memahami )agaimana pekerjaan masing-masing

mem)erikan kontri)usi untuk ang le)ih


5/20

konteksorganisasi)esar.(leh karena itu$ tampakna penting untuk pelatihan untuk mem)erikan inormasi

tentang perusahaan$ +isi dan tujuan$ dan kinerja secara keseluruhan ,ree et al.$ 015. rogram pelatihan juga

harus memungkinkan peserta untuk )erpikir sistemik tentang alur kerja organisasi. !ika peserta dapat

menghu)ungkan inormasi tentang +isi organisasi$ tujuan$ dan situasi kinerja untuk +isi pri)adi mereka$ mereka

mungkin menganggap pekerjaan unit mereka untuk menjadi le)ih )erpengaruh dan )ermakna preit>er$ 1;;$

1;;#5.

'ampak adalah sejauh mana indi+idu merasa )ahwa pekerjaan mereka atau pekerjaan unit kerja mereka

mempengaruhi hasil organisasi %irkman dan *osen$ 1;;7< preit>er$ 1;;5. ,nalog dengan eek pelatihan pada

rasa ke)ermaknaan$ perlu untuk mem)erikan karawan dengan inormasi tentang organisasi sehingga mereka

dapat menghu)ungkan situasi mereka ang se)enarna untuk gam)aran )esar preit>er$ 1;;$ 1;;#5. !ika

program pelatihan mem)erikan inormasi ini$ )isa mempermudah pemahaman kerja sendiri dalam kaitanna

dengan kinerja perusahaan. eserta pelatihan dapat menghu)ungkan tidak hana kontri)usi masing-masing

untuk kinerja secara keseluruhan$ tetapi juga kara seluruh unit$ ang harus mem)uat link le)ih kuat$ karena

le)ih mudah untuk menge+aluasi kontri)usi dari seluruh unit misalna * atau pemasaran departemen 5

di)andingkan dengan kontri)usi kinerja karawan tunggal1;;;


6/20


7/20

makna )ersama$ dan mem)uat keputusan. Antuk mencapai tujuan terse)ut$ peserta dilatih selama tiga hari

misalna dalam penguasaan pri)adi$ )erpikir sistemik$ meli)atkan orang lain$ keterampilan komunikasi dan

mem)angun +isi )ersama lihat juga dimensi pem)elajaran dan tujuan ang ditampilkan pada 2a)el I5.

Ansur-unsur penguasaan pri)adi - dilatih$ misalna$ melalui latihan ang kontras diri dan persepsi sosial

sikap kerja penting dan keterampilan - dapat meningkatkan perasaan peserta dari sel-eicac. "engajar carasistemik )erpikir menunjukkan peserta pentingna melihat gam)aran )esar. 'engan )antuan contoh-contoh

praktis$ studi kasus$ dan latihan$ peserta mengalami pentingna mengam)il langkah mundur dan )erpikir tentang

masalah ang le)ih holistik$ menco)a untuk menilai struktur ang mendasari atau tersem)uni dan menantang

model mental mereka diterima. elanjutna$ peserta )elajar untuk meli)atkan orang lain dengan menerapkan

keterampilan komunikasi ditingkatkan. ,khirna$ mem)angun +isi )ersama termasuk latihan di mana

karawan mengem)angkan +isi mereka sendiri dan menghu)ungkanna dengan +isi perusahaan. Batihan

terse)ut dapat mempengaruhi dampak ang dirasakan dan ke)ermaknaan dengan menunjukkan )agaimana

untuk mencapai masa depan ang diinginkan aitu +isi seseorang5 dengan )ekerja untuk perusahaan. &isi

pri)adi peserta le)ih jelas juga dapat mem)antu mereka untuk menggunakan ruang )e)as mereka le)ih eekti$

positi )erkontri)usi terhadap persepsi otonomi.

epanjang pelatihan$ peserta )elajar keterampilan )aru dan mengalami peningkatan potensi$ ke)ermaknaan$

dampak$ dan otonomi. %etika mereka kem)ali ke lingkungan kerja rutin mereka$ mereka mengekspos anggota

kerja-satuan lain untuk rangsangan )aru dengan menunjukkan potensi peningkatan dalam menerapkan

keterampilan mereka$ melampirkan makna )aru dan rasa dampak terhadap pekerjaan mereka$ dan menampilkan

peningkatan kepercaaan diri$ aitu$ otonomi dalam )erurusan dengan pekerjaan mereka. aparan ini dapat

mene)a)kan eek contagion aekti dan perilaku serta eek pada model mental )ersama dari para anggota kerja-

satuan )erkaitan dengan perilaku pekerjaan mereka.

ari 1 ari ari 3

dimensi Bearning penguasaan ri)adi

@erpikir sistemik

lain Engaging keterampilan ercakapan "enantang model mental

"em)angun +isi )ersama "engam)iltindakan

tujuan@elajar "eningkatkan kualitas dan kecepatan pilihan )isnis utama$ komitmen

indi+idu dan kelompok$ eekti+itas tindakan kolekti$ pemahaman situasi ang kompleks$ serta kepercaaan$ keter)ukaan$

dan metode em)elajaran produkti+itas presentasi dan kuliah$ studi kasus$ latihan grup dengan mengu)ah

peserta$ diskusi kelompok di antara semua peserta$ peserta penilaian sendirilah$ dan peserta persepsi diri di)andingkan

dengan persepsi sosial lain

?@agaimanamem)erdaakan karawan

36!

2a)el I. Ikhtisar program pelatihan

I!" 3#$3

36"


8/20

=ontoh dan pengumpulan data peserta penelitian adalah karawan wedia se)uah perusahaan multinasional

ang mengkhususkan diri dalam kekuasaan dan otomatisasi teknologi. enelitian dilakukan dengan

mengumpulkan data pada dua titik waktu ang )er)eda. Caktu adalah 13 )ulan setelah pengumpulan data

pertama pada saat 1. prosedur pengumpulan data identik digunakan pada waktu 1 dan waktu . ada kedua kali$

sur+ei diumumkan melalui pesan e-mail dari anggota dewan eksekuti )ertanggung jawa) untuk sum)er daa

manusia . artisipasi adalah sukarela$ dan anonimitas dijamin untuk semua peserta. emua data disimpanmelalui administrator pihak ketiga< perusahaan tidak pernah memiliki akses ke setiap jenis data mentah.

%uesioner diterjemahkan ke dalam )ahasa wedia menggunakan strategi dou)le-)lind )ack-terjemahan dan

tam)ahan diperiksa oleh karawan perusahaan asih )er)ahasa wedia dan Inggris.

%uesioner di)agikan kepada 7.0 karawan di lokasi perusahaan wedia pada waktu 1 dan 7.4 karawan

pada waktu . dari mereka kuesioner$ kami menerima .433 kuesioner pada waktu 1 tingkat tanggapan 3$4

persen5 dan .;# pada waktu tingkat respon dari 41$0 persen5 . "engenai statistik demograi misalna jenis

kelamin$ usia$ ja)atan$ posisi hierarkis5$ responden merata pada kedua titik waktu waktu 1: 7$ persen

karawan laki-laki< usia )erkisar dari di )awah tahun 0$4 persen5 menjadi le)ih dari #0 tahun $ persen5 $

dengan persentase tertinggi pekerja antara 41 dan 4 tahun 1$1 persen5< maoritas responden telah )ekerja

untuk organisasi selama -10 tahun 1;$; persen5$ dan se)agian )esar peserta adalah karawan tanpa laporan

langsung 0$# persen5 . Caktu : karawan laki-laki 74$7 persen$ dengan persentase tertinggi antara 41 dan 4

tahun 1$ persen5< maoritas peserta telah )ekerja untuk organisasi selama -10 tahun 1;$4 persen5$ dan 73$4

persen responden ang karawan tanpa laporan langsung5.

tingkat analisis %ami menilai pem)erdaaan kolekti di tingkat kerja-unit analisis. Anit kerja ang di)entuk

sesuai dengan departemen diidentiikasi oleh organisasi host se)agai mencerminkan kunci departemen )isnis /

unit. %uesioner terdatar departemen diidentiikasi dan meminta peserta untuk menentukan keanggotaan kerja-

unit mereka. &aria)el departemen menja)at se)agai +aria)el pengelompokan ang tepat$ karena setiap unit

kerja: )isa dianggap se)agai entitas sosial< terdiri dari anggota melakukan tugas-tugas ang saling )ergantung<

tertanam dalam sistem sosial ang le)ih )esar< dan melakukan tugas ang mempengaruhi departemen lain

9u>>o dan 'ickson$ 1;;#5. %ami menganalisis unit kerja ang sama pada kedua titik waktu. truktur kerja unit

tidak )eru)ah selama periode ini. %ami mengidentiikasi 47 unit kerja$ ang kita dimasukkan dalam analisis

kami.

*esponden ang tidak melaporkan klasiikasi pekerjaan-unit mereka serta unit kerja di mana tidak ada

anggota )erpartisipasi dalam program pelatihan dihilangkan dari penelitian ini. Antuk memungkinkan agregasi$

kami dianggap hana tanggapan dari unit kerja ang menghasilkan le)ih dari dua sur+ei selesai. etelah

memilah data ang hilang di tingkat kerja unit$ sampel penelitian ang digunakan untuk analisis terdiri dari 3#

dari 47 unit kerja ang ada di kedua kali ang menghasilkan tingkat respons tingkat kerja-unit 7#$# persen5$

dengan )erarti ukuran kelompok dari ; anggota kerja unit pada waktu 1 dan 73 anggota sekaligus . sejumlah

total .17 karawan pada waktu 1 dan .#3 karawan pada waktu ang )ersarang dalam 3# unit kerja.

dalam desain penelitian kami$ kami menerapkan reerent-shit "odel komposisi %irkman et al.$ 0045 untuk mengukur konstruk tingkat kerja-unit pem)erdaaan$ meminta responden untuk

menilai keadaan unit kerja mereka untuk masing-masing dari empat dimensi pem)erdaaan. 'alam rangka

mem)angun kesesuaian agregasi ini$ kami menghitung dalam kelompok statistik perjanjian koeisien I==

/r

wg<

!ames et al$ 1;4$ 1;;35 serta intra-kelaskorelasi1.

menghitung +arians ,6(&,5 r


9/20

wg

. nilai-nilai dan lihat$ I==

untuk misalna

5%ami @liese$ I==000er 1

1G4 0.70< 0.01< 1;;5 I==

po0.01< 1

1G4 and 0.03< re-ormulated


10/20

I==

po0.001<

1G4 0.45.

to assess the unit-le+el construct. 2he work-unit mem)ers were asked to state how meaningul the estimated

the work o their work unit to )e< sample item: H2he work we I==

do in m work group is +er important to us time 1: 1G40.#;< median r

wg

1G40.73<

po0.01< out 1

o 1G40.01< the I== i+e p

1G40.0< 1G4 0.45. I==

Dinall$

1G40.30 impact and was time measured : 1G40.;0< using median a i+e-item r

wg items taken rom %irkman et al. 0045 eg Heople in 1G40.7#< scale$ I==

with 1

1G40.01< three m work group are clear how their work relates to the o+erall o)jecti+es the compan5 while the

other two were speciall de+eloped or this stud HIn m work group$ people )elie+e the compan?s +ision is

appropriate and Heople in m work group currentl )elie+e the are contri)uting to I== po0.001< rior 1

1G40.0#< studies I==

po0.001<

1G40.745. ha+e attain I==

1G40.7 something and time )igger.5 : 1G4 time 0.#< 1: median 1G40.#< r wg

1G40.7< median I==

r

wg 1

1G40.77< 1G40.04


11/20

conirmed the +alidit o the collecti+e empowerment construct relected ) the our

dimensions =hen et al.$ 007< %irkman and *osen$ 1;;;< %irkman et al.$ 0045. Jet$ we additionall conducted

a conirmator actor analsis or the empowerment construct at time 1 and time using structural eFuation

modeling. Empowerment was modeled as second-order actor relected ) the empowerment

ow to empower emploees

363

I!" 3#$3

364

dimensions as irst order actors. 2he estimation was done using maKimum likelihood. their =DI1G40.;4;<

+aria)les$ 2he *"*1G40.044$ and results showed indicated *"E,1G40.0< good signiicant o+erall it time

actor statistics : L loadings d51G47.4 time 1: or L all d5 #5< dimensions 1G4#;.01; =DI1G4 0.;4<

#5< and

*"*1G40.041$ *"E,1G40.05. 2hus$ apart rom anal>ing each dimension independentl$ we additionall

aggregated all our dimensions to one o+erall empowerment score time 1: I== ,ll

measures 1G40.; and had time good : relia)ilit 1G40.;< median 1G40.;< estimates. r wg

median 1G4 @ased 0.#< r

on I== wg

the 1G40.#< 1

1G40.0< signiicant I==

po0.001< 1

1G4 ,6(&,s 0.0< I==

po0.001<

1G40.75. as well as le+el on o the analsis. high r

wg

+alues$ we were conident in aggregating all constructs to the unit

=ontrol +aria)les Ce controlled or work-unit si>e$ super+isor training participation$ and empowerment

perceptions at time 1 when testing the relationship )etween training participation and collecti+e empowerment.

Cork-unit si>e ma ha+e an eect on the dissemination o empowerment perceptions among work-unit

mem)ers$ as perceptions within larger units ma change more slowl compared to smaller units or the

importance o controlling or work-unit si>e$ see eg ausknecht et al.$ 00$ p. 1;5.


12/20

Durther$ super+isor participation in the training might relate to collecti+e empowerment perceptions within

units$ as managers ha+e the power and discretion to inluence the sense o potenc$ meaningulness$ impact$ and

autonom o emploees more directl and comprehensi+el or the eect o leadership$ see eg @arroso =astro

et al.$ 00$ su$ 0115. 2hereore$ we controlled or super+isor training participation ) calculating how man

super+isors per unit5 participated in the training )etween time 1 and time in percentage compared to o+erall

work-unit si>e5. &alues ranged rom 0 percent or some o the smaller units when none o the participants was asuper+isor5 to as high as percent.

Dinall$ entering empowerment perceptions at time 1 into the regression analsis ena)led us to control or the

change in empowerment o+er time and to eliminate distorting inluences o high empowerment at time 1. Ce

did this or all the dimensions o empowerment as well as or the o+erall empowerment construct.

,nalsis Ce used hierarchical linear regression analsis to test the relation )etween emploee training

participation and the separate dimensions o collecti+e empowerment. Ce controlled or work-unit si>e$

super+isor training participation and the dimension measures o impact$ potenc$ meaningulness$ and autonom

at time 1. 2he emploee training participation +aria)le was included as the independent +aria)le. 2he

empowerment dimensions at time were treated as the dependent +aria)les. Ce repeated the same procedure or

the o+erall collecti+e empowerment construct.

*esults 2a)le II reports the means$ standard de+iations$ and )i+ariate correlations or all stud +aria)les used in

the analsis.

2a)le III summari>es the results o the regression analsis. (ur results indicated that the percentage o

super+isors in+ol+ed in the training was signiicantl related to collecti+e empowerment perceptions o work

units. Ce ound such signiicant +alues


365

2a)le II. 'escripti+e statistics and correlations

I!" 3#$3

366

2a)le III. ierarchical regression analsis: eects o emploee training on the dimensions o collecti+e empowerment and

the o+erall empowerment construct

Ma N*)

"!tenc& !r*unit /

si>e 5

0.4 0.00 uper+isor training participation 0.3O 0.10 otenc

(+erall training 2

1

5 participation 0.43OO 0.OO


13/20

0.3;O 0.11O * adj. *5 0.43O 0.3#5

+eanin%'ulness !r*unit sie /

2

5

P0.0# 0.0; uper+isor training participation 0.3O 0.04

"eaningulness (+erall training 2

participation 1

5 0.#OOO 0.37OOO

0.3O 0.07O * adj. *5 0.7O 0.5

$mpact !r*unit / 2

5 si>e 0.17 0.00 uper+isor training participation 0.4OO 0.1O Impact (+erall 2

training 1

5 participation 0.OOO 0.43OOO

0.34O 0.07O * adj. *5 0.#O 0.#35

,utonom Cork-unit si>e 2

5

P0.0 0.03 uper+isor training participation 0.OO 0.3OO

,utonom (+erall training 2

1

5 participation 0.44OO 0.0OO

P0.0# 0.00 * adj. *5 0.47 0.405

4mp!werment !r*unit sie /

2

5

0.11 0.03 uper+isor training participation 0.4OOO 0.4OO

Empowerment (+erall training 2

participation 1

5 0.OOO 0.34OOO


14/20

0.34OO 0.0OO * adj. *5 0.#O 0.#45 6otes: n1G43# work units.

atandardi>ed regression weights are shown< )N* indicates the uniFue +ariance in each outcome +aria)le )eond that

eKplained ) the other independent +aria)les in a hierarchical regression analsis. 2

1

1G4time 1< 2

1G4time . OOOpo0.001< OOpo0.01< Opo0.0 two-tailed5

or all su)-dimensions o empowerment potenc: M1G40.3$ po0.0< meaningulness: M1G4 0.3$ po0.0< impact:

M1G40.4$ po0.01< and autonom: M1G40.$ po0.015$ which indicates that super+isors ma pla an important role

in transerring indi+idual empowerment perceptions into work-unit wide perceptions.

,part rom super+isor training participation and empowerment perceptions at time 1$ which related

positi+el to empowerment perceptions at time $ o+erall training participation could eKplain +ariance incollecti+e empowerment perceptions o+er and a)o+e the control +aria)les. (+erall training participation had the

highest eect on potenc M1G4 0.3;$ po0.05. 2raining participation also accounted or a signiicant amount o

+ariance in the perception o meaningulness M1G40.3$ po0.05 and impact M1G40.34$ po0.05 o the work unit.

owe+er$ the percentage o trained work-unit mem)ers did not relate signiicantl to the percei+ed autonom o

the respecti+e work unit M1G4P0.0#$ p1G4 0.#;5.

Dinall$ we tested the eect o the emploee training program on the o+erall construct o collecti+e

empowerment. ,gain$ super+isor training participation related signiicantl to collecti+e empowerment

perceptions M1G4 0.4$ po0.0015. (+er and a)o+e$ the o+erall percentage o work-unit mem)ers who

participated in the training program related signiicantl to collecti+e empowerment at time M1G4 0.34$

po0.015. 2he relation )etween empowerment$ super+isor training and work-unit training participation is depictedin Digure . 2he igure shows the increase in collecti+e empowerment perceptions as a unction o o+erall

training participation continuous line5 as well as o super+isor training participation dotted line5.

In sum$ our indings partiall supported our hpothesis see also 2a)le III5. Chile we ound a signiicantl

positi+e relationship o training participation with percei+ed potenc$ meaningulness and impact as well as with

collecti+e empowerment$ training did not signiicantl relate to the percei+ed autonom o work units.

'iscussion (ur stud contri)utes to the empowerment and training literature ) eKtending the research on the

antecedents o collecti+e pschological empowerment in our was. Dirst$ an empowerment training program

was identiied as an antecedent o empowerment that is likel to enhance collecti+e empowerment without )eing

necessaril5 em)edded in a set o other human resource practices. 2he greater the num)er o emploees who participated in the empowerment training program$ the greater the percei+ed sense o empowerment in the

respecti+e work unit. Dor this analsis$ we collected two wa+es o data that helped to assess the direction o

inluence in the relationship )etween training participation and empowerment. Ce controlled or empowerment

)eore the training inter+ention to limit the inluence o high moti+ation )eore training on training outcomes.

(ur indings suggest that training participation seems to aect empowerment rather than +ice +ersa. uman

resource management might )uild upon this inding and de+elop compara)le training inter+entions not onl to

esta)lish a supporti+e en+ironment$ )ut also to aect emploees? perception o empowerment directl.

2he second contri)ution o this stud is the inding that an indi+idual-le+el training inter+ention relates to a

work unit?s moti+ational state$ which suggests training eects across le+els o analsis %o>lowski et al.$ 000<

2harenou et al.$ 0075. 2wo distinct

3.3


15/20

Work Unit Training Supervisor Training 4

3.9 tnemrewopm E evitcel

3.8

3.7

3.6

lo C

Training articipation !"# 3.$

3.4

% $ &% &$ '% '$ 3% 3$ 4%


367

Digure . 2he relation )etween training participation and collecti+e empowerment

I!" 3#$3

368

processes were proposed to pla a decisi+e role in the transormation o newl gained indi+idual empowerment

into collecti+e perceptions o empowerment: knowledge transer through shared mental models "ohammed

and 'um+ille$ 0015 and aecti+e and )eha+ioral contagion eects @arsade$ 005. E+en i we could not

eKamine the eects o knowledge transer and contagion directl$ the empirical results indicated that an

indi+idual training inter+ention related signiicantl to the collecti+e perception o empowerment at the work-

unit le+el o analsis.

2hird$ training participation does not seem to aect all dimensions o collecti+e pschological empowerment

to the same eKtent. Chereas potenc$ meaningulness$ and impact were signiicantl related to the training

eKperience$ the relationship )etween the training participation and the work unit?s percei+ed autonom was not

signiicant. (ne eKplanation or the non-signiicant relationship ma )e that eKternal actors might inluence theindependence o designing one?s own work to a great eKtent %irkman and *osen$ 1;;;< preit>er$ 1;;#5.

,lthough the training might positi+el inluence participants? sense o autonom ) increasing the percei+ed

sphere o their own inluence$ participation in the training program cannot change some o)jecti+e acets a)out

their jo) including ormal jo) descriptions$ ields o jo) acti+it$ super+isor-emploee relationships$ etc.5. uch

largel centrali>ed aspects o indi+idual jo)s correlate negati+el with perceptions o autonom 6asurdin et al.$

00#5.

2his conclusion is linked to our ourth contri)ution that relates to the role o super+isors in the training-

empowerment relationship see eg @arroso =astro et al.$ 005. ,s super+isors might )e a)le to inluence the

sense o potenc$ meaningulness$ impact$ or autonom o emploees more directl and comprehensi+el

compared to emploees without direct reports eg through assigning special projects$ pro+iding eed)ack and

rewards$ etc.5 it might )e especiall +alua)le to ha+e them participate in the training in order to create a certain

le+erage eect ) changing their )eha+ior5. Ce ound signiicant relations )etween super+isor participation in


16/20

the training and all su)-dimensions o percei+ed empowerment within work units$ including autonom. 2hese

indings suggest that super+isor participation in the training might indeed contri)ute to training eecti+eness$

especiall or acets like autonom that depend more strongl on super+isors than on the indi+idual emploee.

owe+er$ as o+erall training participation relecting all training participants rom all hierarchical le+els5

eKplained additional +ariance in units? empowerment scores$ one should not draw the misleading conclusion that

training onl super+isors is the )est wa to strengthen work units? empowerment perceptions.

Bimitations and uture research In spite o se+eral methodological strengths eg data collections at time 1 and

time 5$ there are se+eral limitations that should )e considered when interpreting the stud?s indings. Chile

collecting the data at two time points helped reduce measurement errors stemming rom single source )ias

odsako et al.$ 0035 and ena)led us to )etter address the direction o inluence )etween the training

inter+ention and the enhanced collecti+e empowerment$ we cannot draw a solid conclusion a)out causalit.

Dirst$ as in all non-eKperimental settings$ we were not a)le to rule out all potential inluencing actors that

might ha+e had an eect on empowerment. 2hat is$ we could not control or all uno)ser+ed +aria)les that ma

also aect empowerment perceptions o+er and a)o+e the training inter+ention. ince the organi>ation in our

stud

introduced the empowerment training simultaneousl in all o its locations and to all emploees$ we were not

a)le to assign emploees to control and treatment groups randoml. owe+er$ we could re+ert to a num)er o

important control +aria)les such as empowerment at time 1 as well as super+isor participation in the

empowerment training. 2ogether with the compara)l sta)le de+elopment o the compan )etween time 1 and

time no major changes in top management$ compan strateg$ organi>ational structure$ or the eKternal market

en+ironment5$ we are rather conident that no other unmeasured actor was dri+ing our results.

econd$ although we emploed a time 1/time -design$ we cannot totall rule out a re+ersed order o

causalit )etween training participation and increased empowerment scores. In other words$ it might ha+e )een

possi)le that those emploees higher in empowerment might ha+e )een more willing to participate in the

training. owe+er$ our data indicate that training participation is more highl correlated with post-training than

with pre-training empowerment scores see 2a)le II5. 2his rather points towards a potential eect o training on

increased empowerment and not +ice +ersa.

2hird$ as we emploed sel-report sur+es to collect our data$ a single source )ias )etween our independent

+aria)le unit training participation5 and our dependent +aria)le collecti+e empowerment perceptions5 could

inluence our indings. owe+er$ although )eing sel-reported$ training participation is a rather o)jecti+e

+aria)le$ compara)le to demographic +aria)les such as age or gender$ and should thereore not )e largel

aected ) processes leading to artiactual co+ariance odsako et al.$ 0035. (+erall$ we suggest that uture

research might stri+e to emplo eKperimental methods eg using randomi>ed control and treatment groups5 to

urther strengthen the eKplanator power o our indings hadish et al.$ 005.

, urther limitation o the stud concerns the generali>a)ilit o the results. ,lthough on a+erage$ $33

emploees participated in the stud at time 1 and time $ we acknowledge a relati+el small num)er o work-

units n1G4 3#5. 9athering data at the work-unit le+el rather than indi+idual-le+el in+ol+es more restrictions<

thus$ attaining large work-unit le+el sample si>es is a general pro)lem in ield research eg =ohen and @aile$

1;;75. "oreo+er$ participants and work units in our stud came solel rom one countr weden5 and one

cultural sphere. Duture research could address this issue ) conirming the stud results using a larger unit le+el

sample across dierent organi>ations.

Dinall$ the aggregation statistics or the group le+el constructs were in some cases )elow the recommended

+alues @liese$ 000< !ames et al.$ 1;45. 2his might )e )ecause we eKamined collecti+e empowerment at the

work-unit le+el. 2hese work units do not resem)le the cohesi+e work en+ironment o small teams. 'espite that$these units are real workgroups since emploees share interrelated tasks eg producing a certain product5$ the


17/20

are led ) one o+erall )usiness unit manager$ and all internal communication and * acti+ities ocus on this

le+el. Dor uture research$ we suggest replicating this stud at the team le+el o analsis.

In addition$ it would )e interesting to in+estigate empiricall the processes that transer the eects o an

indi+idual training program into an enhanced collecti+e empowerment. Ce proposed contagion processes and

knowledge transer through shared mental models to account or the transer across le+els o analsis. Jet$ wedid not measure these mediating eects directl. Durther studies could empiricall conirm these processes as

rele+ant to the transer o an indi+idual training inter+ention to collecti+e le+el outcomes. Durther$ there ma )e

an additional dierentiation )etween


369

I!" 3#$3

37

skill-)ased and moti+ational contagion eects that might )e interesting to in+estigate more closel. Chile the

skill-)ased eects o training ma not )e so easil spread among emploees$ the moti+ational eects ma )e

more contagious. (n a related point$ moti+ational eects o an empowerment training might not onl )e caused

) the training content$ )ut alread ) the Hsm)olic act o the management to oer such a training$ to in+est

in emploees? de+elopment$ and to )elie+e in the importance o empowerment or the organi>ation. Duture

studies should address these Fuestions in more detail.

Dinall$ in+estigating the role o leadership in such contagion processes would )e an interesting alle or

uture research$ as our results indicate that super+isors ma occup a more crucial role in spreading knowledge

across work units and in aecting the moti+ation o their emploees. 2hereore$ longitudinal studies ocusing on

the Fuestion how leadership )eha+ior might add to the eects o such a training o+er and a)o+e the training

itsel are highl warranted.

ractical implications 2he theoretical considerations and empirical results o this stud oer se+eral

implications or organi>ations. Dirst$ empowerment training seems to )e positi+el related to emploees?

empowerment perceptions within work units. 2his suggests that an empowerment-targeted training could )e a

worthwhile in+estment i we consider the positi+e eects o empowerment$ as demonstrated ) pre+ious

research indings eg =hen et al.$ 007< %irkman et al.$ 0045.

econd$ we suggest a training program$ as a human resource instrument that sstematicall enhances

emploees? empowerment$ that would )e closel related to the one eKamined in this stud$ ie$ the training

program should )e designed as an inter+ention that osters participants? sel-assessment and sensiti>es their

perception o their own a)ilities and underling attitudes. 2he program should also teach group communication

skills$ pro+ide participants with a )etter notion o their personal master$ and oer crucial inormation a)out the

organi>ation to ena)le participants to see the contri)ution o their work in relation to the organi>ation?s o+erall

perormance.

uch a comprehensi+e skill and moti+ational training program might ha+e implications that go )eond

ostering empowerment in organi>ations. In act$ a training such as the one eKamined in this stud which was

)ased on the work o eter enge5 might help turning companies into learning organi>ations in which Hpeople

continuall eKpand their capacit to create the results the trul desire$ where new and eKpansi+e patterns o

thinking are nurtured$ where collecti+e aspiration is set ree$ and where people are continuall learning to see thewhole together enge$ 1;;0$ p. 35.


18/20

Dinall$ the empirical results impl that it might not )e compulsor to train all emploees in order to aect

the empowerment perception o the entire workorce within an organi>ation. ,n eect might occur alread

when the trained emploees return to their work units and show new attitudes toward their work$ there)

aecting other$ non-trained emploees with whom the work. 2hus$ the proposed empowerment training oers

human resource management an instrument to enhance work units? empowerment in a relati+el short time.

uch training program is relati+el eas to implement and can )e handled in a timel and cost-eecti+e manner$i needed.

*eerences ,rthur$ !.$ @ennett$ !.$ Edens$ and @ell$ 2 0035$ HEecti+eness o training in organi>ations: a meta-analsis

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perormance: test o a multile+el model o intermediate linkages$ !ournal o ,pplied scholog$ &ol. ;7 6o. $ pp. 7-

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Academ& !' +ana%ement J!urnal, !l 36 7! 2, pp 8350

preit>er$ 9"$ %i>ilos$ ", and 6ason$ C 1;;75$ H, dimensional analsis o the relationship )etween pschologicalempowerment and eecti+eness$ satisaction$ and strain$ !ournal o "anagement$ &ol. 3 6o. $ pp. #7;-704. 2harenou$ .$

aks$ ," and "oore$ =. 0075$ H, re+iew and critiFue o research on training and organi>ational-le+el outcomes$ uman

*esource "anagement *e+iew$ &ol. 17 6o. 3$ pp. 1-73. 2homas$ %C and &elthouse$ @, 1;;05$ H=ogniti+e elements o

empowerment: an ?interpreti+e? model o intrinsic task moti+ation$ ,cadem o "anagement *e+iew$ &ol. 1 6o. 4$ pp.

###-#1. Calter$ D. and @ruch$ . 005$ H2he positi+e group aect spiral: a dnamic model o the emergence o positi+e

aecti+e similarit in work groups$ !ournal o (rgani>ational @eha+ior$ &ol. ; 6o. $ pp. 3;-#1.

,)out the authors 'r =hristian &oegtlin holds a h' in @usiness ,dministration rom the Ani+ersit o Turich. e works as

a enior *esearcher and Becturer or the Institute o @usiness ,dministration I@C5. e has recentl pu)lished his h'

thesis on responsi)le leadership. is main research interests are in responsi)le and ethical leadership$ )usiness ethics and

corporate social responsi)ilit$ and human resource management. 'r =hristian &oegtlin is the corresponding author and can

)e contacted at: christian.+oegtlinUu>h.ch


20/20

tephan ,. @oehm is an ,ssistant roessor and 'irector o the =enter or 'isa)ilit and Integration ='I-95 at the

Ani+ersit o t. 9allen wit>erland5. e recei+ed a h' 005 rom the Ani+ersit o t. 9allen. In 00 and in the

spring o 00;$ he ser+ed as a &isiting *esearch Dellow at the (Kord Institute o ,geing at the Ani+ersit o (Kord$ 9reat

@ritain. is research interests include di+ersit management$ with a ocus on the integration o emploees with disa)ilities

and the management o demographic change as well as group-le+el and organi>ational-le+el processes o categori>ation$

stereotping$ and discrimination.

roessor eike @ruch has )een the 'irector o the Institute or Beadership and uman *esources "anagement o the

Ani+ersit o t. 9allen wit>erland5 since 001. @etween 1;;; and 001$ eike ser+ed at the Bondon @usiness chool

A%5 as a &isiting cholar and later as a enior *esearch Dellow. he recei+ed her ha)ilitation rom Ani+ersit o t. 9allen

0015 and her doctorate rom the Ani+ersit o ano+er 1;;#5. eike?s research interests include managers? emotion$

+olition and action as well as leadership in change processes and organisational energ.

Dor instructions on how to order reprints o this article$ please +isit our we)site:

www.emeraldgrouppu)lishing.com/licensing/reprints.htm (r contact us or urther details: permissionsUemeraldinsight.com


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