hongos- fungi
TRANSCRIPT
7/27/2019 Hongos- Fungi
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Cufgk >
Cufgk
@dfgds
Hf shftkbd `drnrkd: Nenfktn eusanrkn, uf onskbkdekahtd9 Qnradsayp`n adaakfhn, uf nsadekahtd9 pnf auokhrtd bh ed`d9 uf
quktrkbkd9 uf Nsphrgkmmus adfkbk₭cdrd.
Amnskckanak₭f akhft•ckan
Bdekfkd: Huanrkdtn
_hkfd: Cufgk
M., >781
Bkvkskdfhs
•• A ytrkbkdeyadtn
•• Zygdeyadtn
•• Gmdehrdeyadtn
•• Ekardspdrkbkn
•• Nsadeyadtn
•• Onskbkdeyadtn
•• Omnstdamnbkdeyadtn
•• Fhdanmmkenstkgdeyadtn
•• Eyxdeyadtn
Hf okdmdg‚n, hm tƟrekfd Cufgk (mnt‚f, mkthrnmehfth "`dfgds" ) bhskgfn n uf grupd bh drgnfkseds huanrkdtns hftrh mds
quh sh hfauhftrnf mds ed`ds, mns mhvnburns y mns shtns. Qh amnskckanf hf uf rhkfd bkstkftd nm bh mns pmnftns, nfkenmhs y
prdtkstns. Hstn bkchrhfaknak₭f sh bhoh, hftrh dtrns adsns, n quh pdshhf pnrhbhs ahmumnrhs adepuhstns pdr quktkfn, n
bkchrhfakn bh mns pmnftns, quh adftkhfhf ahmumdsn. Qh `n bhsauokhrtd quh drgnfkseds quh pnrha‚nf `dfgds hf rhnmkbnb
fd md hrnf, y quh drgnfkseds quh fd md pnrha‚nf hf rhnmkbnb s‚ md hrnf, sk mmneneds "`dfgd" n tdbds mds drgnfkseds
bhrkvnbds bhm quh nfahstrnmehfth nbqukrk₭ mn anpnakbnb bh cdrenr ufn pnrhb ahmumnr bh quktkfn. Bhokbd n hmmd, sk okhf
hsth tnx₭f hst‖ okhf bhmkektnbd bhsbh hm puftd bh vkstn hvdmutkvd, n…f sh hst‖f hstubknfbd mns rhmnakdfhs ckmdghfƟtkansbh mds grupds ehfds adfdakbds, y su mkstn bh suotnxdfhs aneok₭ eua`d adf hm tkhepd hf md quh rhsphatn n grupds
euy bhrkvnbds d euy onsnmhs.
Mds `dfgds sh hfauhftrnf hf `‖oktnts euy bkvhrsds: puhbhf shr pkr₭ckmds ( \`dmkdtn anrodfnrkn) d adpr₭ckmds
( \skmdayoh adprdp`kmn). Qhg…f su hadmdg‚n, sh puhbhf amnskckanr hf auntrd grupds: snprdcktds, mkquhfkznbds,
ekadrrkz₭ghfds y pnr‖sktds. Mds `dfgds snprdcktds puhbhf shr sustrntd hspha‚ckads: Enrnsekus ouxk d fd hspha‚ckads:
Eyahfn purn. Mds skeokdfths puhbhf shr: `dfgds mkquhfkznbds Onskbkdmka`hfhs: Dep`nmkfn hr kahtdrue y
nsadmka`hfhs: Amnbdfkn adaakchrn y `dfgds ekadrr‚zkads: hspha‚ckads: Mnatnrkus tdrekfdsus (sdmd ekadrrkzn adf
nohbumhs) y fd hspha‚ckads: @hohmden ehsdp`nhue. Hf mn enydr‚n bh mds ansds, sus rhprhshftnfths sdf pdad
adfspkauds bhokbd n su bkekfutd tnen†d9 suhmhf vkvkr hf suhmds y juftds n enthrknmhs hf bhsadepdskak₭f y aded
skeokdfths bh pmnftns, nfkenmhs u dtrds `dfgds. Aunfbd cruatkckanf, fd dostnfth, prdbuahf hspdrdanrpds mmnentkvds
(mns shtns sdf uf hjhepmd bh hmmd). _hnmkznf ufn bkghstk₭f hxthrfn bh sus nmkehftds, sharhtnfbd hfzkens, y quh
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Cufgk ?
nosdrohf muhgd mns edmƟaumns bksuhmtns rhsumtnfths bh mn bkghstk₭f. N hstn cdren bh nmkehftnak₭f sh mh mmnen
dsedtrdckn, mn aunm hs skekmnr n mn quh sh bn hf mns pmnftns, phrd, n bkchrhfakn bh nquƟmmns, mds futrkhfths quh tdenf
sdf drg‖fkads. Mds `dfgds sdf mds bhsadepdfhbdrhs prkenrkds bh mn enthrkn euhrtn bh pmnftns y bh nfkenmhs hf
eua`ds hadsksthens, y aded tnmhs pdshhf uf pnphm hadm₭gkad euy rhmhvnfth hf mds akamds okdghdqu‚ekads.
Mds `dfgds tkhfhf ufn grnf kepdrtnfakn hadf₭ekan: mns mhvnburns sdf mns rhspdfsnomhs bh mn chrehftnak₭f bh mn
ahrvhzn y hm pnf, y sh bn mn rhadmhaak₭f y hm aumtkvd bh shtns aded mns trucns. Bhsbh >;2< sh `nf hepmhnbd pnrnprdbuakr kfbustrknmehfth nftkok₭tkads, ns‚ aded hfzkens (hsphaknmehfth prdthnsns). Nmgufns hsphakhs sdf nghfths bh
okdadftrdm bh pmngns. Dtrns prdbuahf ekadtdxkfns, adepuhstds okdnatkvds (aded mds nmanmdkbhs) quh sdf t₭xkads pnrn
`uenfds y dtrds nfkenmhs. Mns hfchrehbnbhs c…fgkans nchatnf n `uenfds, dtrds nfkenmhs y pmnftns9 hf hstns …mtkens,
nchatn n mn shgurkbnb nmkehftnrkn y nm rhfbkekhftd bh mds aumtkvds.
Mds `dfgds sh prhshftnf onjd bds cdrens prkfakpnmhs: `dfgds ckmnehftdsds (nftkgunehfth mmnenbds "ed`ds") y
`dfgds mhvnburkcdrehs. Hm auhrpd bh uf `dfgd ckmnehftdsd tkhfh bds pdrakdfhs, ufn rhprdbuatkvn y dtrn vhghtntkvn.Y>U
Mn pnrth vhghtntkvn, quh hs `npmdkbh y ghfhrnmehfth fd prhshftn admdrnak₭f, hst‖ adepuhstn pdr ckmnehftds mmnenbds
`kcns (usunmehfth ekardsa₭pkans)9 uf adfjuftd bh `kcns adfcdren hm ekahmkdY?U (usunmehfth vkskomh). N ehfubd mns
`kcns hst‖f bkvkbkbns pdr tnokquhs mmnenbds shptds.
Mds `dfgds mhvnburkcdrehs ₭d skepmhehfth mhvnburns ₭ sdf skheprh ufkahmumnrhs, bh cdren ansk hscƟrkan. Fd
hxksthf hf hmmds ufn bkstkfak₭f hftrh auhrpd vhghtntkvd y rhprdbuatkvd.
Bhftrd bhm hsquhen bh mds akfad rhkfds bh Wkttnihr y Enrgumks, mds `dfgds phrthfhahf hf pnrth nm rhkfd prdtkstn (mds
`dfgds nehodkbhs y mds `dfgds adf zddspdrns) y nm rhkfd Cufgk (hm rhstd). Hf hm hsquhen bh da`d rhkfds bh
Anvnmkhr-Qekt` phrthfhahf hf pnrth nm rhkfd \rdtdzdn (mds `dfgds nehodkbhs), nm rhkfd A`rdekstn (mds \shubdcufgk)
y nm rhkfd Cufgk tdbds mds bhe‖s.. Mn bkvhrskbnb bh tnxn hfgmdonbn hf hm grupd hst‖ pdad hstubknbn9 sh hstken quh
hxksthf ufns >,8 ekmmdfhs bh hsphakhs, bh mns aunmhs nphfns hm 8% `nf skbd amnskckanbns. Burnfth mds skgmds PSKKK y
PKS, Mkffhd, A`rkstknf @hfbrki \hrsddf, y Hmkns Engfus Crkhs amnskckanrdf n mds `dfgds bh nauhrbd n su edrcdmdg‚n
d ckskdmdg‚n. Natunmehfth, mns tƟafkans bh Okdmdg‚n Edmhaumnr `nf phrektkbd hm hstnomhakekhftd bh ufn tnxdfde‚n
edmhaumnr onsnbn hf shauhfakns bh ‖akbd bhsdxkrrkodfuamhkad (NBF), quh bkvkbh nm grupd hf skhth ckmds.
Mn hsphaknmkbnb bh mn ehbkakfn y bh mn odt‖fkan quh sh daupn bh mds `dfgds sh mmnen ekadmdg‚n, bdfbh sh hepmhn hm
suckjd -eyadtn pnrn mns bkvkskdfhs y -eyahths pnrn mns amnshs.
Htkedmdg•n
Hm tƟrekfd ‡Cufgk˃ prdahbh bhm mnt‚f cufgus, `dfgd, y hrn yn hepmhnbd pdr hm pdhtn @drnakd y hm fnturnmkstn \mkfkd hm
Skhjd. Hm tƟrekfd hf kfgmƟs quh bhskgfn nm grupd, cufgus, prdahbh bhm mnt‚f. Hf aneokd, hf dtrds kbkdens mn rn‚z hs hm
vdanomd bh grkhgd nftkgud ‼Ŭ※şş※ (hspdfjn), quh `nah rhchrhfakn n mns hstruaturns enardsa₭pkans bh ed`ds y shtns9
bh Ɵstn `nf bhrkvnbd mds tƟrekfds nmhenfhs Qa`wnee (hspdfjn), Qa`keehm (ed`d), hm crnfaƟs a`nepkgfdf y hm
hspn†dm ‡a`nepk†₭f˃. Mn bksakpmkfn quh hstubkn mds `dfgds, mn Ekadmdg‚n, bhrkvn bhm grkhgd eyihs /ŵ‐ (`dfgd) y
mdgds /‛”ş※ (bksaursd)9 sh arhh quh cuh arhnbn pdr hm fnturnmkstn kfgmƟs Ekmhs Jdshp` Ohrihmhy hf su puomkanak₭f bh
>013 R`h Hfgmks` Cmdrn dc Qkr Jnehs Hbwnrb Qekt`, Sdm. 8..
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Cufgk 1
Anrnathr•stkans
Skstn bh uf `dfgd Adfkdp`nrn tneokƟf adfdakbd
aded "`dfgd drhjn" pubrkhfbd uf trdfad bh
enbhrn.
Nfths bhm bhsnrrdmmd bh mds nf‖mksks edmhaumnrhs bh N_F y su
npmkanak₭f hf mn bkmuakbnak₭f bh mn ckmdghfkn bhm grupd, mds tnx₭fdeds
amnskckanonf n mds `dfgds hf hm grupd bh mns pmnftns bhokbd n mn
shehjnfzn hftrh sus cdrens bh vkbn (cufbnehftnmehfth, mn nushfakn bh
mdadedak₭f y ufn edrcdmdg‚n y hadmdg‚n skekmnrhs). Aded hmmns, mds
`dfgds arhahf hf hm suhmd y, hf hm ansd bh mns shtns, cdrenf auhrpds
cruat‚chrds quh hf nmgufds ansds gunrbnf pnrhakbd adf hjhepmnrhs bh
pmnftns, aded mds eusgds. Fd dostnfth, mds hstubkds ckmdghfƟtkads
kfbkanrdf quh cdrenf pnrth bh uf rhkfd shpnrnbd bhm bh mds nfkenmhs y
pmnftns, bh mds aunmhs sh shpnr₭ `nah nprdxkenbnehfth ekm ekmmdfhs bh
n†ds.
Nmgufns bh mns anrnathr‚stkans edrcdm₭gkans, okdqu‚ekans y ghfƟtkans bh
mds `dfgds sdf adeufhs n dtrds drgnfkseds9 fd dostnfth, dtrns sdf
bkchrhfths, md quh phrekth su shpnrnak₭f bh dtrds drgnfkseds vkvds.Nsphatds adeufhs
Aded dtrds huanrkdtns, mds `dfgds pdshhf aƟmumns bhmkektnbns pdr ufn
eheornfn pmnse‖tkan rkan hf hsthrdmhs y quh adftkhfhf uf f…amhd quh
nmohrgn hm enthrknm ghfƟtkad hf cdren bh ardedsdens. Hsth enthrknm
ghfƟtkad adftkhfh ghfhs y dtrds hmhehftds adbkckanfths ns‚ aded
hmhehftds fd adbkckanfths, aded mds kftrdfhs. \dshhf drg‖fumds
ahmumnrhs, aded mns ektdadfbrkns y mds rkodsdens bh tkpd 0<Q. Y1U Aded adepuhstds bh rhshrvn y gm…akbds sdmuomhs
pdshhf pdmknmad`dmhs (p.h. hm enfktdm), bksna‖rkbds (aded mn trh`nmdsn) y pdmksna‖rkbds (aded hm gmua₭ghfd, quh,
nbhe‖s, sh hfauhftrn prhshfth hf nfkenmhs).Y2U
Nm kgunm quh mds nfkenmhs, mds `dfgds anrhahf bh amdrdpmnstds. Hstd sh bhoh n su anr‖athr `hthrdtr₭ckad, quh hxkgh quh
dothfgnf aded cuhfth bh anrodfd, hfhrg‚n y pdbhr rhbuatdr adepuhstds drg‖fkads.
N shehjnfzn bh mns pmnftns, mds `dfgds pdshhf pnrhb ahmumnr y vnaudmns. Qh rhprdbuahf bh cdren shxunm y nshxunm, y,
aded mds `hmha`ds y eusgds, prdbuahf hspdrns. Bhokbd n su akamd vktnm, pdshhf f…amhds `npmdkbhs `noktunmehfth, nm
kgunm quh mds eusgds y mns nmgns.Y8U
Mds `dfgds gunrbnf pnrhakbd adf hugmhfdkbhs y onathrkns. Rdbds hmmds prdbuahf hm nekfd‖akbd M-mkskfn ehbknfth mn
v‚n bh okds‚fthsks bhm ‖akbd nmcn-nekfdnb‚pkad.
Mns aƟmumns bh mds `dfgds suhmhf pdshhr uf nsphatd ckmnehftdsd, skhfbd tuoumnrhs y nmnrgnbns. Hf su kfthrkdr, hs
ade…f quh sh hfauhftrhf vnrkds f…amhds9 hf sus hxtrheds, zdfns bh arhakekhftd, sh bn ufn ngrhgnak₭f bh vhs‚aumns
quh adftkhfhf prdth‚fns, m‚pkbds y edmƟaumns drg‖fkans mmnenbns Qpktzhfi―rphr. @dfgds y ddekahtds pdshhf uf tkpd
bh arhakekhftd onsnbd hf `kcns.Y3U Hsth `ha`d hs bkstkftkvd pdrquh dtrds drgnfkseds ckmnehftdsds, mns nmgns vhrbhs,
cdrenf anbhfns bh aƟmumns ufkfuamhnbns ehbknfth prdahsds bh bkvksk₭f ahmumnr adftkfunbds.
Nm kgunm quh dtrns hsphakhs bh onathrkns, nfkenmhs y pmnftns, e‖s bh shshftn hsphakhs bh `dfgds sdf okdmuekfksahfths
(hs bhakr, quh prdbuahf muz).
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Cufgk 2
Dep`nmdtus fkbkcdreks, uf `dfgd
okdmuekfksahfth.
Anrnathr‚stkans bkchrhfaknmhs
• Mns mhvnburns, uf grupd bh `dfgds, prhshftnf nm ehfds ufn cnsh bh
su akamd vktnm hf cdren ufkahmumnr9 burnfth Ɵstn, sh rhprdbuahf pdr
ghenak₭f d okpnrtkak₭f. Qh bhfdekfnf `dfgds bke₭rckads n mns
hsphakhs quh nmthrfnf ufn cnsh ufkahmumnr (bh mhvnburn) adf dtrn
ekahmknr (adf `kcns)• Mn pnrhb ahmumnr bh mds `dfgds sh adepdfh bh gmuanfds y quktkfn9
mds prkehrds sh prhshftnf tneokƟf hf pmnftns, y mds shgufbds, hf hm
hxdhsquhmhtd bh nrtr₭pdbds9 hstn adeokfnak₭f hs …fkan. Nbhe‖s, y n
bkchrhfakn bh mns pmnftns y ddekahtds, mns pnrhbhs ahmumnrhs bh mds
`dfgds anrhahf bh ahmumdsn.
• Mn enydr‚n bh mds dfgds anrhahf bh uf sksthen hckakhfth bh
trnfspdrth n bkstnfakn bh sustnfakns (hstruaturns quh hf pmnftns
adfcdrenf hm xkmhen y cmdhen). Nmgufns hsphakhs, aded Nrekmmnrkn, bhsnrrdmmnf rkzdedrcds, hstruaturns quh
gunrbnf ufn rhmnak₭f cufakdfnm adf mns rn‚ahs bh mns pmnftns.
• Hf aunftd n rutns ehtno₭mkans, mds dfgds pdshhf nmgufns v‚ns okdskftƟtkans adeufhs n mns pmnftns, aded mn rutn
bh s‚fthsks bh thrphfds n trnvƟs bhm ‖akbd ehvnm₭fkad y hm pkrdcdscntd. Fd dostnfth, mns pmnftns pdshhf ufn shgufbn
v‚n ehtno₭mkan pnrn mn prdbuaak₭f bh hstds ksdprhfdkbhs quh fd sh prhshftn hf mds `dfgds. Mds ehtnodmktds
shaufbnrkds bh mds `dfgds sdf kbƟftkads d euy shehjnfths n mds vhghtnmhs. Mn shauhfakn bh nekfd‖akbds bh mds
pƟptkbds quh adfcdrenf mns hfzkens kfvdmuarnbns hf hstns rutns okdskftƟtkans bkckhrhf fd dostnfth bh mns bh mns
pmnftns, sugkrkhfbd uf drkghf y hvdmuak₭f bkstkftds.
• Anrhahf bh cnshs e₭vkmhs, tnmhs aded cdrens cmnghmnbns, adf mn hxahpak₭f bh mds gnehtds ensaumkfds y mns
hspdrns bh nmgufns cdrens ckmdghfƟtkanehfth •prkektkvns‚ (mds A`ytrkbkdeyadtn).
• Fd pdshhf pmnsedbhseds.
\nrths bh uf dfgd: (>) @kcn, (?) Adfkbk₭cdrd, (1)
Ck‖mkbh, (2) Adfkbkn, y (8) Qhptds.
Edrcdmdg•n
Hstruaturns ekardsa₭pkans
Mn enydr‚n bh mds `dfgds arhahf aded `kcns, hstruaturns akm‚fbrkans y
ckmkcdrehs bh ? n >< ekar₭ehtrds bh bk‖ehtrd y `nstn vnrkds
ahft‚ehtrds bh mdfgktub. Mns `kcns arhahf hf sus ‖pkahs9 mns `kcns
fuhvns sh cdrenf t‚pkanehfth pdr mn npnrkak₭f bh fuhvds ‖pkahs n md
mnrgd bh `kcns prhhxksthfths pdr uf prdahsd mmnenbd bh rnekckanak₭f, d
₭
hf danskdfhs ₭
hm hxtrhed npkanm bh mns `kcns sh okcuran, bnfbd mugnrn bds `kcns adf arhakekhftd pnrnmhmd.
Bkvhrskbnb
Mds `dfgds pdshhf ufn bkstrkouak₭f adsedpdmktn y pdshhf uf nepmkd rnfgd bh `‖oktnts, quh kfamuyhf neokhfths
hxtrheds aded mds bhskhrtds, ‖rhns bh hxtrhenbn snmkfkbnb. hxpuhstns n rnbknak₭f kdfkznfth, d hf mds shbkehftds bh
mds cdfbds enrkfds. Nmgufds m‚quhfhs sdf rhsksthfths n mn rnbknak₭f XS y a₭sekan prhshfth hf mds vknjhs hspnaknmhs.
Mn enydr‚n sdf thrrhstrhs, nufquh nmgufds, aded Ontrna`da`ytrkue bhfbrdontkbks sdf hstrkatnehfth nau‖tkads. Hsth
qu‚trkbd hs rhspdfsnomh bhm bhamkvh hf mns pdomnakdfhs bh nfckokds9 ufn bh sus cnshs vktnmhs, mn zd₭spdrn, mh phrekth
bksphrsnrsh hf hm ngun y naahbhr n mds nfckokds, n mds quh pnrnsktn. Hxksthf hsphakhs nau‖tkans prdpkns bh mns ‖rhns`kbrdthrenmhs bhm daƟnfd.
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Cufgk 8
Qh `nf bhsarktd ufns ><<,<<< hsphakhs bh `dfgds,Y7U
nufquh mn bkvhrskbnb gmdonm fd `n skbd tdtnmehfth antnmdgnbn pdr
mds tnx₭fdeds. Hepmhnfbd aded `hrrnekhftn bh nf‖mksks hm rntkd hftrh hm f…ehrd bh hsphakhs bh `dfgds rhsphatd nm
bh pmnftns hf `‖oktnts shmhaakdfnbds, sh `n rhnmkznbd ufn hstken bh ufn bkvhrskbnb tdtnm bh >,8 ekmmdfhs bh hsphakhs.
Mn Ekadmdg‚n `n hepmhnbd bkvhrsns anrnathr‚stkans pnrn adfckgurnr hm adfahptd bh hsphakh. Mn amnskckanak₭f
edrcdm₭gkan, onsnbn hf nsphatds aded hm tnen†d y cdren bh mns hstruaturns bh cruatkckanak₭f y mns hspdrns, `n skbd
prhbdekfnfth hf mn tnxdfde‚n trnbkakdfnm.Y0U
RneokƟf sh `nf hepmhnbd anrnathrhs okdqu‚ekads y ckskdm₭gkads, aded
mn rhnaak₭f nfth bhthrekfnbds ehtnodmktds. Qh `n hepmhnbd mn adepntkokmkbnb pnrn mn rhprdbuaak₭f shxunm ehbknfth
ksdgnekn. Mds eƟtdbds bh tnxdfde‚n edmhaumnr, aded hm usd bh enranbdrhs edmhaumnrhs y mds nf‖mksks ckmdghfƟtkads
`nf phrektkbd nuehftnr mn bksarkekfnak₭f hftrh vnrknfths ghfƟtkans9 hstd `n nuehftnbd mn rhsdmuak₭f n mn `drn bh
shpnrnr hsphakhs.
_hprdbuaak₭f
Mds `dfgds sh rhprdbuahf sdorh tdbd pdr ehbkd bh hspdrns, mns aunmhs sh bksphrsnf hf uf hstnbd mnthfth, quh sh
kfthrrueph s₭md aunfbd sh `nmmnf adfbkakdfhs cnvdrnomhs pnrn su ghrekfnak₭f. Aunfbd hstns adfbkakdfhs sh bnf, mn
hspdrn ghrekfn, surgkhfbd bh hmmn ufn prkehrn `kcn, pdr auyn hxthfsk₭f y rnekckanak₭f sh vn adfstktuyhfbd uf
ekahmkd. Mn vhmdakbnb bh arhakekhftd bh mns `kcns bh uf `dfgd hs vhrbnbhrnehfth hsphatnaumnr: hf uf `dfgd trdpkanm
mmhgn `nstn mds 8 ee pdr ekfutd. Qh puhbh bhakr, skf hxnghrnr, quh nmgufds `dfgds sh puhbhf vhr arhahr onjd mds
prdpkds djds.
Mns hspdrns bh mds `dfgds sh prdbuahf hf hspdrnfgkds, yn shn nshxunmehfth d aded rhsumtnbd bh uf prdahsd bh
rhprdbuaak₭f shxunm. Hf hsth …mtked ansd mn prdbuaak₭f bh hspdrns hs prhahbkbn pdr mn ehkdsks bh mns aƟmumns, bh mn
aunm sh drkgkfnf mns hspdrns eksens. Mns hspdrns prdbuakbns n adftkfunak₭f bh mn ehkdsks sh bhfdekfnf ehkdspdrns.
Aded mn eksen hsphakh bhm `dfgd hs anpnz bh rhprdbuakrsh tnftd nshxunm aded shxunmehfth, mns ehkdspdrns tkhfhf
ufn anpnakbnb bh rhsksthfakn quh mhs phrekth sdorhvkvkr hf mns adfbkakdfhs e‖s nbvhrsns, ekhftrns quh mns hspdrns
prdbuakbns nshxunmehfth auepmhf sdorh tdbd adf hm dojhtkvd bh prdpngnr hm `dfgd adf mn e‖xken rnpkbhz y
hxthfsk₭f pdskomh.
Hm ekahmkd vhghtntkvd bh mds `dfgds, d shn hm quh fd auepmh adf mns cufakdfhs rhprdbuatkvns, tkhfh uf nsphatd euy
skepmh, pdrquh fd hs e‖s quh uf adfjuftd bh `kcns bkspuhstns skf drbhf. Mn cnftns‚n arhntkvn bh mds `dfgds sh
enfkckhstn s₭md hf mn adfstruaak₭f bh auhrpds cruat‚chrds, mds aunmhs, aded kfbkan hm fdeorh, skrvhf pnrn pdrtnr mds
hspdrnfgkds quh prdbuahf mns hspdrns.
Drbhf bh anrnathrhs pnrn mn kbhftkckanak₭f hf `dfgds
•• Nsphatd enardsa₭pkad bh mn admdfkn
•• Rkpd bh kcn
• Admdanak₭f bhm d mds hspdr₭cdrds
• \rhshfakn bh hsthrkgentns d adfkbk₭cdrd) y hm drbhf quh prhshftnf
•• Cdren tnen†d y bkstrkouak₭f bh mns hspdrns
• \rhshfakn d fd bh rkzdkbhs. Q₭md sh prhshftnf hf `dfgds bh `kcn fd shptnbn. \dr hjhepmd: _k`kzdpus, _`kzdeuadr ,
Noskbkn
•• \rnatkanr pruhons bh kbhftkckanak₭f okdqu‚ekan.
N mds `dfgds sh mhs trntn bhsbh mn nftkg‑hbnb aded vhghtnmhs, pdr mn kfedvkmkbnb y mn prhshfakn bh pnrhb ahmumnr, n
phsnr bh quh sdf `hthr₭trdcds. Hstd skgfkckan quh sdf kfanpnahs bh ckjnr anrodfd n trnvƟs bh mn cdtds‚fthsks, phrd usnf
hm anrodfd ckjnbd pdr dtrds drgnfkseds pnrn su ehtnodmksed. Natunmehfth sh snoh quh mds `dfgds sdf e‖s ahranfds
nm rhkfd nfkenm (Nfkenmkn) quh nm rhkfd vhghtnm (\mnftnh), y sh skt…nf juftd adf mds prkehrds hf uf tnx₭f
edfdckmƟtkad, bhftrd bhm grupd bh mds dpkstdadftds.
7/27/2019 Hongos- Fungi
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/hongos-fungi 6/12
Cufgk 3
Burnfth mn enydr pnrth bh mn hrn pnmhdzdkan, mds `dfgds nm pnrhahr cuhrdf nau‖tkads. Hm prkehr `dfgd thrrhstrh
npnrhak₭, prdonomhehfth, hf hm phr‚dbd skm…rkad, justd bhspuƟs bh mn npnrkak₭f bh mns prkehrns pmnftns thrrhstrhs,
nufquh sus c₭skmhs sdf crngehftnrkds. Mds `dfgds bh enydr nmturn quh sh adfdahf sh bhsnrrdmmnrdf `nah 18< ekmmdfhs
bh n†ds, hs bhakr, hf hm phr‚dbd bhv₭fkad y adrrhspdfb‚nf n mds mmnenbds prdtnxkths, quh nmanfznonf mds 3 e bh nmturn.
^ukz‖s mn npnrkak₭f, pdad tkhepd bhspuƟs, bh mds prkehrds ‖rodmhs prdvda₭ pdr adephthfakn hvdmutkvn mn
bhsnpnrkak₭f bh mds `dfgds nmtds.
N bkchrhfakn bh mds nfkenmhs, quh kfgkhrhf hm nmkehftd, mds `dfgds md nosdrohf, y sus aƟmumns tkhfhf pnrhb ahmumnr.
Bhokbd n hstns rnzdfhs, hstds drgnfkseds hst‖f sktunbds hf su prdpkd rhkfd okdm₭gkad, mmnenbd Cufgk.
Mds `dfgds cdrenf uf grupd edfdckmƟtkad, md quh skgfkckan quh tdbns mns vnrkhbnbhs bh `dfgds prdvkhfhf bh uf
nfahstrd ade…f. Hm drkghf edfdckmƟtkad bh mds `dfgds sh `n adfckrenbd ehbknfth e…mtkpmhs hxphrkehftds bh
ckmdghfƟtkan edmhaumnr9 mds rnsgds nfahstrnmhs quh adepnrthf kfamuyhf mn pnrhb ahmumnr quktkfdsn y mn `hthrdtrdckn pdr
nosdrak₭f, ns‚ aded dtrns anrnathr‚stkans adepnrtkbns.
Mn tnxdfde‚n bh mds `dfgds hst‖ hf uf hstnbd bh r‖pkbn edbkckanak₭f, hsphaknmehfth bhokbd n nrt‚aumds rhakhfths
onsnbds hf adepnrnakdfhs bh NBF, quh n ehfubd trnsmdanf mns nsufakdfhs bh mds nftkguds sksthens bh
amnskckanak₭f.Y;U
Fd `ny uf sksthen …fkad pmhfnehfth nahptnbd hf mds fkvhmhs tnxdf₭ekads e‖s hmhvnbds y `ny
aneokds bh fdeorhs adfstnfths hf anbn fkvhm, bhsbh hm fkvhm bh hsphakh `nakn nrrkon y, shg…f hm grupd, tneokƟf n
fkvhm bh hsphakh y fkvhmhs kfchrkdrhs. @ny sktkds hf Kfthrfht aded Kfbhx Cufgdrue, KRKQ y Wkiksphakhs quh rhgkstrnf
mds fdeorhs prhchrkbds natunmkznbds (adf rhchrhfakns aruznbns n skf₭fkeds nftkguds), phrd fd skheprh adfauhrbnf
hftrh s‚ d adf mds fdeorhs hf mn Wkikphbkn d hf anbn vnrknfth kbkde‖tkan.
\hsh nm anr‖athr edfdckmƟtkad d bh uf nfahstrd ade…f, mds `dfgds prhshftnf ufn sdrprhfbhfth vnrknokmkbnb
edrcdm₭gkan, bnbn fd s₭md pdr hm nsphatd skfd pdr mns bkehfskdfhs y anrnathr‚stkans. Ns‚, sdf `dfgds mds prdtnxkths bh
3 e bh nmturn, tneokƟf md sdf mds ed`ds y mhvnburns, mns shtns (fdeorh quh sh bn adf prhaksk₭f n mds `dfgds
enardsa₭pkads adehstkomhs quh arhahf sdorh hm suhmd), mns suothrr‖fhns trucns d mds ansk ekardsa₭pkads, aded hm dkbkd
d mds bh mn tk†n u dtrns ekadsks (ptkrknsks), mn rdyn, htaƟthrn.
Mn nsdaknak₭f skeok₭tkan bh `dfgds adf nmgns bn mugnr n mds m‚quhfhs.
Amnskckanak₭f am‚skan bh mds `dfgds
Cmneeumkfn vhmutkphs.
•• @dfgds nehodkbhs d euakmngkfdsds
• Ekxdekadths (bkvksk₭f Eyxdeyadtn)
• \mnsedbkdcdrdekadths (bkvksk₭f \mnsedbkdp`drdeyadtn)
•• @dfgds mksdtr₭ckads d nosdrodtr₭ckads:
• \shubd`dfgds u ddekadths (bkvksk₭f Ddeyadtn)
• ^uktrkbkds (bkvksk₭f A`ytrkbkdeyadtn)
• @dfgds vhrbnbhrds d huekadths (bkvksk₭f Hueyadtn):• Zkgdekahths (amnsh Zygdeyahths)
• Nsadekahths (amnsh Nsadeyahths)
• Onskbkdekahths (amnsh Onskbkdeyahths)
• @dfgds kephrchatds (amnsh Bhuthrdeyahths)Y><U
Mds grupds bh mn hfuehrnak₭f nfthrkdr `nstn Ddeyadtn (kfamukbd) fd
sdf vhrbnbhrds `dfgds, skfd prdtkstns adf bkstkftds pnrhfthsads auyns
nbnptnakdfhs `kakhrdf adfcufbkrmds adf `dfgds.
7/27/2019 Hongos- Fungi
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/hongos-fungi 7/12
Cufgk 7
Amnskckanak₭f natunm bhm rhkfd bh mds `dfgds
• ^uktrkbkdekahths (bkvksk₭f A`ytrkbkdeyadtn).
• Zkgdekahtds (bkvksk₭f Zygdeyadtn).
• Gmdehrdekahths (bkvksk₭f Gmdehrdeyadtn).
• Onskbkdekahths (bkvksk₭f Onskbkdeyadtn).
• Nsadekahths (bkvksk₭f Nsadeyadtn).
Amnskckanak₭f pdr N_F _kodsdenm
•• Nehodzdn
•• Hueyahtdzdn
•• Ekxdgnstrkn
•• Bkatydsthmkn
•• Dpkst didftn
•• Fuamhteyahn
•• Fuamhnrkn
•• Cdrt‚aumn
•• _dzhmmn d Aryptdeyadtn
•• Cufgk
•• QN_
•• Qtrnehfdpkmhs
•• @yp`da`ytrknmhs
•• \hrdfdspdrdeyahths d Ddeyahths
•• _`yznrkn
•• Ahradzdn
•• \`ytdeyxhn
Xsd
@dfgds drfnehftnmhs
\dr mn ohmmhzn quh gunrbnf mds `dfgds, eua`ds sh `nf usnbd adf uf ckf hstƟtkad y drfnehftnm, kfamuyƟfbdshmds hf
dcrhfbns quh, nadepn†nbds adf cmdrhs y rnens, sdf dcrhakbns hf bkvhrsns ahrhedfkns. Hf mn natunmkbnb tdbnv‚n hs
c‖akm hfadftrnr hstn adstueorh hf nmgufds grupds Ɵtfkads bh EƟxkad, aded sdf mn f‖`untm hf mn skhrrn bh
\uhomn-Rmnxanmn9 mds znpdthans hf Dnxnan y mds tzdtzkmhs y tdjnmnonmh hf A`knpns. Mds `dfgds quh bhstnanf hftrh mdse‖s hepmhnbds adf hsth ckf sdf mds `dfgds pskmdakokds y mn Nenfktn eusanrkn9 hstn …mtken sh `n adfvhrtkbd hf hm
hsthrhdtkpd bh shtn pdr md nmtnehfth mmnentkvn quh hs, yn quh hst‖ adepuhstn pdr uf tnmd omnfad y ufn sdeorkmmn
(onskbkdanrpd) rdjn, edthnbn bh admdr omnfad.
7/27/2019 Hongos- Fungi
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/hongos-fungi 8/12
Cufgk 0
@dfgds nmkehftkakds
Ayttnrkn `nrkdtk, (bk`uh₭h) @dfgd pnrnsktd
vhghtnm, adehstkomh
Xstkmngd enybks, (`uktmnada`h) @dfgd
adehstkomh, pnrnsktd bhm en‚z
^ukz‖s hm prkehr hepmhd bkrhatd quh sh mhs bkd n mds `dfgds hs hm bh
nmkehftd. Eua`d sh `n bksautkbd sdorh hm vnmdr futrktkvd bh hmmds, sk
okhf hs akhrtd n mn enydr‚n sh mhs puhbh adfskbhrnr adf hmhvnbn anmkbnb
pdrquh adftkhfhf ufn ouhfn prdpdrak₭f bh prdth‚fns y vktnekfns y
hsansn anftkbnb bh anrod`kbrntds y m‚pkbds.
Bhftrd bh mds `dfgds e‖s adfsuekbds thfheds n: Odmhtus hbumks,
Mnatnrkus bhmkakdsus, _ussumn orhvkphs y Nenfktn anhsnrhn. Dtrds
`dfgds quh sh adfsuehf fdtnomhehfth sdf: Ngnrkaus anephstrks y N.
okspdrus, ade…fehfth adfdakbds aded "a`nepk†dfhs" u "`dfgds bh
\nr‚s"9 mn kepdrtnfakn bh Ɵstds sh bhoh n quh sdf bh mns pdans hsphakhs
quh puhbhf aumtkvnrsh nrtkckaknmehfth y bh enfhrn kfbustrknm.
Mds `dfgds ekardsa₭pkads tneokƟf `nf kfvhrtkbd bkrhatn d
kfbkrhatnehfth pnrn mn arhnak₭f bh cuhfths nmkehftkakns y rhprhshftnf
ufn hxphatntkvn bh npdyd pnrn hm cuturd9 hf hsth anepd anoh aktnr mdstrnonjds bh dothfak₭f bh okdensn, n pnrtkr bh mhvnburns aded Anfbkbn
utkmks, quh sh usn pnrn ehjdrnr hm nmkehftd cdrrnjhrd.
Hm arhakekhftd bh bkvhrsds `dfgds kfamukbds sdorh nmgufds nmkehftds
tneokƟf puhbhf hmhvnr hm fkvhm futrkakdfnm bh Ɵstds9 pdr hjhepmd, hf mds
hstnbds ehxkanfds bh A`knpns y Rnonsad, sh adfsueh ufn ohokbn
chrehftnbn n onsh bh en‚z edmkbd, quh sh mh adfdah pdpumnrehfth adf
hm fdeorh bh "pdzdm" d ntdmh ngrkd, `ny hstubkds rhnmkznbds quh kfbkanf
quh nm nuehftnr mds b‚ns bh chrehftnak₭f bh Ɵsth, sh kfarhehftn mn
cdren ekardokdm₭gkan, prdpdrakdfnfbd prkfakpnmehfth sdorh tdbd
nekfd‖akbds y prdth‚fns.
Kgunmehfth bhstnan `dfgds pnr‖sktds bh bkvhrsns hsphakhs vhghtnmhs mds
aunmhs tneo‚hf sdf adehstkomhs. Hftrh hmmds pdbheds ehfakdfnr nm
Xstkmngd enybks, adfdakbd hf EƟxkad aded `uktmnada`h d auktmnada`h,
ufn hsphakh bh `dfgd adehstkomh pnr‖sktd bhm en‚z9 d mn Ayttnrkn
hspkfdsnh, adfdakbd hf A`kmh aded bkg•h₭h d bk`uh₭h, uf `dfgd
adehstkomh y pnr‖sktd hstrkatd y hspha‚ckad bhm ‖rodm Fdt`dcngus.
@dfgds hfth₭ghfds (`dfgds nmuakf₭ghfds)
Mds `dfgds hfth₭ghfds (adf prdpkhbnbhs pskadtr₭pkans) adornf
pnrtkaumnr kepdrtnfakn hf EhsdneƟrkan, bhokbd n quh sh hfauhftrnf nepmknehfth bkstrkoukbds. Nm kgunm quh adf mds
kfbkvkbuds bhm gƟfhrd Amnvkahps, mds `dfgds nmuakf₭ghfds, tneokƟf mmnenbds `dfgds pskmdakokds, `nf skbd utkmkznbds
…mtkenehfth pdr mn kfbustrkn cnrenaƟutkan pnrn mn hxtrnaak₭f bh prdbuatds adf ckfhs pskadthrnpƟutkads (pskmdakokfns y
pskmdakfns) y tneokƟf nmgufns hsphakhs bhm gƟfhrd Edfhrn. Nmgufds `dfgds rhpdrtnbds aded t₭xkads sdf hf rhnmkbnb
hfth₭ghfds.
7/27/2019 Hongos- Fungi
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/hongos-fungi 9/12
Cufgk ;
@dfgds ehbkakfnmhs
Bhsbh hm bhsauorkekhftd pdr Cmhekfg bh mn phfkakmkfn aded uf ehtnodmktd bhm ehanfksed nftng₭fkad quh tkhfhf mds
`dfgds adftrn dtrds ekarddrgnfkseds, sh `n bhsnrrdmmnbd ufn grnf kfbustrkn pnrn hm bhsauorkekhftd, shpnrnak₭f y
adehraknmkznak₭f bh fuhvds nftkok₭tkads. Hftrh mds `dfgds ehbkakfnmhs e‖s kepdrtnfths bhstnanf vnrkns hsphakhs bhm
gƟfhrd \hfkakmmkue, aded hm \hfkakmmkue fdtntue y \hfkakmmkue a`rysdghfkaue, bh mds quh sh hxtrnh mn phfkakmkfn,
Gnfdbhren muakbue, Rrnehths vhrskadmdr (d Adrkdmus v.), Ngnrkaus omnzhk, Adrbyahps skfhfsks y Grkcdmn crdfbdsn,hftrh eua`ds dtrds.
@dfgds adftnekfnfths
Mds `dfgds adftnekfnfths rhsumtnf uf grnvh prdomhen pnrn hm shr `uenfd9 bhftrd bh mns shtns anoh ehfakdfnr mns
quh pnrnsktnf y pubrhf mn enbhrn, aded Adfkdp`nrn d mns ade…fehfth bhfdekfnbns "drhjns". Qkf heonrgd, hm
enydr phrjukakd sh dotkhfh bh mds `dfgds ekardsa₭pkads, sdorhsnmkhfbd mds ed`ds quh puhbhf ntnanr y bhgrnbnr tnftd
enthrknmhs aded nmkehftds. Mds `dfgds y ed`ds quh pnrnsktnf enthrknmhs bh adfstruaak₭f y nmkehftds prdbuahf
sustnfakns quh, hf akhrtns adfahftrnakdfhs, puhbhf rhsumtnr t₭xkans pnrn nfkenmhs y hm `deorh.
@dfgds vhfhfdsds
Nenfktn eusanrkn, @dfgd vhfhfdsd
Hf mn fnturnmhzn, s₭md akhrtns vnrkhbnbhs bh `dfgds sdf adehstkomhs, hm
rhstd sdf t₭xkads pdr kfghstk₭f pubkhfbd anusnr shvhrds bn†ds
eumtkskstƟekads h kfamusd mn euhrth. Mn Ekadmdg‚n tkhfh hstubkds
bhtnmmnbds sdorh hstns vnrkhbnbhs bh `dfgds. Hsphakhs aded mn Nenfktn
p`nmmdkbhs, Adrtkfnrkus drhmmnfus, Nenfktn eusanrkn, A`mdrdp`ymmue
edmyobkths, Gnmhrkfn enrgkfntn d mn Mhpkdtn `hmvhdmn bhokbd n sus
hfzkens t₭xkans pnrn hm shr `uenfd anusnf s‚ftdens aded:
tnqukanrbkns, v₭ektds y a₭mkads bdmdrdsds, subdr cr‚d, hxahsd bh shb y
an‚bns orusans bh mn prhsk₭f nrthrknm, hxarhakdfhs snfgukfdmhftns. Mnv‚atken adftrnh grnvhs mhskdfhs fhar₭tkans hf tdbds mds ₭rgnfds
hsphaknmehfth hf hm `‚gnbd y hm rk†₭f. Hstds bn†ds sdf eua`ns vhahs krrhpnrnomhs y sh rhqukhrh trnspmnfth bh ₭rgnfds
pdr md ghfhrnm.
Mn kbhftkckanak₭f bh mns bkchrhfths hsphakhs bh `dfgds vhfhfdsds rhqukhrh hm adfdakekhftd vksunm bh su edrcdmdg‚n
hspha‚ckan. Fd hxksth fkfgufn rhgmn ghfhrnm v‖mkbn pnrn su rhadfdakekhftd.
Mds `dfgds aded pnr‚sktds
Qk okhf eua`ds `dfgds sdf …tkmhs, dtrds puhbhf kfchatnr n pmnftns d nfkenmhs, phrturonfbd su hqukmkorkd kfthrfd y
hfchre‖fbdmds. Mds `dfgds pnr‖sktds anusnf grnvhs hfchrehbnbhs hf pmnftns y nfkenmhs. Xfds aunftds anusnfhfchrehbnbhs nm shr `uenfd.
• Hfchrehbnbhs vhghtnmhs: Mds `dfgds anusnf hfchrehbnbhs aded hm tkz₭f bhm en‚z, quh bhstruyh grnfds9 mds
ekmbk…s quh kfchatnf ufn grnf vnrkhbnb bh crutns tneokƟf sdf `dfgds. Mns hfchrehbnbhs eka₭tkans anusnf mn
pƟrbkbn bhm >8 pdr akhftd bh mns adsha`ns hf mns rhgkdfhs thepmnbns bhm eufbd. Hf mns rhgkdfhs trdpkanmhs, bdfbh
mn nmtn `uehbnb cnvdrhah hm arhakekhftd bh mds `dfgds, mn phrbkbn puhbh mmhgnr nm 8< pdr akhftd. Xf amnrd hjhepmd
ufn hfchrehbnb eka₭tkan adfdakbn aded mn rdyn bhm trkgd, nchatn n ufd bh mds aumtkvds e‖s kepdrtnfths hf
NeƟrkan bhm Fdrth.
Mns rdyns sh bhohf n uf tkpd bh onskbkdekahtd quh fhahsktn bds pmnftns bkstkftns pnrn adepmhtnr su akamd bh vkbn. Hm
vkhftd mmhvn n mds trkgnmhs mns hspdrns quh mn rdyn prdbuah hf hm ngrnahjd. Mns hspdrns ghrekfnf hf mds trkgnmhs,
kfchatnf mns pmnftns bh trkgd y prdbuahf dtrd tkpd bh hspdrn quh kfchatn nm trkgd, adf md quh mn hfchrehbnb sh prdpngn
r‖pkbnehfth. [n nvnfznbn mn thepdrnbn bh adsha`n, mn rdyn prdbuah uf fuhvd tkpd bh hspdrn fhgrn y rhsksthfth, mn
7/27/2019 Hongos- Fungi
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/hongos-fungi 10/12
Cufgk ><
aunm sdorhvkvh c‖akmehfth nm kfvkhrfd. Hf mn prkenvhrn, hstn hspdrn pnsn pdr ufn cnsh shxunm y rhprdbuah hspdrns quh
kfchatnf nm ngrnahjd, rhadehfznfbd fuhvnehfth hm akamd. \dr cdrtufn, ufn vhz quh mds ngr₭fdeds hfthfbkhrdf hm akamd
bh vkbn bh mn rdyn, pubkhrdf crhfnrmn bhstruyhfbd mds ngrnahjds.
• Hfchrehbnbhs `uenfns: Mds `dfgds pnr‖sktds tneokƟf kfchatnf nm shr `uenfd. Xf bhuthrdekahtd puhbh kfchatnr
hm ‖rhn bh hftrh mds bhbds bh mds pkhs y anusnr mn kfchaak₭f adfdakbn aded pkh bh ntmhtn. Mds `dfgds cdrenf uf
ekahmkd bkrhatnehfth hf mns anpns hxthrkdrhs bh mn pkhm. Hstd prdbuah ufn mmngn kfcmnenbn bhsbh mn quh mns hspdrnspnsnf c‖akmehfth n dtrns phrsdfns. Aunfbd mds `dfgds kfchatnf dtrns ‖rhns, aded hm auhrd anohmmubd, prdbuahf ufn
mmngn hsanedsn rdjn mmnenbn tk†n. Hm ekarddrgnfksed Anfbkbn nmokanfs, ufn mhvnburn, puhbh trnstdrfnr hm
hqukmkorkd kfthrfd bhm auhrpd `uenfd y prdbuakr hfchrehbnb eka₭tkan. Arhah hf rhgkdfhs `…ehbns bhm auhrpd, skf
heonrgd, hm sksthen kfeufdm₭gkad y dtrns onathrkns adephtkbdrns fdrenmehfth mn adftrdmnf.
• Hfchrehbnbhs nfkenmhs: Mns hfchrehbnbhs eka₭tkans tneokƟf nchatnf n mds nfkenmhs. Xf hjhepmd bhstnanbd hs
mn kfchaak₭f pdr uf `dfgd hftdedpnt₭ghfd bhm gƟfhrd Adrbyahps. Hsth `dfgd kfchatn n mds snmtnedfths bh mns
shmvns bh Adstn _kan. Mns hspdrns ekardsa₭pkans ghrekfnf hf hm snmtnedfths y prdbuahf hfzkens quh pdad n pdad
phfhtrnf hm cuhrth hxdhsquhmhtd bhm kfshatd. Mns hspdrns sh eumtkpmkanf y bkgkhrhf mns aƟmumns y mds thjkbds bhm
kfshatd, `nstn entnrmd. Nm ckfnm bhm prdahsd bh bkghstk₭f, fnahf `kcns quh auorhf hm hxdhsquhmhtd hf
bhsadepdskak₭f adf ufn rhb bh enthrknm eka₭tkad. Hftdfahs snmhf hstruaturns rhprdbuatdrns bh mds rhstds bhmsnmtnedfths, quh prdbuahf hspdrns y prdpngnf mn kfchaak₭f.
Ekadaumturn
Rrucns
Hm aumtkvd bh mds `dfgds sh mmnen ekadaumturn, y sh prnatkan pdr su
kfthrƟs hadf₭ekad d akhft‚ckad. Hf hm prkehr ansd sh trntn pdr hjhepmd
bh hsphakhs adehstkomhs bh gƟfhrds aded Ngnrkaus d \mhurdtus, d bh
hsphakhs snprdtr₭ckans quh prdbuahf sustnfakns nmdp‖tkans (nftkok₭tkads)
aded mn phfkakmkfn, prdbuakbn pdr `dfgds bhm gƟfhrd phfkakmkue. Mns
mhvnburns sdf kepdrtnfths hf mn prdbuaak₭f bh nmkehftds d ohokbnschrehftnbns, hsphaknmehfth mns bhm gƟfhrd Qnaa`nrdeyahs, y tneokƟf
aded drgnfkseds edbhmd hf mn kfvhstkgnak₭f okdm₭gkan.
Mds `dfgds ghfhrnmehfth sh bhsnrrdmmnf ehjdr hf mn shek dsaurkbnb y
hf neokhfths …ehbds.
Hs pdskomh kgunmehfth aumtkvnr d bhjnr quh prdsphrhf ed`ds pnrn su hstubkd hf ansn d hf mn hsauhmn. uf hjhepmd bh
hmmd hs hm doshrvnr sdorh hm pnf `uehbhakbd aded arhah prdftd uf ekahmkd bh _`kzdpus, quh cdren hspdrnfgkds
gmdodsds y dsaurds9 y hf mn a‖sanrn bh mds a‚trkads sh bhsnrrdmmn hfshgukbn \hfkakmmkue, adf sus anrnathr‚stkans hspdrns
vhrbhnzumnbns.
Qkf heonrgd, hs rhadehfbnomh `nahr hstds hstubkds onjd mn suphrvksk₭f bh uf eka₭mdgd d hsphaknmkstn bhokbd n quh
`ny `dfgds quh sdf nmtnehfth phmkgrdsds. Hf ghfhrnm aded prhanuak₭f, sh bhoh hvktnr hm kf`nmnr anftkbnbhs nmtns bh
hspdrns bh `dfgds9 yn quh nufquh eua`ns vhahs fd sdf bkrhatnehfth kfchaakdsds, phrd sk puhbhf anusnr nmhrgkns.
7/27/2019 Hongos- Fungi
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Cufgk >>
_hchrhfakns
Y>U Xfkvhrskbnb Fnakdfnm bhm Fdrbhsth. @kphrthxtds bhm ‖rhn bh okdmdg‚n (`ttp:/ / www. okdmdgkn. hbu. nr/ cufgk/ cufgk. `te)
Y?U Bkaakdfnrkd bh mn mhfgun hspn†dmn (`ttp:/ / www. wdrbrhchrhfah. ade/ bhckfkakdf/ `kcn)
Y1UY1U Bhnadf, p. 2.
Y2U Bhnadf, pp. >?0 Ɵ ?;.
Y8UY8U Bhnadf, p. 80.
Y3U Nmhxdpdumds ht nm., p. 308.Y7U Hstkenak₭f onsnbn hf mds vnmdrhs puomkanbds hf mn bƟaken hbkak₭f bhm Bkatkdfnry dc t`h Cufgk (Ikri ht nm., ?<<0). \dr ckmd, sh bhtnmmnf:
Nsadeyadtn, 32>31 hsphakhs (p. 88)9 Onskbkdeyadtn, 1>8>8 (p. 70)9 Omnstdamnbkdeyadtn, >7; (p. ;2)9 A`ytrkbkdeyadtn, 7<3 (p. >2?)9
Gmdehrdeyadtn, >3; (p. ?07)9 Ekardspdrkbkn, 6>1<< (p. 2?7)9 Fhdanmmkenstkgdeyadtn, ?< (p. 231).
Y0U Ikri ht nm., p. 20;.
Y;U Shr \nmnhds: Cufgk (`ttp:/ / www. pnmnhds. ade/ Cufgk/ bhcnumt. `te), pnrn ufn kftrdbuaak₭f, hf kfgmƟs, n mn tnxdfde‚n bh mds dfgds,
kfamuyhfbd adftrdvhrskns rhakhfths.
Y><U Fd hs adfskbhrnbd dy uf ckmd rhnm, skfd ufn amnskckanak₭f thepdrnm pnrn tdbds nquhmmds dfgds auyd akamd bh rhprdbuaak₭f shxunm hs
bhsadfdakbd.
Okomkdgrnc•n
• Nkfswdrt GA. (>;73), Kftrdbuatkdf td t`h @kstdry dc Eyadmdgy, Aneorkbgh, XI: Aneorkbgh Xfkvhrskty \rhss,KQOF <-8?>->>?;8-0
• Kftrdbuatdry Eyadmdgy, Jd`f Wkmhy nfb Qdfs, >;;3, KQOF <27>8???;8
• Bhnadf J. (?<<8), Cufgnm Okdmdgy, Aneorkbgh, EN: Omnaiwhmm \uomks`hrs, KQOF >-2<8>-1<33-<
• @nmm K_. (?<<1), Hbkomh nfb \dksdfdus Eus`rddes dc t`h Wdrmb , \drtmnfb, Drhgdf: Rkeohr \rhss, KQOF
<-00>;?-803->
• @nfsdf J_. (?<<0), R`h A`hekstry dc Cufgk, _dynm Qdakhty Dc A`hekstry, KQOF <082<2>13?
• Jhffkfgs B@, Myshi G. (>;;3), Cufgnm Okdmdgy: Xfbhrstnfbkfg t`h Cufgnm Mkchstymh, Gukmbcdrb, XI: Okds
Qakhftkcka \uomks`hrs Mtb, KQOF ;70->08;;3>8<3
• Ikri \E, Anffdf \C, Ekfthr BW, Qtnmphrs JN. (?<<0), Bkatkdfnry dc t`h Cufgk. ><t` hb , Wnmmkfgcdrb: ANOK,
KQOF <-08>;;-0?3-7
• Rnymdr HM, Rnymdr RF. (>;;1). R`h Okdmdgy nfb Hvdmutkdf dc Cdsskm \mnfts. Hfgmhwddb Amkccs, F.J: \rhftkah @nmm.
KQOF <->1-38>80;-2.
Hfmnahs hxthrfds
• Wkikehbkn Adeedfs nmohrgn adfthfkbd eumtkehbkn sdorh Cufgk. Adeedfs
• Wkiakdfnrkd tkhfh bhckfkakdfhs pnrn cufgk.Wkiakdfnrkd
• Wkikhsphakhs tkhfh uf nrt‚aumd sdorh Cufgk. Wkiksphakhs
• Nrodrhtue, Cufgk ( ttp:/ / www.nrodrhtue. uce. hbu/ `dfgds/ antnmdgd. nsp).Xfkvhrskbnb Crnfaksad Enrrdqu‚f.
7/27/2019 Hongos- Fungi
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Cuhfths y adftrkouyhfths bhm nrt‚aumd >?
Cuhfths y adftrkouyhfths bhm nrt•aumdCufgk Cuhfth: `ttp://hs.wkikphbkn.drg/w/kfbhx.p`p4dmbkb53;0827?? Adftrkouyhfths: .JdsƟ, .Qhrgkd, <>>?nfkenzue, NCMnstrn, Narnttn, Nkrufp, Nmnanrodfnrn, Nmohrtd Qnmguhrd, Nmhpdstn,
Nmhxnv0, Nmhxquhfbk, Nmc[Chr, Nmmnfrdf, Nenb‚s, Nfbrhnsephru, Nfghm GF, Nftur, Nrquhf, NstrdFded, N‒kpfk-Mdvrkj, Onfckhmb, Onra`umkktn`.;0, OmnaiOhnst, OuhfnGhfth, A'hst edk, ANQC,
AnQtnrAd, Anekmd, Anrmdsonmmhf, Anrekf, Ahka`konf, A`rkstknf@, Akmmns, Akfnorkue, Adpybnys, Adrrhdgsi, Advk, Atrm Z, A₭fbkmd0<, Bnkedfb, BnfkhmAnekmdDsdrkd, Bnfkhmrhfghme, Bnri Onfh,
Bnvkb<0>>, Bkhgusjnkehs, Bdbd, Bdsskhr?, Brhktehf, HDZyd, Hbunrbdsnmg, Hbunrbdznzuhtn, Hbuo, Hbuphbrd, HchgƟ, Hjehzn, Hma`hmhenfbn, Hmk??, Hmdy, Hekburdfth, Hekjrp, Hfsnbn, Hquk, Hr
Idenfbnfth, Hrdbrkguchr, HthrfnmQdmd, CN_, Ckbhm.G, Cmnikf`d, Cdufbmkfg, Crnf2<<2, Crnfaksadsp?, Crnfz;38?>, Crutdshad, Curnbd, Curtk, CwN, Gnokkghfkn1?, Gkjzdpkue, GkfƟs;<, Grdua`d
Enrx, Gusnen _dehrd, @XO, @nmcbrng, @hmey dvhb, @hrphrnn, @hrucrn, @dssenff, @ueohrtd, Kgdr Outdv, KrwkfQnftds, Ks`n, Ks`u ?, J.bhmnfdy, JNOD, Jnrksmhkc, Jnvkhrktd;?, Janrnonmmd, Jjncjjnc,
Jiow, Jdrgh a?<><, JdrghGG, Jdrgha`p, JdsEhm, Jds`hr0n, Jsnfa`hzhs, Junf;;>, Junfaruz2, Jumksgnr;7, Inrktd.0?8, Ihiiydjkf, Ihtznmidntm, I`knrk, Iurufk, Ivhb, M\, Mnurn Ckdruaak, Mh I-mk,MhAkrh, Mhdfpdmnfad, Mhvk ohrfnrbd, Mkohrtnb y Qnohr, MmnenNm, Muakhf mhGrhy, Mukksek?1, Encdrhs, Enin`nxk, Enihth, Enepntd, Enfuhmt>8, Enfw˝, Entbrdbhs, Enumuakdfk, Ehm ?1,
EhraurkdER, Ekjn`hm, Ekss Enfznfn, Ededrhfzn, Edfdfkai, Edftgdehry, Edrb`ngghr, Edrkhm, Eurd bh Nguns, Fn`;<, Fn`uhmhmanpd>?, Fntrkx, Fhdbdp, Fhtktd777, Fkanskd?,
Fkanskdfkanskd, FkadmnsNmhjnfbrd, Fk`kmd, Drtksn, Dsnbd, \nomkf>3, \hbrd Fdfunmad, \htruss, \`J, \kmmngnznpds, \mntdfkbhs, \dmkfkznbdr, \₭mux, _ncnhmihmvkf, _nkz_nkz, _nzdonai bud, _htnen,
_kanrbdgpf, _kinrbd gs, _jgnmkfbd, _d_d, _dohrpm, _dsnrkfngnzd, _uokisEnsthr>><, _uoph>;, _uy \ugmkhsk, _ℯgh, Qn, QnhhbSkmmn, Qniurn-a`n, Qnfoha, Qnftk>;;3, Qnv`, Qnvkg, Qadfc, Q`nmont,
Qkeh₭f hm Mdad, Qekmdbdf, QuphrOrnumkd>1, Quphrzhrdaddm, Rnka`k, Rnfd28;8, Rha`fdpnt, Rhpktn?8, R`kfgg, Rkrkt`hm, Rdivd, Rdstnbdrn, Rrkiu, XN1>, SnfImhkfhf, Wnin Wnin, Wkikauhftn>7,
Wkmcrhbdr, Wdrinbbhb, PnfnG, Ppntrkakdx, Pvnzquhz, [hzn, Zkcrn, adfvhrskdf sarkpt, ;30 hbkakdfhs nf₭fkens
Cuhfths bh kenghf, Mkahfakns y adftrkouyhfthsNra`kvd:CufgkTadmmngh.jpg Cuhfth: `ttp://hs.wkikphbkn.drg/w/kfbhx.p`p4tktmh5Nra kvd:CufgkTadmmngh.jpg Mkahfakn: Arhntkvh Adeedfs Nttrkoutkdf-Q`nrhnmkih ?.8 Adftrkouyhfths: Odrg^uhhf
Nra`kvd:Adfkdp`nrn.J\G Cuhfth: `ttp://hs.wkikphbkn.drg/w/kfbhx.p`p4tktmh5Nra kvd:Adfkdp`nrn.J\G Mkahfakn: Arhntkvh Adeedfs Nttrkoutkdf-Q`nrhnmkih 1.< Adftrkouyhfths: Xshr:Fdydmadft
Nra`kvd:Dep`nmdtus fkbkcdreks Okffnekttnmdfg ? henkm.jpg Cuhfth: `ttp://hs.wkikphbkn.drg/w/kfbhx.p`p4tktmh5Nra kvd:Dep`nmdtusTfkbkcdreksTOkffnekttnmdfgT?Thenkm.jpg Mkahfakn:
Arhntkvh Adeedfs Nttrkoutkdf-Q`nrhnmkih ?.8 Adftrkouyhfths: Ans Mkohr
Nra`kvd:\hfkakmmkue mnohmhb.jpg Cuhfth: `ttp://hs.wkikphbkn.drg/w/kfbhx.p`p4tktmh5Nra kvd:\hfkakmmkueTmnohmhb.jpg Mkahfakn: Arhntkvh Adeedfs Nttrkoutkdf-Q`nrhNmkih 1.< Xfpdrthb
Adftrkouyhfths: [Ttneoh
Nra`kvd:Cmneeumkfn vhmutkphs.J\G Cuhfth: `ttp://hs.wkikphbkn.drg/w/kfbhx.p`p4tktmh5Nra kvd:CmneeumkfnTvhmutkphs.J\G Mkahfakn: GFX Crhh Bdauehftntkdf Mkahfsh Adftrkouyhfths:
Nra`hfzd
Nra`kvd:@dfgds.jpg Cuhfth: `ttp://hs.wkikphbkn.drg/w/kfbhx.p`p4tktmh5Nra kvd:@dfgds.jpg Mkahfakn: GFX Crhh Bdauehftntkdf Mkahfsh Adftrkouyhfths: Qekmdbdf
Nra`kvd:Mmndmmnd.J\G Cuhfth: `ttp://hs.wkikphbkn.drg/w/kfbhx.p`p4tktmh5Nra`kvd:Mmndmmnd.J\G Mkahfakn: Arhntkvh Adeedfs Nttrkoutkdf-Q`nrhnmkih 1.< Adftrkouyhfths: Chrenr
Nra`kvd:@uktmnada`h.jpg Cuhfth: `ttp://hs.wkikphbkn.drg/w/kfbhx.p`p4tktmh5Nra kvd:@uktmnada h.jpg Mkahfakn: Arhntkvh Adeedfs Nttrkoutkdf-Q`nrhnmkih ?.< Adftrkouyhfths: Hurmhkc,
Cmkairhvkhw_, Guksqukm, Ekfbentrkx
Nra`kvd:Nenfktn-eusanrkn-cmkhghfpkmz-o.jpg Cuhfth: `ttp://hs.wkikphbkn.drg/w/kfbhx.p`p4tktmh5Nra`kvd:Nenfktn-eusanrkn-cmkhghfpkmz-o.jpg Mkahfakn: Arhntkvh Adeedfs Nttrkoutkdf 1.<
Adftrkouyhfths: @. Irksp
Nra`kvd:Rruccmh 2.jpg Cuhfth: `ttp://hs.wkikphbkn.drg/w/kfbhx.p`p4tktmh5Nra kvd:RruccmhT2.jpg Mkahfakn: Arhntkvh Adeedfs Nttrkoutkdf-Q`nrhNmkih 1.< Xfpdrthb Adftrkouyhfths: Xshr:\dppy
Nra`kvd:Adeedfs-mdgd.svg Cuhfth: `ttp://hs.wkikphbkn.drg/w/kfbhx.p`p4tktmh5Nra kvd:Adeedfs-mdgd.svg Mkahfakn: mdgd Adftrkouyhfths: QSG vhrskdf wns arhnthb oy Xshr:Gruft nfb
amhnfhb up oy 1?27, onshb df t`h hnrmkhr \FG vhrskdf, arhnthb oy _hkbno.
Nra`kvd:Wkitkdfnry-mdgd-hs.pfg Cuhfth: `ttp://hs.wkikphbkn.drg/w/kfbhx.p`p4tktmh5Nra kvd:Wkitkdfnry-mdgd-hs.pfg Mkahfakn: mdgd Adftrkouyhfths: hs:Xsunrkd:\yonmd
Kengh:Wkiksphakhs-mdgd.svg Cuhfth: `ttp://hs.wkikphbkn.drg/w/kfbhx.p`p4tktmh5Nra kvd:Wkiksphakhs-mdgd.svg Mkahfakn: mdgd Adftrkouyhfths: (dc adbh) as:Xshr:-xck-
Mkahfakn
Arhntkvh Adeedfs Nttrkoutkdf-Q`nrh Nmkih 1.< //arhntkvhadeedfs.drg/mkahfshs/oy-sn/1.</