ME-3111 METEOROLOGI DINAMIK IISIRKULASI UMUM ATMOSFER

Penulis: Dr. Plato M.Siregar,S.Si,M.Si

Tujuan Kuliah:

Memahami Siklus Sirkulasi GlobalMembangun model iklim barotropik dan baroklinikMenganalisis data luaran model baroklinik

Permasalahan

Bagaimana pengaruh iklim terhadap Navigasi dan trasportasi

TIMELINE OF METEOROLOGY

1.Early events

2.19th century

3.20th century

4.21st century

GRAVITASIGravitation is the force of attraction one mass has for another. Gravity is the gravitational attraction of the Earth.

According to Newton's law of gravitation, the force increases with increasing mass. The force of the attraction also increases as we approach the centre of mass. If one geological body is denser than another, it will have a greater mass per unit volume and a greater gravitational attraction.

Measurements of gravity yield little direct geological information, other than to represent the Earth's oblate spheroidal shape, unless corrections are made to account for variations in the Earth's shape and topography.

History of Gravity Method

Man has always recognized its force: fear of falling; up & down Galileo, 1590: pendulum period; force on body proportional to weight; acceleration of g independent of mass; gal = 1 cm/s2 After sun recognized as center of universe, Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) made extensive measurements of the "peculiar motion" of planets Johannes Kepler (1571-1630): Kepler's Laws history

The planets move in elliptical orbits with the sun at one focus

                       

where a (distance CA below) and b (distance CB below) are the major and minor semiaxes. The eccentricity, e, is given by c/a, where c is the distance from the center of the ellipse to one of the foci, and x and y represent coordinates of points on orbit.  (examples: Earth = 0.01673; Mercury = 0.2056; Pluto = 0.250)

A line drawn from the sun to a planet will sweep out equal areas in equal times (conservation of angular momentum)

The square of a planet's period of revolution is proportional to the cube of the length of the major semiaxis of the orbital ellipse (conservation of kinetic and potential energy)          

Newton, 1687, Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica: force of gravity is a property of all matter, Earth included Jean Richer, 1672: pendulum clock, accurate in Paris, lost a few minutes per day in Cayenne, French Guiana

Cavendish

Cavendish balanceTwo large spheres of masses M are brought near m as shown in the figure. The gravitational attraction between m and M turns the system through an angle measured by the reflected light beam.The force per unit twist is calculated by preliminary experiments. Since F, m, M and the distance between m and M are known, G can be calculated. It was found thatG = 6.670 x 10-11 Nm2kg-2

Cavendish was a British natural philosopher who discovered "inflammable air" or the element hydrogen. He also discovered it produced water when combusted. Cavendish is also known for the Cavendish experiment to determine the gravitational constant and density of the Earth.CavendishThe Cavendish balance consists of a light, rigid T-shaped member supported by a fine vertical fibre. Two small spheres of masses m are mounted at the ends of the horizontal portion of the T. A mirror M on the vertical reflects the beam of light on to a scale.

Hukum Newton

• 1ll• 2 jjj• 3jj

Pierre Simon, Marquis de Laplace: gravity obeys simple differential eq. (early to mid 1800s) Lord Cavendish, 1798, determined G, hence mass of Earth (estimate of G was 6.754x10-11)Torque required to twist quartz fiber:

Torque provided by gravity

Set equal and solve for G:

(current value 6.6720x10-11 MKS)

gmr

mMG p

E

pE 2

eEppE grmmGM

G

grM E

E

2

kgkgmN

msm

G

grM E

E24

2211

2622

1096.5/1067.6

)1037.6)(/8.9(

Cavendish experiment leads to mass, bulk density of Earth:

When mass causing acceleration, M, is Earth, we use g to represent acceleration

We know R  = 6371 km (how?), g = 9.8 m/s2, G = 6.67x10-11 MKS (what are the units?), so M = 6.0x1024 kg

Bulk density:

Gravitation near Earth

FE = GMEm/R2

FE is the force of attraction between the Earth and an object, as measured in newtons (N) or kg-m/s2 G is the universal gravitational constant: 6.67*10−11 m3/s2-kg ME is the mass of the Earth in kilograms (kg) m is the mass of the other object in kg R is the distance between the objects, as measured from their centers of their masses, in meters (m)

Cavendish BalanceThe universal gravitational constant G can be measured in class with the Cavendish balance; however, the demonstration is time consuming and delicate. A video tape of the demonstration has been prepared by Prof. C. Buchanan and Jim Abbott using time lapse photography of the optical lever readout. The tape is about seven minutes in duration and presents the students with the data of the experiment so the value of G can be calculated.

Universal Gravitation Equation

Isaac Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation states that quantities of matter attract other matter to it. The force of attraction between objects is defined in the Universal Gravitation Equation, which states that the gravitational force is proportional to the masses of the two objects and inversely proportional to the square of distance between them.

PENGUKURAN NILAI GRAVITASI LOKAL SEDERHANAN

It can be shown that the period of oscillation of the pendulum, T, is proportional to one over the square root of the gravitational acceleration, g. The constant of proportionality, k, depends on the physical characteristics of the pendulum such as its length and the distribution of mass about the pendulum's pivot point.

JAM BANDUL PERTAMA

The following is the mostly true (but somewhat fictionalized) story of the first clocks in the Americas. In the 17th Century, the finest clockmakers in the world were Dutch, going back to the time of Christiaan Huygens. Huygens determined that if you allowed a pendulum to swing just a little bit, the period of its swing could be used to keep time to incredible accuracy. Huygens had not only determined the relationship between the period of a pendulum (T) and its length (l),

but clockmakers in both the Netherlands and England were regularly constructing clocks that were accurate to within a few seconds each day! (A phenomenal achievement for a pendulum clock by any standards.)The value of g changes depending on your latitude and elevation! At the North Pole, g is about 9.83, while at the equator, g is smaller, at only 9.79. Most of the colonized land in the new world was well South of (and far closer to the equator than) the Netherlands, and so g changed for the clock, decreasing by about 0.01 meters per second squared. This tiny difference, added up over the course of a day, causes you to lose about 45 seconds each day. But if you bring the clock back to its original location, g goes back to its original value, and the clock went back to its near-perfect calibration point!

Eksplorasi Berbasis Metoda Gravitasi

For human exploration of the solar system, instruments must meet criteria of low mass, low volume, low power demand, safe operation, and ruggedness and reliability (Meyer et al., 1995; Hoffman, 1997; Budden, 1999). Tools used for planetary exploration will need to address fundamental scientific questions and identify precious resources, such as water. The primary goal of studying detailed gravity data is to provide a better understanding of the subsurface geology. The gravity method is a relatively cheap, non-invasive, non-destructive remote sensing method that has already been tested on the lunar surface. Measurements of gravity provide information about densities of rocks underground. There is a wide range in density among rock types, and therefore geologists can make inferences about the distribution of strata. In the Taos Valley, we are attempting to map subsurface faults. Because faults commonly juxtapose rocks of differing densities, the gravity method is an excellent exploration choice

Worden Gravity Meter

LaCoste and Romberg Gravity Meter

The most common type of gravimeter* used in exploration surveys is based on a simple mass-spring system. If we hang a mass on a spring, the force of gravity will stretch the spring by an amount that is proportional to the gravitational force. It can be shown that the proportionality between the stretch of the spring and the gravitational acceleration is the magnitude of the mass hung on the spring divided by a constant, k, which describes the stiffness of the spring. The larger k is, the stiffer the spring is, and the less the spring will stretch for a given value of gravitational acceleration.

Mass and Spring Gravity Measurements

Gravity Anomalies Over Bodies With Simple ShapesGravity Anomaly Over a Buried Point Mass Gravity Anomaly Over a Buried Sphere Model Indeterminancy Gravity Calculations over Bodies with more Complex Shapes

The Relevant Geologic Parameter is Not Density, But Density Contrast

Density Variations of Earth Materials Thus far it sounds like a fairly simple proposition to estimate the variation in density of the earth due to local changes in geology. There are, however, several significant complications. The first has to do with the density contrasts measured for various earth materials.

Material Density (gm/cm^3)

Air ~0

Water 1

Sediments 1.7-2.3

Sandstone 2.0-2.6

Shale 2.0-2.7

Limestone 2.5-2.8

Granite 2.5-2.8

Basalts 2.7-3.1

Metamorphic Rocks 2.6-3.0

A Simple Model

Consider the variation in gravitational acceleration that would be observed over a simple model. For this model, let's assume that the only variation in density in the subsurface is due to the presence of a small ore body. Let the ore body have a spherical shape with a radius of 10 meters, buried at a depth of 25 meters below the surface, and with a density contrast to the surrounding rocks of 0.5 grams per centimeter cubed. From the table of rock densities, notice that the chosen density contrast is actually fairly large. The specifics of how the gravitational acceleration was computed are not, at this time, important.

Gravity Survey - Measurements of the gravitational field at a series of different locations over an area of interest. The objective in exploration work is to associate variations with differences in the distribution of densities and hence rock types.

Standard gravity is taken as the freefall accelleration of an object at sea level and at a latitude of 45.5° and is 9.80665 m/s2 (or equivalently 980.665 mGal).

Observed Gravity (gobs ) - Gravity readings observed at each gravity station after corrections have been applied for instrument drift and earth tides.Latitude Correction (gn ) - Correction subtracted from gobs that accounts for Earth's elliptical shape and rotation. The gravity value that would be observed if Earth were a perfect (no geologic or topographic complexities), rotating ellipsoid is referred to as the normal gravity.gn = 978031.85 (1.0 + 0.005278895 sin2(lat) + 0.000023462 sin4(lat)) (mGal) Free Air Corrected Gravity (gfa ) - The free-air correction accounts for gravity variations caused by elevation differences in the observation locations. The form of the Free-Air gravity anomaly, gfa , is given by: gfa = gobs - gn+ 0.3086h (mGal) where h is the elevation (in meters) at which the gravity station is above the datum (typically sea level).

Bouguer Slab Corrected Gravity (gb ) - The Bouguer correction is a first-order correction to account for the excess mass underlying observation points located at elevations higher than the elevation datum (sea level or the geoid). Conversely, it accounts for a mass deficiency at observation points located below the elevation datum. The form of the Bouguer gravity anomaly, gb, is given by: gb = gobs - gn + 0.3086h - 0.04193r h (mGal) where r is the average density of the rocks underlying the survey area.

Terrain Corrected Bouguer Gravity (gt ) - The Terrain correction accounts for variations in the observed gravitational acceleration caused by variations in topography near each observation point. Because of the assumptions made during the Bouguer Slab correction, the terrain correction is positive regardless of whether the local topography consists of a mountain or a valley. The form of the Terrain corrected, Bouguer gravity anomaly, gt , is given by: gt = gobs - gn + 0.3086h - 0.04193r h + TC (mGal) where TC is the value of the computed Terrain correction. Assuming these corrections have accurately accounted for the variations in gravitational acceleration they were intended to account for, any remaining variations in the gravitational acceleration associated with the Terrain Corrected Bouguer Gravity can be assumed to be caused by geologic structure.

Local and Regional Gravity Anomalies

Obviously, this model of the structure of an ore body and the surrounding geology has been greatly over simplified. Let's consider a slightly more complicated model for the geology in this problem. For the time being we will still assume that the ore body is spherical in shape and is buried in sedimentary rocks having a uniform density. In addition to the ore body, let's now assume that the sedimentary rocks in which the ore body resides are underlain by a denser Granitic basement that dips to the right. This geologic model and the gravity profile that would be observed over it are shown in the figure below.

Sources of the Local and Regional Gravity Anomalies

the effects of burial depth on the recorded gravity anomaly, consider three cylinders all having the same source dimensions and density contrast with varying depths of burial. For this example, the cylinders are assumed to be less dense than the surrounding rocks.

Local/Regional Gravity Anomaly Separation Example

The residual gravity estimates computed for each moving average operator are shown below.

Gravity Anomaly Over a Buried Point Mass

q can be written in terms of z and r using the trigonometric relationship between the cosine of an angle and the lengths of the hypotenuse and the adjacent side of the triangle formed by the angle.

Likewise, r can be written in terms of x and z using the relationship between the length of the hypotenuse of a triangle and the lengths of the two other sides known as Pythagorean Theorem.

Substituting these into our expression for the vertical component of the gravitational acceleration caused by a point mass, we obtain

Gravity Anomaly Over a Buried SphereIt can be shown that the gravitational attraction of a spherical body of finite size and mass m is identical to that of a point mass with the same mass m. Therefore, the expression derived on the previous page for the gravitational acceleration over a point mass

Thus, the gravitational acceleration over a buried sphere can be written as

Model IndeterminancyWe have now derived the gravitational attraction associated with a simple spherical body. The vertical component of this attraction was shown to be equal to:

Gravity Anomalies of Spheres and CylindersAnomaly shape can be plotted using formula. Anomaly from sphere decays more quickly than that of horizontal cylinder.

Vertical cylinder has different shape with steeper flanks:

Depth Estimation by Gradient-Amplitude MethodCan obtain estimates of limiting depth from maximum slope also.

If value of maximum slope, Dg’max , estimated:

For 3-D body:

For 2-D body:

If anomaly is spherical:

If anomaly is horizontal cylinder:

If anomaly is vertical cylinder:

If anomaly is thin steeply dipping sheet:

Depth Estimation by Half-Width MethodUsing the formulae for the anomalies due to various bodies, it is posible to estimate the limiting depth of a body. Half-width, X1/2 , is the distance from the centre of an anomaly at which amplitude has decreased to half its peak value.

Application to Salt DomesAverage density of salt, 2.2 Mg m-3, is less than most sediments in a basin, so salt often rises in diapir due to its bouyancy.Makes good target for gravity surveys, and will show up as a bullseye anomaly.Example: Mors salt dome, DenmarkStudied for radioactive waste disposal. Dots are gravity stations.

From profile across anomaly:•Maximum amplitude of residual anomaly = 16 mGal •Anomaly half-width= 3.7 km

Assuming salt dome represented by sphere, limiting depth, i.e. depth to centre of mass = 4.8 kmAssuming density contrast of –0.25 Mg m-

3, radius of sphere estimated at 3.8 km. So top of salt at 1 km depth.

Best model obtained by forward modelling of gravity data:

Compare inferences from gravity with best model derived from all methods, including seismic reflection and drilling.

Application to Massive Sulphide ExplorationMassive sulphide ore bodies have high densities due to minerals present.Can show as gravity high in residual anomaly.Example: Faro Pb-Zn deposit, YukonGravity proved to be best geophysical technique to delimit deposit

Tonnage of 44.7 million estimated from gravity, which compares with drilling estimate of 46.7 million.

Application to Detection of Underground CavitiesBuried cavities due to old mine workings can be a significant hazard!Result of catastrophic failure of roof of ancient flint mine in chalk.Cavities can be good target for micro-gravity due to high density contrast between a void, or rubble-filled void, and host rock.In practice, many anomalies are greater than predicted by theory.Example: Inowroclaw, PolandKarst caverns in subsurface composed of gypsum, anhydrite, dolomite, and limestone. Develop towards surface and destroy buldings.Density contrasts are around -1.8 Mg m-3 and -1.0 Mg m-3 for void and rubble-filled void.

Rubble-filled void should not have been detectable from calculated anomaly.

GERAK DIBAWAH GAYA PUSAT MEMPENGARUHI IKLIM

Efek Pada Cuaca1) Insolasi2) Length of dayEfek pada Iklim1) Posisi matahari2) Jarak bumi-matahari

Perhaps the most important aspect of an ENSO event is the change in the precipitation patterns over the globe (fig.16). The figure shows a composite map of the regions of abnormally wet (blue) and abnormally dry (red) conditions associated with a typical ENSO event. Within each region, the approximate period of extreme conditions was determined during the 24-month period starting with the July month preceding the El Niño event designated by Jul(-), continuing through the June month following the event, designated by Jun(+). The index (0) behind the month refers to the year of El Niño. As a result of ENSO, monsoons in India, Southeast Asia, and Indonesia are omitted and storms in the eastern Pacific region become an almost daily event.

Aristotle's Climate Classification General Steps for Determining Koppen Climate Type

PENEMUAN PETA INI MENDORONG PENYEBARAN MANUSIA DARI EROPA KE ASIA AFRIKA DAN AMERIKA LALU MENIMBULKAN PERBUDAKAN ATAUPENJAJAHAN YANG MENGANGGAP MANUSIA YANG UNGGUL MENINDASMANUSIA YANG TERTINGGAL PERADABANYA .

PERJALANAN ERATOSTHENES

A papyrus from 230 B.C. : Eratosthenes Finds Diameter of Earth! Alexandria Eratosthenes peered into a well here at noon and came up with the diameter and circumference of our planet!

Earth's movement

Nicholas Steno (1638-1686) was a Danish-born pioneer of geology, and is considered to be the father of stratigraphy. Nicholas Steno's observations of rocks layers suggested that geology is not totally chaotic.  Rather, the rock layers preserve a chronological record of Earth history and past life. He developed three fundamental principles of stratigraphy(Steno's Laws):1) Law of Original Horizontality– Beds of sediment deposited in water form as horizontal (or nearly horizontal) layers due to gravitational settling.2) Law of Superposition– In undisturbed strata, the oldest layer lies at the bottom and the youngest layer lies at the top.3) Law of Lateral Continuity– Horizontal strata extend laterally until they thin to zero thickness (pinch out) at the edge of their basin of deposition.

View of Anticlinal

The syncline supports a ridge

Eastern beach syncline

LIPATAN (Fold)

Fault

GAYA TERPUSAT

Hukum Kepler

"The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the sun at a focus."

"A line joining a planet and the sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time."

"The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to the the third power of the semi-major axis of its orbit. Moreover, the constant of proportionality has the same value for all planets."

Climate changes and the earth's motion in space

Marine Tides

Gravitasi standar, umumnya dicatat sebagai g0 atau gn, adalah percepatan nominal menuju gravitasi permukaan bumi pada paras laut. Hasil pengukuran menunjukkan sekitar 9.80665 m/s2

Perhitungan g0 Menggunakan massa dan jari-jari bumi:

Siklus Metamorfosa Kupu-kupu

Filosof Tentang Ketuhanan• Thales (Zat Utama:Air)• Socrates (Ada Sesuatu Penyebab

Gerak:Tuhan)• Plato(Ada Tuhan Memiliki dimensi lebih

banyak dari alam semesta)• Aristoteles( Ada 4 zat Utama: Air,tanah,angin

dan api)• Galileo (Suatu benda dapat bergerak tanpa

ada penyebabnya: Balok Meluncur diatas meja yang licin)

Adanya evolusi mahluk dibumi merupakan indikator berlangsung proses siklus bintang/perubahan nilai gravitasi

Darwin's Theory of Evolution - The Premise

Darwin's Theory of Evolution is the widely held notion that all life is related and has descended from a common ancestor: the birds and the bananas, the fishes and the flowers -- all related. Darwin's general theory presumes the development of life from non-life and stresses a purely naturalistic (undirected) "descent with modification". That is, complex creatures evolve from more simplistic ancestors naturally over time. In a nutshell, as random genetic mutations occur within an organism's genetic code, the beneficial mutations are preserved because they aid survival -- a process known as "natural selection." These beneficial mutations are passed on to the next generation. Over time, beneficial mutations accumulate and the result is an entirely different organism (not just a variation of the original, but an entirely different creature).

Darwin's Theory of Evolution - Natural Selection

While Darwin's Theory of Evolution is a relatively young archetype, the evolutionary worldview itself is as old as antiquity. Ancient Greek philosophers such as Anaximander postulated the development of life from non-life and the evolutionary descent of man from animal.Charles Darwin simply brought something new to the old philosophy -- a plausible mechanism called "natural selection." Natural selection acts to preserve and accumulate minor advantageous genetic mutations. Suppose a member of a species developed a functional advantage (it grew wings and learned to fly). Its offspring would inherit that advantage and pass it on to their offspring. The inferior (disadvantaged) members of the same species would gradually die out, leaving only the superior (advantaged) members of the species. Natural selection is the preservation of a functional advantage that enables a species to compete better in the wild. Natural selection is the naturalistic equivalent to domestic breeding. Over the centuries, human breeders have produced dramatic changes in domestic animal populations by selecting individuals to breed. Breeders eliminate undesirable traits gradually over time. Similarly, natural selection eliminates inferior species gradually over time.

Darwin's Theory of Evolution - Slowly But Surely.Darwin's Theory of Evolution is a slow gradual process. Darwin wrote, "…Natural selection acts only by taking advantage of slight successive variations; she can never take a great and sudden leap, but must advance by short and sure, though slow steps." [1] Thus, Darwin conceded that, "If it could be demonstrated that any complex organ existed, which could not possibly have been formed by numerous, successive, slight modifications, my theory would absolutely break down." [2] Such a complex organ would be known as an "irreducibly complex system". An irreducibly complex system is one composed of multiple parts, all of which are necessary for the system to function. If even one part is missing, the entire system will fail to function. Every individual part is integral. [3] Thus, such a system could not have evolved slowly, piece by piece. The common mousetrap is an everyday non-biological example of irreducible complexity. It is composed of five basic parts: a catch (to hold the bait), a powerful spring, a thin rod called "the hammer," a holding bar to secure the hammer in place, and a platform to mount the trap. If any one of these parts is missing, the mechanism will not work. Each individual part is integral. The mousetrap is irreducibly complex. [4]

Darwin's Theory of Evolution - A Theory In CrisisDarwin's Theory of Evolution is a theory in crisis in light of the tremendous advances we've made in molecular biology, biochemistry and genetics over the past fifty years. We now know that there are in fact tens of thousands of irreducibly complex systems on the cellular level. Specified complexity pervades the microscopic biological world. Molecular biologist Michael Denton wrote, "Although the tiniest bacterial cells are incredibly small, weighing less than 10-12 grams, each is in effect a veritable micro-miniaturized factory containing thousands of exquisitely designed pieces of intricate molecular machinery, made up altogether of one hundred thousand million atoms, far more complicated than any machinery built by man and absolutely without parallel in the non-living world." And we don't need a microscope to observe irreducible complexity. The eye, the ear and the heart are all examples of irreducible complexity, though they were not recognized as such in Darwin's day. Nevertheless, Darwin confessed, "To suppose that the eye with all its inimitable contrivances for adjusting the focus to different distances, for admitting different amounts of light, and for the correction of spherical and chromatic aberration, could have been formed by natural selection, seems, I freely confess, absurd in the highest degree."

Charles Robert Darwin

Charles Robert Darwin, aged 45 in 1854, by then working towards publication of On the Origin of Species.

Charles Robert Darwin FRS (12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) was an English naturalist[I] who established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors, and proposed the scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection. He published his theory with compelling evidence for evolution in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species.[1][2] The scientific community and much of the general public came to accept evolution as a fact in his lifetime,[3] but it was not until the emergence of the modern evolutionary synthesis from the 1930s to the 1950s that a broad consensus developed that natural selection was the basic mechanism of evolution.[4] In modified form, Darwin's scientific discovery is the unifying theory of the life sciences, explaining the diversity of life.

Darwin's Theory of EvolutionScientists at the beginning of the 1800s know of some kinds of fossils, and they were very aware of homologous and vestigial structures. Many scientists suspected that some kind of evolution had given rise to living things around them. However, they had no unifying theory to explain how evolution might have occurred. Two scientists led the way in the search for a mechanism of evolution. The first was Jean Lamarck. The second was one of the greatest figures in biology, Charles Darwin.

Evolutionary Theory Before Darwin

The first systematic presentation of evolution was put forth by the French scientist Jean Baptiste de Lamarck (1774-1829) in 1809. Lamarck described a mechanism by which he believed evolution could occur. This mechanism was known as "the inheritance of acquired characteristics." Assume that there were salamanders living in some grasslands. Suppose, Lamarck argued, that these salamanders had a hard time walking because their short legs couldn't trample the tall grasses or reach the ground. Suppose that these salamanders began to slither on their bellies to move from place to place. Because they didn't use their legs, the leg muscles wasted away from disuse and the legs thus became small. Lamarck's theory said that the salamanders passed this acquired trait to their offspring. In time the salamander's legs were used so rarely that they disappeared. Thus, Lamarck argued, legless salamanders evolved from salamanders by inheriting the acquired characteristic of having no legs. Lamarck presented no experimental evidence or observation and his theory fell out of scientific favor. The next significant idea came from the British scientist Charles Darwin.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE THEORY The roots of evolutionist thought go back as far as antiquity as a dogmatic belief attempting to deny the fact of creation. Most of the pagan philosophers in ancient Greece defended the idea of evolution. When we take a look at the history of philosophy we see that the idea of evolution constitutes the backbone of many pagan philosophies. However, it is not this ancient pagan philosophy, but faith in God which has played a stimulating role in the birth and development of modern science. Most of the people who pioneered modern science believed in the existence of God; and while studying science, they sought to discover the universe God has created and to perceive His laws and the details in His creation. Astronomers such as Copernicus, Keppler, and Galileo; the father of paleontology, Cuvier; the pioneer of botany and zoology, Linnaeus; and Isaac Newton, who is referred to as the "greatest scientist who ever lived", all studied science believing not only in the existence of God but also that the whole universe came into being as a result of His creation.

Albert Einstein, considered to be the greatest genius of our age, was another devout scientist who believed in God and stated thus; "I cannot conceive of a genuine scientist without that profound faith. The situation may be expressed by an image: science without religion is lame.“

One of the founders of modern physics, German physician Max Planck said: "Anybody who has been seriously engaged in scientific work of any kind realizes that over the entrance to the gates of the temple of science are written the words: Ye must have faith. It is a quality which the scientist cannot dispense with.“

The theory of evolution is the outcome of the materialist philosophy that surfaced with the reawakening of ancient materialistic philosophies and became widespread in the 19th century. As we have indicated before, materialism seeks to explain nature through purely material factors. Since it denies creation right from the start, it asserts that every thing, whether animate or inanimate, has appeared without an act of creation but rather as a result of a coincidence that then acquired a condition of order. The human mind however is so structured as to comprehend the existence of an organising will wherever it sees order. Materialistic philosophy, which is contrary to this very basic characteristic of the human mind, produced "the theory of evolution" in the middle of the 19th century.

Evolusi homosapien

Aristotle's View of Nature and the Christian Theory of Creation Species are eternally unchangeable.Aristotle (384 - 322 B.C.), a philosopher of ancient Greece, was the first ever to create systematic biology. He regarded nature as purposive, stating in The Physics,

If, then, artificial processes are purposeful, so are natural processes too; ... we find that plants too produce organs subservient to their perfect development-leaves, for instance, to shelter the fruit ... Hence, if it is by nature and also for a purpose ... that plants make leaves for the sake of the fruit and strike down (and not up) with their roots in order to get their nourishment, it is clear that causality of the kind we have described is at work in things that come about or exist in the course of Nature. (Aristotle, The Physics, 173 -75) Aristotle considered that nature is ordered from the lower to the higher, ranging from nonliving beings, to plants and animals, all the way to humans. For him, the order of nature is the following; nonliving beings- lower plants-higher plants sponges, jellyfish shellfish - insects -- crustacea cephalopoda -- ovipara - whales • ovoviviparous quadrupeds -- humankind. These are the "steps of nature," or the "hierarchy of nature"

Lamarck's Theory of EvolutionLiving beings develop from lower to higher stages.In the seventeenth century, with the rise of the philosophy of the Enlightenment, which emphasized the concept of progress, there arose the idea of the evolution of living beings. In the eighteenth century, that idea expanded with inputs from the French thinkers G. Comte de Buffon, P. M. de Maupertuis, and D. Diderot. A clear statement of the theory of evolution of living beings was put forward when Jean Baptiste de Lamarck (1744 -1829) published his Philosophy of Animals in 1809. Lamarck explained, on the basis of facts, that living beings evolve from lower to higher stages. For Lamarck, the life force inherent in living beings is the element that brings about evolution; through that life force, living beings develop from simple to complex, which brings about irregularity (variety) among them. Further, he said, living beings have the ability to give rise to organs in accordance with, and in conformity to, environmental conditions.

Mendel's Discovery of the Laws of Heredity

The Discovery of DNA: The Remarkable molecule of heredity

The Emergence of the Synthetic Theory

Darwin + De Vries = Synthetic TheoryAs a result of research on the mutation of fruit flies conducted by Morgan and his group, it became clear that mutation through genetic change does not necessarily bring about a great leap, or a radical change (see Fig. 7). Therefore, mutation theory and Darwin's theory of natural selection came be seen as not mutually incompatible.The English statistician Ronald A. Fisher (1890-1962), the British geneticist John B. S. Haldane (1892-1964), and the American geneticist Seawell Wright (1889-1988) analyzed genetic problems by using mathematical models. As a result, they claimed to have found that mutation is not the primary cause of evolution and that the direction and speed of evolution is determined almost completely by natural selection.Accordingly, a new way of explaining evolution appeared, which combined Darwin's theory of natural selection with De Vries' theory of mutation. The new theory was called "synthetic theory," which is also called "Neo-Darwinism," as was the position of Weismann. But today, the term "New-Darwinism" is used almost exclusively to refer to synthetic theory; "NeoDarwinism" and "synthetic theory" have become virtually synonymous.Representatives of synthetic theory are the British biologist Julian Huxley (1887-1975), the Russian-born American geneticist Theodosius Dobzhansky (1900-1975), the German-born American animal taxonomist Ernst Mayr, and the American paleontologist George Simpson (1902- ). According to Huxley, who is regarded as the godfather of synthetic theory, evolution can be summarized as follows (Huxley 1963, 44)i) Mutation provides the raw material for evolution. ii) Natural selection determines the direction of evolution.

How Darwin's Theory Changed the World A great deal of attention has been given to how Darwin's theory of evolution contradicts the biblical account of creation. But little attention has been paid to how his theory changed the world's thinking in dangerous ways.

Where did Darwin's ideas lead?Enthused with his new theory, it's doubtful that Charles Darwin gave much thought to the possible moral consequences of what he was writing. He certainly could not have foreseen that less than 75 years later, his ideas would lead to Adolf Hitler and the Holocaust, the Nazi attempt at exterminating the Jews. But Professor Weikart's detailed book documents the connection, with plenty of quotes from mostly German philosophers and scientists in the intervening years.Dr. Richard Evans, professor of modern history at the University of Cambridge and author of The Coming of the Third Reich, says that Weikart's book "shows in sober and convincing detail how Darwinist thinkers in Germany had developed an amoral attitude to human society by the time of the First World War, in which the supposed good of the race was applied as the sole criterion of public policy and 'racial hygiene.'

"Without over-simplifying the lines that connected this body of thought to Hitler, he demonstrates with chilling clarity how policies such as infanticide, assisted suicide, marriage prohibitions, and much else were being proposed for those considered racially or eugenically inferior by a variety of Darwinist writers and scientists, providing Hitler and the Nazis with a scientific justification for the policies they pursued . . ." (From Darwin to Hitler, back cover)

Many have asked how the nation that produced Beethoven, Bach, Goethe and Schiller could have allowed a man like Hitler to become their supreme leader. Weikart's research helps us understand how this happened, by showing the gradual change in thinking that took place "from Darwin to Hitler"—a degeneration in appreciating the value of human life that continues to this day.

It wasn't only Hitler's National Socialist (Nazi) movement that was heavily influenced by Darwin. "After reading Darwin's Origin of Species, Karl Marx [the founder of the communist movement] wrote to Friedrich Engels, 'Although developed in a coarse English manner, this is the book that contains the foundation in natural history for our view.' Furthermore, many pacifists, feminists, birth control advocates, and homosexual rights activists—some of whom were persecuted and even killed by the Nazis—were enthusiastic Darwinists and used Darwinian arguments to support their political and social agendas"

https://blogs.njit.edu/ajz4/2009/10/11/misuses-of-spearman-mendel-and-darwin/

With ideas like these that were later passed off as intellectualism and promoted as higher learning, is it any wonder that it would end up being generally accepted? Is it that surprising from the legitimization of racism the theory endorsed that there would be those who would exploit the thoughts of a “supposed” genius for their own motives? The fact that Nazism, its barbaric and murderous policies, can be contributed to Darwinism is more than just a coincidence. In fact, Nazism complimented Darwin’s theory rather nicely. Nazism and the idea of an Aryan Race was Darwin’s theory in motion. Darwinism was the Nazi’s scientific proof that their racial theories and world views were legitimate. 

A Bloody Legacy? What else did Charles Darwin think about nature and evolution?

 

 whosoeverdesires.wordpress.com/2009/0... 

                                                                                                                                                                 

 

                                                                                                                                                           

                                     

Quantum Consciousness

The Cambrian explosion. According to fossil records life on earth originated about 4 billion years ago, but evolved only slowly for about 3.5 billion years ("pre-Cambrian period"). Then, in a rather brief 10 million years beginning about 540 million years ago (the "Cambrian period"), a vast array of diversified life abruptly emerged: the "Cambrian explosion." Exemplary Cambrian organisms depicted are an urchin similar to present day actinosphaerium, spiney worms, and a tentacled sectorian. Artwork by Dave Cantrell and Cindi Laukes based on organisms in Gould (1989) and adapted from a diagram by Joe Lertola, Time Magazine, December 4, 1995.

cosmic rays strike Earth's atmosphere and wind up bombarding everything

Cosmic rays are energetic particles originating from deep space that hit our

A cosmic ray approaching Earth first encounters Earth's magnetic field. The magnetic field repels some particles altogether. Those that get through are deflected by the magnetic field. Computers are used to track cosmic ray paths through Earth's magnetic field, and to determine how the starting direction ("asymptotic direction") is related to the impact point.

COSMIC RAYS AND EARTH

Changing forms of proteins are mainly responsible for mutation

independent of (gene) sequence mutation, to develop a trait.”

Photosynthesis converts inorganic carbon dioxide to organic compounds

Water Witching

In this Pendulum Dowsing workshop you will learn:

What is Pendulum Dowsing? Dowsing (Water Witching, Divining, Questing) is the ancient art of finding water, minerals and other objects that seem to have a natural magnetic, electromagnetic or other perhaps unknown energy. Energies that the body seems to detect with its built-in, laboratory demonstrable sensors that are no more mysterious than seeing, hearing or feeling, and seem to be natural to all of us. As it is with music, many persons can develop a degree of dowsing skill with training, and practice.

What is Water-Witching?This is a practice of folklore to use natural objects like a forked green twig to locate buried material, specifically water but this method is said to also be used to find metals and ore deposits, minerals/gems, etc, caverns, caves and buried pipes. In the late 1960s during the Vietnam War, it is known that some U.S. Marines used diving techniques in an effort to locate buried weapons and enemy tunnels. The success or failure of these attempts is not reported.

Whether the dowser uses a forked stick or a pair of bent wires, the success of dowsing, if any, has no scientific basis. However, the probability of drilling a productive water well is high in many areas, given that water-bearing sediments and rocks are fairly widespread and that the water table (top of the zone of saturation) is reasonably close to the land surface in many areas of the country. Underground streams do occur, of course. They are found in regions of soluble bedrock, such as limestone. In most cases, however, locating a suitable water well involves intersecting the zone of saturation, not finding some mysterious underground stream with limited dimensions.

IsostasyIsostasy is the vertical movement of the crust to to bouyancy in the mantle. Just like blocks of wood in water float higher the thicker they are, the crust rises and sinks because it is lighter than the underlying mantle.

A simple mathematical derivation of the equation for mountain root depthsTo begin, let's specify the forces that are acting on a hypothetical mass floating in a fluid Force = mass x acceleration ---> (Newton's Second law of motion)

For our purposes, acceleration is equal to gravitational acceleration g, which is the rate at which a falling object accelerates in the earth's gravity field. g for the earth is 9.8 meters per squared second. The mass of an object is equal to its volume times its density.

Airy isostasyIn the model of Airy, isostatic compensation means that the the crust is in a static equilibrium and the topographic loading is compensated by buoyancy forces acting on the surface of equilibrium. It is assumed that the crustal density is constant and the isostatic compensation is produced by variations of the crustal thickness.

Pratt isostasyIn the concept of isostatic compensation after Pratt, the the topographic loading is compensated by the buoyancy force that are produced due to lateral density variations within the crust. It is assumed that all topographic masses are compensated at a constant depth. In reality, this would mean that the crust in mountain regions has a lower density than in plane regions.

Variations in elevation are due both to thickness and density. The continents stand high because continental crust is thick and light. The ocean basins are low because oceanic crust is thin and dense.

Isostatic Rebound Since the PleistoceneIsostatic Rebound in Canada

Isostatic Rebound in Scandinavia

Mountain Building and Crustal Deformation

Mountain Building (Orogeny)Orogeny is the variety of processes that occur during mountain-building, including: Distinctive Patterns of Deposition

Shallow-water sedimentary rocks on the inner side of the mountain belt, thick deep-water sedimentary rocks in the heart of the mountain belt. Thick accumulations of sandstone and conglomerate accumulate late in the history of the mountain range as it erodes.

Deformation Folding and thrust-faulting

Metamorphism Greenschist and amphibolite metamorphism (high pressure and temperature) in the core of the range, blueschist metamorphism (abnormally high pressure and low temperature) along its outer edge.

Intrusions Granitic batholiths are usually associated with orogeny.

Volcanic Activity Along the crest of the mountain range there is typically a chain of andesite volcanoes.

Oceanic Trenches Along the outer edge of most currently active mountain belts is a narrow, deep oceanic trench.

Seismic Activity Shallow great earthquakes along the inner wall of the trench, then deeper earthquakes along a planar zone dipping beneath the mountain range, reaching depths of up to 700 kilometers.

Why Mountains FormMountains form at subduction zones. Shown below is a true-scale cross-section of the Andean subduction zone in northern Chile (roughly 25 S).

The vertical change of 15 kilometers in only a few hundred kilometers distance is the largest elevation change on Earth in such a short distance. Plates consist not only of the crust, but about 150 kilometers of the underlying mantle as well. Collectively the crust and associated mantle are termed the lithosphere. Oceanic crust is typically 5 kilometers thick. The continental crust thickens from its normal 40 kilometers to 70 beneath the high Andes. When the descending slab reaches a depth of about 100 kilometers, it begins to melt, causing, directly or indirectly, many of the events associated with mountain-building.

Teori Pembentukan Pegunungan

• Teori Pelipatan• Teori pengapungan benua• Teori Konveksi

Why Mountains are HighMountains are high because orogeny shortens and thickens the crust, and isostasy causes the thicker crust to rise. Some of the processes are shown above: Even uniform materials, when compressed from one direction, tend to expand in the direction of least resistance. Layered rocks shorten by folding, but the stack of layers also becomes thicker. Thrust-faulting thickens the crust by stacking slices of crust atop one another. Intrusions add volume to the crust. A great deal of magma never invades the crust but accumulates at its base, a process called underplating. Where the crust is heated, thermal expansion causes the rocks to become lighter and more buoyant.

Anatomy of an Orogenic BeltShown here is a "simple" continent-ocean orogenic belt. We can divide an orogenic belt into parallel zones defined by their deformation, rock types, or metamorphism. These zones may approximately coincide with each other but somewhat overlap, so it's necessary to have distinct names for them.

Zones of Rock TypesThe Accretionary PrismSediment eroded from the orogenic belt accumulates in the trench and is intensely deformed as the plates converge. Like the wedge of earth ahead of a bulldozer, the sediment thickens until it is capable of resisting further deformation.The Igneous ArcWhen the descending plate reaches about 100 kilometers depth, it begins to melt. Magma invades the crust, creating batholiths and a volcanic mountain chain. The intrusions also produce metamorphism, and by making the crust more ductile, make it easier to deform. This is the belt of greatest deformation, metamorphism and igneous activity.The ForelandHere, metamorphism is mild but compression of the crust results in folding and thrust-faulting. Often this deformation is "thin-skinned", meaning that rock layers near the surface become detached from deeper layers much the way a carpet wrinkles when a piece of furniture is pushed over it.The CratonThis is the stable interior of the continent.Metamorphic ZonesOne of the best indicators of former subduction is the presence of paired metamorphic belts, a belt of typical Greenschist and Amphibolite metamorphism flanked by a belt of Blueschist metamorphism.

Greenschist-Amphibolite MetamorphismThe rising magma from the descending plate heats the crust, resulting in greenschist and amphibolite metamorphism in the igneous arc. At very high temperatures, rocks become very dehydrated; even muscovite mica breaks down to potassium feldspar and amphibole to pyroxene. This sort of metamorphism, called granulite metamorphism, occurs deep in the crust just about everywhere simply due to the normal geothermal gradient. At 25 degrees per kilometer, the temperature at the base of the crust, 40 kilometers deep, is 1000 degrees C. Of course, unusually intense heating can cause it to occur at shallower levels.

Blueschist MetamorphismAt high pressures but low temperatures, rocks are metamorphosed to blueschist grade. The reason temperatures are abnormally low is that the descending slab is still cool and helps keep adjacent rocks cool as well.

Eclogite MetamorphismAt about 100 kilometers depth, pyroxene, olivine and plagioclase recrystallize to a denser form to produce sodium-bearing pyroxene and garnet. The result is one of the most beautiful of rocks, eclogite, a mass of light green pyroxene enclosing pink garnets.Ancient Orogenic BeltsIt takes about 20 million years to erode a mountain range flat. But long after the mountains themselves are gone, we can recognize belts of deep- and shallow-water rocks, batholiths, rock deformation, and metamorphism.

Structures in the RocksSmall StructuresAnticline Syncline Monocline Homocline Large StructuresDome Basin Arch, Swell, Upwarp FoliationFoliation is a sheetlike structure that forms when rocks are deformed. As the figures show, it forms in a variety of ways, but in every case, the foliation is at right angles to the direction of greatest compression.

Folds and FoliationOn a small scale (microscopic to centimeters), foliation forms by a variety of mechanisms, but always at right angles to the direction of greatest compressionOn a large scale (centimeters to kilometers), rocks fold. The axial plane of the fold is also at right angles to the direction of greatest compression

Therefore, foliation in deformed rocks is generally parallel to the axial plane of the fold. This relationship makes it easy for a geologist working in deformed rocks to tell something about the orientations of large folds.

When rocks fold, the layers slip over each other, and thin beds are sometimes crinkled into so-called minor folds. Note that the folds are Z-shaped on one side of the fold and S-shaped on the other. A geologist can tell that she's crossed the axial plane of a fold by observing that the minor folds change from S- to Z-shaped (or vice versa).

How Geologists Use These Clues

Here's an outcrop that might be seen in the field. The beds are dipping steeply to the left, hinting perhaps that the beds are on the flanks of an anticline somewhere off to the right. However, the foliation also dips to the left, and the minor folds are inconsistent with an anticline off to the right.

Mentally, we picture the axial plane of the fold as parallel to the foliation. The other side of the fold is roughly a mirror image of the side we can see. We can guess it's a tight anticline with its right side overturned. There must be a syncline to the right of the outcrop. Note that we have no idea how big the fold is. The axial plane could be a meter or a kilometer away. What we are interested in is figuring out what kind of fold it is and how it is oriented.

We can mentally fill out the sketch to get an idea of the shape of the fold. Note that we still have no idea how big the fold is, but we know it's an anticline and have some idea of its shape and orientation.

Basins and Uplifts in the MidwestThe map above shows the geology of the Great Lakes region. Note that the pattern around Michigan is like a bulls-eye, with younger rocks in the center. Thus, we find Silurian rocks in eastern Wisconsin and Ontario, but they are buried beneath younger rocks in Michigan and are below the surface. Thus the rocks sag downward under Michigan. The structure is like a syncline, but much more broad and gentle, and it's more or less equidimensional. We call such a structure a basin. In Wisconsin, we find old rocks in the center becoming younger as we move away. We'd have to drill downward to find Precambrian rocks in LaCrosse or Green Bay, but they are on the surface in Wausau. Hence the rocks in Wisconsin arch upward, like an anticline but again much more broad and gentle. If this structure were closed on all sides we would call it a dome, but since it's open at each end we refer to it as an arch

The diagram above gives a three-dimensional view of the structure of the rocks. The vertical scale is very much exaggerated. Precambrian rocks are exposed in Michigan and Ontario, and are 5 km beneath the surface in the center of the Michigan Basin. We know that because a consortium of oil companies and universities drilled a well there in the 1970's. Thus the Michigan Basin is 500 km across but only 5 km deep. At the scale of this drawing, the true depth of the Michigan Basin would be about one screen pixel deep. No attempt has been made to show the complex folding in the Appalachians.

British engineers mencatat bahwa plumb bobs digunakan untuk surveying tidak tergantung secara vertikal di India bagian Utara dan efek ini meningkat bila semakin dekat pada Pegunungan Himalaya. 

Archimedes' Principle: A body, wether completely or partially submerged, is buoyed upward by a force equal to the weight of the displaced fluid. Isostasy: an equilibrium condition, as in the floating of the units of the lithosphere above the asthenosphere. As these principles apply to a floating object: gravity pulls down on the object, displacing fluid gravity also tries to force fluid back into its original place (the place occupied by the object) this creates an upward force, i.e. a buoyant force . isostasy occurs when the buoyant force is equal to the gravitational force, i.e. isostatic equilibrium ,Consider the example of an iceberg floating in the ocean. density of seawater =1025 kg/cubic meter density of ice =920kg/cubic meter since density water > density ice, ice floats

Gravity

Erosi Oleh GravitasiErosion is the dislodging of sediments that initiates their movement. Particles may then be moved away by sediment transport agents such as wind, water, glaciers, etc. Mass movement refers to earth materials moving downslope under the influence of gravity, as in rockslides, mudflows, slumps, etc

Erosion ProcessUnderstanding erosion is necessary as a basis for adequate control measures. Erosion is caused by rainfall, which displaces soil particles on inadequately protected areas and by water running over soil, carrying some soil particles away in the process. The rate of soil particle removal is proportional to the intensity and duration of the rainfall and to the volume and characteristics of the water flow and soil properties. Deposition of water-borne sediment occurs when the velocity decreases and the transport capacity of the flowing water becomes insufficient to carry all of its sediment load. Schematically, Figure 13-1 illustrates the typical forces involved in soil erosion.

Figure 13-1. Typical Forces in Soil Erosion

Natural erosion may range from extremely slow to rapid, depending on various factors. For example, where humans have disturbed land by construction, there may be a sudden, rapid increase in the rate of erosion, thus producing accelerated erosion. Accelerated erosion is the type of erosion that should be controlled during highway construction and after the highway is completed.

Soil erosion is either natural or accelerated:Natural erosion is a geological process over which humans have little or no control.

The potential for erosion is minimized by the following measures:1. flat side slopes, rounded and blended with natural terrain 2. drainage channels designed with due regard to width, depth, slopes, alignment,

and protective treatment 3. protection at culvert outlets 4. proper facilities for ground water interception 5. dikes, berms, and other protective devices 6. protective ground covers and plantings

measure erodibility

Pengendali ErosiThe Problem?The greatest problem plaguing waterfront property today is bank erosion, which is the gradual wearing of shoreline. This erosion can result in:•Property loss•Tree & ground cover loss•Stained water•Structural failure

The Solution

The solution is riprap (graded stone) erosion control. The advantages of applying rip rap by barge to your waterfront are that:•No heavy trucks will enter your property or cross driveways or septic fields; therefore there is no possible damage to your sidewalks, landscaping or sprinkler system. Your property is untouched.•Rip rap is off-loaded from the lake to the shore rather than dumped over the bank edge from your land, preventing the loss of a large percentage of material that rolls beyond it’s intended placement. • We can transfer debris and spoil matter from your property by barge. We can also haul things away for contractors. •We have the ability to contour and shape the shoreline from the barge. This is essential for a sound rip rap structure and involves the shaping of cantilevered over-hanging banks to form a suitable slope for rip rap.

Soil erosion occurs naturally when rain falls. Runoff flows to the lowest point of the landscape. The velocity depends on the characteristics of the soils, the slope of the land and the vegetative cover.   Erosion can be a serious environmental problem when the land is disturbed by development, agriculture, or forestry. Surfaces like roads, roofs, driveways and hard-packed soils will not absorb water, and the runoff increases. Expanses of pavement like parking lots reduce the chances for ground water recharge. Exposed soils are lost and the land becomes less productive.

erosion control method.

Erosion Control Netting should go beyond the edge of the mulched or seeded area at least 1 foot at the sides and 3 feet at the bottom. If there is existing vegetation at the boundaries of the area, the Erosion Control Netting should be continued into the stable vegetated area or to the edge of a structure.

STRENGTHENING THE SOIL TO RESIST EROSION

CONTROLLING WATER FLOWING INTO PROPERTY

CONTROLLING RUNOFF ON SLOPES

EROSION AND FIRE CONTROL IN NEWLY DEVELOPED AREAS

erosion and siltation

Erosion Control Geotextile

Erosion Control & Revegetation

Soil erosion control systems Bio-engineering erosion control

Erosion Control Blankets

Hams Hall river bank erosion control

Erosion control is the practice of preventing or controlling wind or water

spillway channels or flood control reservoirs,

Erosion controlRoot Zone Protection

Watering

Cable Concrete Erosion Control

Bar Beach erosion control and

Erosion Control. Erosion Solutions

Shredding Small Trees To Create Mulch for Erosion Control

Persamaan yang dihasilkan untuk perkiraan erosivitas rata‑rata bulanan dan tahunan dipergunakan rumus :

Keterangan :R = besarnya hujan dalam satu bulan (mm).D = banyaknya hari hujan dalam satu bulan.M = besarnya hujan harian maksimum dalam satu bulan (mm).

Soil Erosion Experiment Plots at Gich Camp

Map 2. Soil Erosion Map Year 1991

Some erosion control measures to be implemented

Geological map showing population distribution

Figure 1. Monthly R-factor distributions for Brisbane - 20 year data

El30 (%)

Fig. 3 - Zoning of erosion factors: a) Rainfall; b) Land cover.

RESEARCH AND DESIGN OF EROSION CONTROL AND SANITATION METHODS ON FOREST ROADS AND SLOPES

Figure 2. Design of natural erosion control methods for steep slopes of forest roads.

Figure 3. Design of nets for natural erosion control methods on slopes with sowing of original hay layers for protected landscape areas

Figure 4. Design of nets for natural erosion control methods on slopes without sowing for destroyed areas in protected landscape areas

Pole planting procedures for tunnel gullies

Tunnel gully before planting

Tunnel gully stabilised with a poplar pole

Siklus Batuan

LongsorThe term "landslide" describes a wide variety of processes that result in the downward and outward movement of slope-forming materials including rock, soil, artificial fill, or a combination of these. The materials may move by falling, toppling, sliding, spreading, or flowing. The drawing below is a graphic illustration of a landslide, with the commonly accepted terminology describing its features.

Anatomy of a Landslide

Landslides and WaterLandslides and Seismic ActivityLandslides and Volcanic Activity

Types of LandslidesRotational slide: This is a slide in which the surface of rupture is curved concavely upward and the slide movement is roughly rotational about an axis that is parallel to the ground surface and transverse across the slide.

Translational slide: In this type of slide, the landslide mass moves along a roughly planar surface with little rotation or backward tilting.

Block slide: is a translational slide in which the moving mass consists of a single unit or a few closely related units that move downslope as a relatively coherent mass.

Fall: Falls are abrupt movements of masses of geologic materials, such as rocks and boulders, that become detached from steep slopes or cliffs. Separation occurs along discontinuities such as fractures, joints, and bedding planes, and movement occurs by free-fall, bouncing, and rolling. Falls are strongly influenced by gravity, mechanical weathering, and the presence of interstitial water.

Topple: Toppling failures are distinguished by the forward rotation of a unit or units about some pivotal point, below or low in the unit, under the actions of gravity and forces exerted by adjacent units or by fluids in cracks..

Debris flow: A debris flow is a form of rapid mass movement in which a combination of loose soil, rock, organic matter, air, and water mobilize as a slurry that flows downslope. Debris flows include less than 50% fines. Debris flows are commonly caused by intense surface-water flow, due to heavy precipitation or rapid snowmelt, that erodes and mobilizes loose soil or rock on steep slopes.

Debris avalanche: This is a variety of very rapid to extremely rapid debris flow.

Earthflow: Earthflows have a characteristic "hourglass" shape. The slope material liquefies and runs out, forming a bowl or depression at the head. The flow itself is elongate and usually occurs in fine-grained materials or clay-bearing rocks on moderate slopes and under saturated conditions. However, dry flows of granular material are also possible.Mudflow: A mudflow is an earthflow consisting of material that is wet enough to flow rapidly and that contains at least 50 percent sand-, silt-, and clay-sized particles. In some instances, for example in many newspaper reports, mudflows and debris flows are commonly referred to as "mudslides."

Creep: Creep is the imperceptibly slow, steady, downward movement of slope-forming soil or rock.

Lateral Spreads: Lateral spreads are distinctive because they usually occur on very gentle slopes or flat terrain. The dominant mode of movement is lateral extension accompanied by shear or tensile fractures. The failure is caused by liquefaction, the process whereby saturated, loose, cohesionless sediments (usually sands and silts) are transformed from a solid into a liquefied state. Failure is usually triggered by rapid ground motion, such as that experienced during an earthquake, but can also be artificially induced. When coherent material, either bedrock or soil, rests on materials that liquefy, the upper units may undergo fracturing and extension and may then subside, translate, rotate, disintegrate, or liquefy and flow. Lateral spreading in fine-grained materials on shallow slopes is usually progressive. The failure starts suddenly in a small area and spreads rapidly. Often the initial failure is a slump, but in some materials movement occurs for no apparent reason. Combination of two or more of the above types is known as a complex landslide.

Landslide MitigationHow to Reduce the Effects of Landslides

Vulnerability to landslide hazards is a function of location, type of human activity, use, and frequency of landslide events. The effects of landslides on people and structures can be lessened by total avoidance of landslide hazard areas or by restricting, prohibiting, or imposing conditions on hazard-zone activity. Local governments can reduce landslide effects through land-use policies and regulations. Individuals can reduce their exposure to hazards by educating themselves on the past hazard history of a site and by making inquiries to planning and engineering departments of local governments. They can also obtain the professional services of an engineering geologist, a geotechnical engineer, or a civil engineer, who can properly evaluate the hazard potential of a site, built or unbuilt.

The hazard from landslides can be reduced by avoiding construction on steep slopes and existing landslides, or by stabilizing the slopes. Stability increases when ground water is prevented from rising in the landslide mass by (1) covering the landslide with an impermeable membrane, (2) directing surface water away from the landslide, (3) draining ground water away from the landslide, and (4) minimizing surface irrigation. Slope stability is also increased when a retaining structure and/ or the weight of a soil/rock berm are placed at the toe of the landslide or when mass is removed from the top of the slope.

A landslide is a type of "mass wasting." Mass wasting is down slope movement of soil and/or rock under the influence of gravity. A landslide is a movement of mass rock, debris, or earth down a slope.

Preventing Landslides

Plant vegetation2) Control water run-off3) Don't water slopes

Early Warming

In its broadest sense the general circulation of the atmosphere is usuallyconsidered to include the totality of motions that characterizes the global scaleatmospheric flow. Specifically, the study of the general circulation is concernedwith the dynamics of climate—that is, with the temporally averaged structures ofthe fields of wind, temperature, humidity, precipitation, and other meteorologicalvariables. The general circulation may thus be considered to consist of the flowaveraged in time over a period sufficiently long to remove the random variationsassociated with individual weather systems, but short enough to retain monthlyand seasonal variations.

In the past, both observational and theoretical studies of the general circulationconcentrated on the dynamics of the zonally averaged flow. The time-averaged circulation is, however, highly dependent on longitude due to longitudinally asymmetric forcing by orography and land–sea heating contrasts. The longitudinallydependent components of the general circulation may be separated into quasistationary circulations, which vary little in time, monsoonal circulations, whichare seasonally reversing, and various subseasonal and interannual components,which together account for low-frequency variability. A complete understandingof the physical basis for the general circulation requires an explanation not onlyfor the zonally averaged circulation, but the longitudinally and time-varying components as well.

Nevertheless, to introduce the study of the general circulation, it proves usefulto isolate those processes that maintain the zonal-mean flow (i.e., the flow averagedaround latitude circles). This approach follows naturally from the linear wavestudies of previous chapters in which flow fields were split into zonal-mean andlongitudinally dependent eddy components. In this chapter, however, we concentratenot on the development and motion of the eddies, but on the influence ofthe eddies on the structure of the zonal-mean circulation. Focusing on the zonalmean allows us to isolate those features of the circulation that are not dependenton continentality, and should thus be common to all thermally driven rotating fluidsystems. In particular, we discuss the angular momentum and energy budgets ofthe zonally averaged flow. We also show that the mean meridional circulation(i.e., the circulation consisting of the zonal-mean vertical and meridional velocitycomponents) satisfies a diagnostic equation analogous to the omega equationof Section 6.4.1, but with the forcing determined by the distributions of diabaticheating and eddy heat and momentum fluxes.

Sirkulasi Umum Atmosfer (General Circulation of the Atmosphere)

Sirkulasi iklim dan umum dari atmosfer dikaitkan pada: 1) Keseimbangan Energi (Energy balance) 2) Proses pengalihan Energi (Transport processes) 3) Model Sel Hadley,Ferrel dan Polar (The three cell model)

Keseimbangan EnergiTerkait pada keseimbangan radiasi masuk (incoming solar radiation) dan radiasi emisi balik terrestrial oleh bumi. Diatas dunia ini, keseimbangan energi dekat pada seimbang asalkan dilakukan perata-rataan selama setahun (incoming equals outgoing). Kemudian rata-rata energi di atas suatu pita lintang di tropis memiliki kelebihan radiasi masuk dan kekurangan radiasi di daerah kutub akibat radiasi terrestrial keluar lebih besar dari terserap dari radiasi matahari.

Proses Pengangkutan EnegriKompensasi surplus dan defisit radiasi pada wilayah berbeda di bumi,maka terjadi adanya proses pengangkutan energi oleh laut dan atmosfer untuk disebarkan disekeliling bumi. Transport ini dilakukan oleh angin atmosfer dan arus laut.

Three Cell ModelThis model represents the average circulation of the atmosphere and is used to describe the atmospheric transport of energy.

Hadley CellThe intense incoming solar radiation in the equatorial region creates rising air. The rising air cools condenses and forms a region of intense clouds and heavy precipitation. This area is call the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and corresponds regions over which the tropical rain forests are found. The ITCZ moves north and south following the sun during the year. Because the stratosphere is stable, rising air that reaches the tropopause moves poleward. By the time the air moving northward reached about 30 N it has become a westerly wind (it is moving to the east) due to the Coriolis force. Because of conservation of angular momentum, the poleward moving air increases speed. The increased speed and the Coriolis force are responsible for the subtropical jet. This poleward moving air piles up (notice on a globe how lines of constant longitude converge) forming an area of high pressure at the surface--the subtropical highs. Some of the air sinks toward the surface. Subsidence inhibits cloud formation and this is the reason many large deserts are found near 30N and 30S. Once the sinking air reaches the ground, some flows to the equator, turning west (in the northern hemisphere) as it goes due to the Coriolis force. This surface air forms the trade winds, that blow steadily from the northeast in the northern hemisphere and southeast in the southern hemisphere

Ferrel CellSome of the diverging air at the surface near 30N moves poleward and is deflected to the east by the Coriolis force resulting in the prevailing westerly winds at the surface. At about 60N the air rises cools and condenses and forms clouds and precipitation. This is the general region of the polar front. Some of this rising air returns equatorward.

Polar CellSinking air at the poles warms and results in a high pressure over the poles. At the surface, the poleward moving air gets pulled to the right by the Coriolis force (in the northern hemisphere) forming the polar easterly winds. The cold polar air meets with the warm subtropical air moving poleward and forms the boundary between these two air masses known as the polar front. The warm air from the subtropics pushes up over the cold equatorward moving polar air. This polar front is the source of much of the changing weather in the US, particularly in fall, winter and spring. The large temperature contrast results in the polar front jet stream in the vicinity of the polar front.

Major surface weather characteristics of the Three Cell Model:

The Equatorial Doldrums: Rising air creates calms or doldrums in the equatorial region. ITCZ: Rapidly upward moving air forms this line of convection often viewed on satellite images. The Trade Winds: steady northeast winds in the northern hemisphere. Horse Latitudes: The descending branch of the Hadley cell marked by calm winds and high pressure at the surface. Prevailing Westerly winds: Major air flow pattern of the midlatitude (i.e., 30N to 60N) regions of the earth. Polar Front: Boundary between the cold polar air flowing to the equator and the warm subtropical air moving poleward. Polar Easterly winds: Cold polar air that is moving southwest (in the northern hemisphere) where it eventually meets with the prevailing westerlies to form the polar front.

THE ANGULAR MOMENTUM BUDGETThe previous section used the quasi-geostrophic version of the zonal-mean equations to show that large-scale eddies play an essential part in the maintenanceof the zonal-mean circulation in the extratropics. In particular, we contrasted themean-flow forcing as represented by the conventional Eulerian mean and TEMformulations. This section expands our consideration of the momentum budget byconsidering the overall balance of angular momentum for the atmosphere and theearth combined. Thus, rather than simply considering the balance of momentumfor a given latitude and height in the atmosphere, we must consider the transfer ofangular momentum between the earth and the atmosphere, and the flow of angularmomentum in the atmosphere.It would be possible to utilize the complete spherical coordinate version of the TEM equations for this analysis, but we are concerned primarily with the angular momentum balance for a zonal ring of air extending from the surface to the top of the atmosphere. In that case it proves simpler to use the conventional Eulerian mean formulation. It also proves convenient to use a special vertical coordinate, called the sigma coordinate, in which the surface of the earth is a coordinate surface.

Jetstream and Storm TracksWhen the longitudinally asymmetric geopotential anomalies associated with stationarywaves are added to the zonal-mean geopotential distribution, the resultingtime mean field includes local regions of enhanced meridional geopotential gradientthat are manifested in the wind field of the Northern Hemisphere by the Asianand North American jetstreams. The existence of these two jets can be inferredfrom the January mean 500-hPa geopotential height field shown in Fig. 6.3. Notethe strong meridional gradients in height associated with the troughs centered justeast of the Asian and North American continents (the same features can be seen inannual mean charts, although with somewhat reduced intensity). The zonal flowassociated with these semipermanent troughs is illustrated in Fig. 6.2. In additionto the two intense jet cores in the western Pacific and western Atlantic, there is athird weaker jet centered over North Africa and the Middle East. Figure 6.2 showsdramatically the large deviations from zonal symmetry in the jetstream structure.In midlatitudes the zonal wind speed varies by nearly a factor of three betweenthe core of the Asian jet and the low wind speed area in western North America.Although, as was argued earlier, the climatological stationary wave distributionon which the Asian and North American jets are superposed is apparently forcedprimarily by orography, the structure of the jets also appears to be influencedby continent–ocean heating contrasts. Thus, the strong vertical shear in Asian andNorthAmerican jets reflects a thermal wind balance consistent with the very strongmeridional temperature gradients that occur in winter near the eastern edges of theAsian and North American continents due to the contrast between warm waterto the southeast and cold land to the northwest. A satisfactory description of thejetstreams must account, however, not only for their thermal structure, but for thewesterly acceleration that air parcels must experience as they enter the jet, andthe deceleration as they leave the jet core.

LOW-FREQUENCY VARIABILITYAn understanding of the general circulation requires consideration not only ofthe zonal-mean and stationary wave components and their variations with theannual cycle, but also of irregular variability on time scales longer than that ofindividual transient eddies. The term low-frequency variability is generally usedto describe such components of the general circulation. The observed spectrum oflow-frequency variability ranges from weather anomalies lasting only 7–10 daysto interannual variability on the scale of several years (see Section 11.1.6).One possible cause of atmospheric low-frequency variability is forcing due toanomalies in sea surface temperature (SST), which themselves arise from coherentair–sea interaction. Because of the large thermal inertia of the oceanic surfacemixed layer, such anomalies tend to have time scales much longer than thoseassociated with subseasonal variations in the atmosphere; they are thought to beof greatest significance on the seasonal and interannual time scales.

annular modes exist year round in the troposphere, but are strongest in the winterwhen they extend well into the stratosphere, especially in the Northern Hemisphere.The zonally symmetric mean-flow anomalies associated with the annular modes are apparently maintained by anomalous eddy momentum fluxes, which are themselves influenced by the zonally symmetric flow anomalies. Because these modes have their greatest influence at high latitudes, the northern and southern annular modes are sometimes referred to as the Arctic and Antarctic oscillations, respectively; it should be stressed, however, that they are not periodic oscillations, but rather represent two extremes of a broad distribution of climate states, with a wide range of associated time scales.

The Development of AGCMsThe success of the quasi-geostrophic model in short-range prediction suggeststhat for simulating the gross features of the general circulation such a model might be adequate provided that diabatic heating and frictional dissipation wereincluded in a suitable manner. Phillips (1956) made the first attempt to modelthe atmospheric general circulation numerically. His experiment employed a twolevel quasi-geostrophic forecast model modified so that it included boundary layer friction and latitudinally dependent radiative heating. The heating rates chosen by Phillips were based on estimates of the net diabatic heating rates necessary to balance the poleward heat transport at 45N computed from observational data. Despite the severe limitations of this model, the simulated circulation in some respects resembled the observed extratropical circulation.

Phillips’experiment, although itwas an extremely important advance in dynamicmeteorology, suffered from a number of shortcomings as a general circulationmodel. Perhaps the gravest shortcoming in his model was the specification ofdiabatic heating as a fixed function of latitude only. In reality the atmospheremust to some degree determine the distribution of its own heat sources. This istrue not only for condensation heating, which obviously depends on the distributionof vertical motion and water vapor, but also holds for radiative heating aswell. Both net solar heating and net infrared heating are sensitive to the distributionof clouds, and infrared heating depends on the atmospheric temperature aswell.

Another important limitation of Phillips’two-level modelwas that static stabilitycould not be predicted but had to be specified as an external parameter. Thislimitation is a serious one because the static stability of the atmosphere is obviouslycontrolled by the motions.It is possible to design a quasi-geostrophic model in which the diabatic heatingand static stability are motion dependent. Indeed such models have been usedto some extent, especially in theoretical studies of the annulus experiments. Tomodel the global circulation completely, however, requires a dynamical frameworkthat is valid in the equatorial zone. Thus, it is desirable to base an AGCMon the global primitive equations. Because of its enormous complexity and manyimportant applications, general circulation modeling has become a highly specializedactivity that cannot possibly be covered adequately in a short space. Herewe can only give a summary of the primary physical processes represented andpresent an example of an application in climate modeling.

Dynamical FormulationMost general circulation models are based on the primitive equations in theó-coordinate form introduced in Section 10.3.1. As was pointed out in that section,ó coordinates make it possible to retain the dynamical advantages of pressurecoordinates, but simplify the specification of boundary conditions at the surface.

Physical Processes and Parameterizations

The various types of surface and atmospheric processes represented in a typical AGCM and the interactions among these processes are shown schematically in Fig. 10.22. The most important classes of physical processes are (i) radiative, (ii) cloud and precipitation, and (iii) turbulent mixing and exchange.

Fig. 10.23 Meridional cross sections of mean zonal wind (m s-1) for the two solstice seasons. (Left) Results fromCSMsimulation; (right) observed climatology. (After Dai et al., 2001.)

Perbedaan pada model NWP(numerical Weather Prediction)

Suatu model sirkulasi umum (also known as a global climate model, both labels are abbreviated as GCM) menggunakan persamaan gerak yang sama untuk model numerical weather prediction (NWP), tetapi usulan simulasi secara numerik berubah dalam iklim sebagi hasil perubahan lambat dalam syarat batas (such as the solar constant) atau parameter fisis (such as the greenhouse gas concentration). Model numerical weather prediction (NWP) digunakan untuk memprediksi cuaca dalam jangka pendek (1-3 hari) dan menengah (4-10 hari) kedepan. GCM dijalankan untuk jangka waktu lebih lama untuk tahunan,cukup panjang untuk mempelajari tentang iklim dalam sens statistika (rata-rata dan variabilitas). Model yang baik NWP akurat memprediksi pergerakan dan evolusi gangguan seperti sistem front dan siklon tropis.GCM akan bekerja baik untuk ini, tetapi semua tipe model memiliki kesalahan setelah suatu waktu (e.g. 2 weeks), Dimana mereka menjadi tidak berguna lagi dari perspective cuaca kedepan. Kualitas suatu GCM is judged, diantara model, dengan kualitas statistik dari tropis atau ganguang extratropis.

State-of-the-art GCMs are coupled atmosphere-ocean models, i.e. a model simulating surface and deep ocean circulations is 'coupled' to an atmospheric GCM. The interface is the sea surface: that is where the transfers of water (evaporation/precipitation) and momentum occur. An accurate coupling of the fast atmosphere to the slow ocean (with long memory) is essential to simulate the ENSO, for instance (Note 11.A). GCM's can further be coupled to dynamic models of sea ice and conditions on land. Short to medium range NWP models are usually not coupled to a dynamic ocean model.

The mathematical descriptions of the climate system widely known as GCMs are computer programs which solve, approximately, the set of coupled differential equations representing conservation of atmospheric momentum, energy, and mass. A basic form of the momentum-conservation equation is: (This and the following balance equations are expressed in condensed, vector form for brevity. Expanded forms and further description can be found in textbooks on this subject (e.g., Washington and Parkinson 1986).

The General Circulation of the Atmosphere and its Variability

Thomson 1857

Outline of Talk

• Description of the General Circulation in classical terms

• Review of some of the advances in the past 25-40 years

• Discussion of theories of Dynamical Variability in the Atmosphere

Thomson 1857

Zonal Average Views

• Zonal Average Climatology• Zonal Average of x = [x]• x - [x] = x* = deviation from the zonal

average• Time average of x = x• x - x = x’ = deviation from time average

Ferrel 1859

Zonal Average Zonal Wind

Ferrel 1859

ERA-40

Zonal Average Meridional Wind

Ferrel 1859

ERA-40

Eddy Covariances

Maury 1855

[vT ][v][T ][v*T*]Zonal Average

of Product

Product of Zonal Averages

Zonal Averageof Eddy Product

Eddy Meridional Temp. Flux

ERA-40

Eddy Meridional Momentum Flux

ERA-40

Eddy Meridional Momentum FluxTransient Total

Stationary Stationary - JJA

ERA-40

Eddy-Driven Jets

• When you see surface westerlies with westerlies above, as in midlatitudes, these westerlies are driven by large-scale eddy momentum fluxes.

• The observed mean meridional circulations export mass-averaged westerly relative angular momentum.

Zonal-mean Momentumdu

dt fv

1

a cos

Drag

Expand total derivative and use continuity in p-coord.

u

t

1

acos

1

2u2

1

cos

(uv cos )

p(u) fv

1

acos

Drag

Multiply by a cos and average over longitude.

[m]t

1

a

[vm]

[m]

p f [v]a cos [Drag]a cos

m u acos

Zonal-mean Momentum

Next, integrate this over the mass of the atmosphere.

[m]t

1

a

[vm]

[m]

p f [v]a cos [Drag]a cos

m u acos

(...)dp (...)Ž0

ps

[m]Ž

t1

a

[vm]

[m]

0

ps f [v]Ž a cos [Drag] a cos

Zonal-mean Momentum

In steady state, this term is zero, by mass continuity.

[m]Ž

t1

a

[vm]

[m]

0

ps f [v]Ž a cos [Drag] a cos

Let’s make this part of the drag’.

So in steady state,

1

a

[vm]

[Drag '] acos

[v][u] [v *u*] cos [Drag '] acos

Steady, Mass-integrated Zonal-mean Momentum Equation

Mass-integrated mean zonal wind advection

Meridional eddy flux of zonal momentum

[v][u] [v *u*] cos [Drag '] acos

Steady, Mass-integrated Zonal-mean Momentum Advection

m u acosPeaks at around30N, so bothHadley and Ferrel Cells export relativeangular momentum

[v][u] cos . . . [Drag '] acos

Steady, Mass-integrated Zonal-mean Momentum Advection

m u acosEddies and MMCexport relativeangular momentum from the tropics and the eddies import relative angular momentum into extratropics, and focus it above the surface westerlies.

[v *u*] cos [Drag '] acos

Conclusion: Eddies must move momentum poleward

• If we have a climate with easterlies in the tropics and westerlies in midlatitudes, and eddies dominate the circulation in between, then eddies must transport westerly momentum poleward.

[v *u*] cos [Drag '] acos

Role of Eddies in MomentumLorenz (1952)

Ferrel 1859

Role of Eddies in MomentumLorenz (1967)

Ferrel 1859

Momentum is Funny Stuff

Consider a non-divergent, barotropic fluid

[u]t

y[u * v*][v **]

v

x

u

y

u

x

v

y0

Enstrophy Equation

t

1

2 *2

eff [v **][F **]

eff [v **][F **]

Steady Enstrophy Equation

Momentum is Funny Stuff

[u]t

y[u * v*][v **]

eff [v **][F **]

Steady Enstrophy Equation

Zonal Wind Equation

If source F* adds enstrophy, eddy vorticity flux must be up-gradient (normally northward) to maintain steady state.

That would tend to accelerate the flow in the region wherethe source of eddy enstrophy is located.

Momentum is Funny Stuff

This can be achieved, if the eddies are able to propagate out of the source region.

If angular momentum is conserved, there must also be aneasterly acceleration somewhere else, to balance out thewesterly acceleration produced in the eddy source region.

[u]t

y[u * v*][v **]

N.B. Wave propagation goes in the opposite direction to the momentum flux, so if waves propagate out ofregion, momentum is transported in.

Barotropic Cartoon

Momentum is Funny Stuff

[u]t

y[u * v*][v **]

+-

Where is eddy source, and sink ?+ -

eff [v **][F **]

+ - +

Momentum is Funny Stuff

u

t

y

u 'v ' v ' '

In quasi-geostrophic, baroclinic case,

u

t f v* 0 acos 1gF v 'q '

F 0 acos u 'v '

Fz f 0 acos v ' ' / z

F (F , Fz ) = Eliassen-Palm Flux Vector

How did the eddy heat flux end up in the momentum Budget?

How did the eddy heat flux end up in the momentum Budget?

• The eddy heat flux represents the form drag in a hydrostatic and quasi-geostrophic wave that tilts westward with height.

• ‘Easy’ to visualize by thinking in potential temperature coordinates.

• Consider the following picture of the temperature and pressure variations on a height surface associated with a westward tilting wave.

How did the eddy heat flux end up in the momentum Budget?

LHL HW C WC

• Add potential temperature perturbation.

How did the eddy heat flux end up in the momentum Budget?

d

dT

T

p

dp

LHL H

• Sketch in dz necessary to get back to a constant potential temperature surface; dz ~ -dtheta

How did the eddy heat flux end up in the momentum Budget?

LHL H

• Now let’s focus in on the resulting form drag.

How did the eddy heat flux end up in the momentum Budget?

H L

Form Drag ph

xdx on surface

In westward-tilting wave,atmosphereabove exertsan eastwardtorque on atmosphere below, and vice-versa.

LHL H

Height oftheta surface,material surface.

Eliassen-Palm Cross Sections

u

t f v*v 'q ' 0 acos 1gF

F 0 acos u 'v '

Fz f 0 acos v ' ' / z

F (F , Fz ) = Eliassen-Palm Flux Vector

Heat Flux partdominatesclimatology of E-P Cross-Sections

Tanaka, et al. 2006, JMSJ

How did the eddy heat flux end up in the momentum Budget?

• In middle latitudes, baroclinic eddies have poleward heat fluxes that are associated with

• eddy energy production, • upward wave propagation and • huge form drag that moves momentum from

the upper to the lower troposphere.

The Residual or Lagrangian Circulation

u

t f v*v 'q ' 0 acos 1gF

t

w *z

Q

1

acos

v *cos

1

0

z

0w * 0

w*

1

a 0 cos

gF

2sin

dz 'x

Use momentum (ignore tendency) and continuity,

Mean sinking is the meridional gradient of the drag integrated down to that level. Thermo not used.

Zonal Mean Circulations

u

t f v*v 'q ' 0 acos 1gF

= Residual or Lagrangian Circulation

Heat Flux partdominatesclimatology of E-P Cross-Sections

v*

Tanaka, et al. 2006, JMSJ

t

w *z

Q

Stationary and Transient Driving of Lagrangian Circulation

u

t f v*v 'q ' 0 acos 1gF

Tanaka, et al. 2006, JMSJ

v*

Transient

Stationary

Hadley Cell

Eddy-Driven Cell

If the eddy heat flux and form drag are so dominant in the momentum budget, are lateral eddy momentum fluxes really

that important? They have to be.

• Variability of eddy-driven jets is an important part, perhaps the most important part, of extratropical variability.

• ‘Easiest’ place to see this is in the Southern Hemisphere.

Southern Hemisphere Eddy-Driven Jet.

Lots of Ocean, not much topography,

fairly zonally symmetric, most of form drag from high wavenumbers.

Clear, almost seasonally invarianteddy-driven jet.

Southern Hemisphere Eddy-Driven Jet.

N H

S H

Tanaka,et al. 2006

Total4-7

1-3

>8

1-3

Form Drag by Zonal Wavenumber

Southern Hemisphere Eddy-Driven Jet.

Lots of Ocean, not much topography,fairly zonally symmetric,

most of form drag from high wavenumbers.Clear, almost seasonally invariant

eddy-driven jet.Subtropical

Jet

Eddy-DrivenJet

Southern Hemisphere Eddy-Driven Jet.

SubtropicalJet

Eddy-DrivenJet

Lorenz & Hartmann, 2001

Southern Hemisphere Eddy-Driven Jet.

Lots of Ocean, not much topography,fairly zonally symmetric,

most of form drag from high wavenumbers.Clear, almost seasonally invariant

eddy-driven jet.Primary mode of low-frequency variability is

North-South movement of the Eddy-Driven Jet.

Southern Hemisphere Eddy-Driven Jet.

Hartmann and Lo, 1998

Southern Hemisphere Eddy-Driven Jet.

Hartmann and Lo, 1998

First EOF of zonal wind almost independent of season.

Amplitude of EOF 1 is slowly varying, with most variance > 20 days

Southern Hemisphere Eddy-Driven Jet.

Hartmann and Lo, 1998

First EOF represents N-S shift of eddy driven jet.

1.5 standard deviation of PC-1 corresponds to 10˚ latitude shift of surface westerlies.

Southern Hemisphere Eddy-Driven Jet.

Hartmann and Lo, 1998

Momentum Budget of Meridional Eddy-Jet Meandering

Residual Circ. Barotropic

‘Baroclinic’aka Form Drag

Drag determined as residual

Momentum Budget of Meridional Eddy-Jet Meandering

Hartmann and Lo, 1998

Residual Circ.

Barotropic

‘Baroclinic’aka Form Drag

Drag determined as residual

Total EddyForcing

Southern Hemisphere Eddy-Driven Jet.

Lots of Ocean, not much topography,fairly zonally symmetric,

most of form drag from high wavenumbers.Clear, almost seasonally invariant

eddy-driven jet.Primary mode of low-frequency variability is

North-South movement of the Eddy-Driven Jet.

Eddy fluxes and residual circulation adjust to new position of jet, so that net tendency is small and jet is stable in

new position.Despite being relatively small in climatology, meridional

momentum flux convergence seems to play acentral role in N-S movement of eddy-driven jet.

Southern Hemisphere Eddy-Driven Jet.

Lots of Ocean, not much topography,fairly zonally symmetric,

most of form drag from high wavenumbers.Clear, almost seasonally invariant

eddy-driven jet.Primary mode of low-frequency variability is

North-South movement of the Eddy-Driven Jet.

Eddy fluxes and residual circulation adjust to new position of jet, so that net tendency is small and jet is stable in

new position.But, are the eddies passive or active, and do eddies add a positive feedback that adds persistence to departures of

the eddy-driven jet position?

Positive Eddy Feedback

Lorenz & Hartmann, 2001

Focus on vertical average momentum balance and meridional wave propagation.

Positive Eddy Feedback

Lorenz & Hartmann, 2001

Z=u M=-d/dy(u’v’)

Vertical mean zonal wind and eddy momentum forcing of first EOF (N-S shift)are coherent across a broadrange of frequencies and forcing leads wind, except for very long periods where theycome into phase.

Positive Eddy Feedback

Lorenz & Hartmann, 2001

Z=u is red M=-d/dy(u’v’) is whiter

Positive Eddy Feedback

Lorenz & Hartmann, 2001

Z=u M=-d/dy(u’v’)

Clues

a. M remembers Z

b. High-frequency eddies produce low-frequency forcing.

a

bsynoptic = 2-7 days

Simple Model ofPositive Eddy Feedback

Lorenz & Hartmann, 2001

M=-d/dy(u’v’)

b. High-frequency eddies produce low-frequency forcing, because they respond to zonal flow.

dz

dtm

z

m %m bz

d%zdt

%m %z

Linear System

Assume part of momentum forcing depends on zonal wind.

Choose b to explain long-term memory,then z without feedback can be computed.

Why is Transient Eddy Feedback Positive?Are Eddy-Driven Jets Self-Sustaining?

Yu & Hartmann 1993

• Wave source is baroclinic instability, which produces wave energy nearthe surface where the meridional temperature gradient is large.

• Waves propagate upward inwesterly winds

• Form drag produces a huge downwardzonal momentum flux

• A thermally direct overturning circulationdevelops to balance the momentumbudget.

• If waves can propagate out of barocliniczone they can bring in angular momentum.

• Diabatic heating must balance heatingby overturning cell.

Why is Transient Eddy Feedback Positive?Are Eddy-Driven Jets Self-Sustaining?

Yu & Hartmann 1993

Why is Transient Eddy Feedback Positive?Are Eddy-Driven Jets Self-Sustaining?

Yu & Hartmann 1993

Why is Transient Eddy Feedback Positive?Are Eddy-Driven Jets Self-Sustaining?

• So the eddy source and eddy momentum flux convergencecan just follow the jet.

• The meridional cell forced by the form drag of the growingeddies also follows the eddy source, which is the jet.

• Remaining problem is to bring along the diabatic heating thatsustains the meridional cell associated with the form drag.

• If the heating is driven by the departure from equilibrium forced by the meridional circulation, this is not a problem, theheating couplet follows the circulation.

Are Meridional Displacements of Eddy-Driven Jets Self-Sustaining?

u

t f v*v 'q ' 0 acos 1gF

t

w *z

Q

1

acos

v *cos

1

0

z

0w * 0

w*

1

a 0 cos

gF

2sin

dz 'x

Use momentum (ignore tendency) and continuity,

To sustain jet in new location, need to move diabaticheating with wave driving.

Are Meridional Displacements of Eddy-Driven Jets Self-Sustaining?

t

w *z

Q

w*

1

a 0 cos

gF

2sin

dz 'x

To sustain jet in new location, need to move diabaticheating with wave driving.

Works fine in simple models with Newtonian heating, if baroclinic zone is broad

Q (Tequil T ), ....Tequil Acos(2 )

Eddy momentum driving can define shape of heating.

Southern Hemisphere Eddy-Driven Jet.

SubtropicalJet

Eddy-DrivenJet

Lorenz & Hartmann, 2001

SAM & Precip

Sen Gupta & England, 2006

45

30

60

Why is Transient Eddy Feedback Positive?Are Eddy-Driven Jets Self-Sustaining?

Yu & Hartmann 1993

Momentum Budget of Meridional Eddy-Jet Meandering

Hartmann and Lo, 1998

Residual Circ.

Barotropic

‘Baroclinic’aka Form Drag

Drag determined as residual

Total EddyForcing

SAM & Precip

Sen Gupta & England, 2006

45

30

60

Parameterizing EddiesLorenz (1967)

Ferrel 1859

Conclusion

Thomson 1857

• We can explain in simple terms that eddy momentum fluxes are associated with the

growth, propagation and absorption of waves.

• It is hard to imagine a climate of Earth, in which eddies do not move momentum poleward.

• The interaction of eddies with jets and diabatic heating produces interesting variability, about which we are still learning.

The general circulation of the atmosphere revisitedThe general circulation of the atmosphere revisited

NCARBoulder, CO

NCARBoulder, CO

For those of us not there: Professor Ed Lorenz wrote a wonderful classic book “The nature and theory of the general circulation of the atmosphere” published by WMO in 1967.

At the Fifth World Meteorological Congress, Professor Ed Lorenz presented the IMO lecture entitled "The Nature and Theory of the General Circulation of the Atmosphere," characterised by the Congress as a "brilliant lecture" and published as a WMO monograph.

Professor Ed Lorenz wrote a wonderful classic book “The nature and theory of the general circulation of the atmosphere” published by WMO in 1967.

The book set up the dynamical framework for; the atmospheric general circulation, the governing equations and their approximate forms, the energetics, the observations, the processes revealed, laboratory, theoretical and numerical models.

The historical review and the background framework are every bit as useful today, as are the many insights into processes.

What have changed are the observations, the ability to analyze those into global fields, and the computers and modeling capabilities.

Of course Ed Lorenz has done much more than this: all of his work on chaos, for example, but others will deal with that. He also has many other awards and honors, including the Kyoto Prize, the Roger Revelle Medal, the Holger and Anna-Greta Crafoord Prize and others.

In this tribute to Ed Lorenz, I provide a more up to date (but superficial) view of the energy cycle in the atmosphere and its role in the larger climate system.

Professor Lorenz was my doctoral thesis advisor when I was a graduate student at M.I.T. in the late 1960s early 1970s. My work and perspective has clearly been greatly influenced by the education I received at M.I.T. I consider myself exceptionally fortunate to have been one of Ed’s students.

Atmospheric energetics became a vigorous area of study at MIT in the 1960s under Victor P. Starr: Planetary Circulations Project.

The incentive and focal point was the availability of the upper air soundings following the IGY. These studies were based on station statistics which were mapped over the domain: mainly extratropics NH.

Disadvantages of the station based approach: • Missing data and huge gaps over oceans.• Also, inability to deal with vertical motion and

divergent part of flow that is linked to diabatic processes that force the system.

Expanded into the Tropics and globally byNewell, Kidson, Vincent & Boer (1972, 1974, MIT Press) “The general circulation of the tropical atmosphere and interactions with extratropical latitudes” Vols 1 and 2

and more recent summary by Peixoto and Oort (1992).

Use of global reanalyses overcomes some of these disadvantages: global coverage and no missing data.Also multivariate, consistent method of analyses, with reasonable (much improved) divergent flow.

Problems remain from the changing observing system.Now possible to reconcile implied ocean heat transports from estimated atmospheric transports plus TOA radiation (from satellites) with direct ocean measurements.

Hence we can explore atmospheric portion in detail and partition into components.

Trenberth and Caron 2001

The MIT framework defined the “transient” contribution to be the departure from a mean (we use a month)

h = h + h’

“Quasi-stationary” : long-term mean plus the interannual and inter-monthly variability.

Hence it includes the Hadley and Walker circulations in the tropics: part of “global monsoon”.And it includes quasi-stationary planetary waves (mainly a factor in NH extratropics in winter)

¯''TvTvvT

TE = PE + IE + LE + KEtotal energy = potential + internal + latent + kinetic

Now the first two terms can be combined into the Total Potential Energy (TPE) which, through a major insight from Lorenz, can in turn be partitioned:

TPE = UPE + APE

Where APE is the Available Potential Energyand UPE is the Unavailable Potential Energy.

Lorenz points out how friction is positive definite in terms of heating and thus must contribute to UPE.

Note these do NOT relate simply to Dry Static Energy.

In terms of transports though we partition Total Energy transports into Dry Static Energy (DSE), Latent Energy (LE), and Kinetic Energy (KE), but the latter is small.

Transport of energy also involves work done:

Dry static energy DSE = SH + PE sensible heat+geopotential

Moist static energy MSE = DSE + LE DSE+latent

Total energy FA TE = MSE + KE Kinetic energy (small)

Divergence of transports balanced by diabatic forcings, ignoring tendencies and friction heating (small)

.TEv = Q1 – Q2

= atmospheric diabatic heating + column moistening

Q1 = RT + Fs + L(P-E)Q2 = L(P-E).FA = Q1-Q2 = RT+ Fs

= (RT – Rs) + LE +Hs

RT

Rs

Hs LE

Fs

LP

.FA

.FO

Mechanisms for poleward heat transports in the atmosphere vary:

In Tropics: large-scale overturning by the global monsoon and its embedded Hadley and Walker circulations.

In extratropics: baroclinic eddies (cyclones and anticyclones and associated cold and warm fronts)Plus quasi-stationary planetary wavesIn NH: Aleutian Low, Siberian High, Icelandic Low

Note: seamless total northward transports and divergence, but structure in components. Also DSE and LE opposite for stationary but additive for transients. Trenberth & Stepaniak 2003

Substantial divergenceout of subtropics

Transports Atmosphere Annual Divergence

7°N

Why is there a Hadley circulation?Fundamentally it is the most efficient way to transport heat (energy) polewards in the Tropics.

It is primarily driven by latent heating in upward branch. But the moisture is evaporated in subtropics and is transported by the circulation into upward branch, so this is not fundamental but is rather a secondary result.

Often also thought to be driven by radiative cooling to space in subtropics. This is partly a MYTH!

Instead there has to be a link with extratropical poleward energy transport by baroclinic eddies and quasi-stationary waves.

Hadley circulation theories

• Schneider (1977) zonally symmetric steady state model• Held and Hou (1980), Lindzen and Hou (1988), Hou and

Lindzen (1992) included effects of distribution of heating related to latent heat feedback, and displacement of upward branch away from equator (summer, winter scenarios)

• Schneider (1987) and Emanuel (1995) included non-zonal monsoonal effects

• Fang and Tung (1999) included time-varying heating that enhanced strength of time mean.

• Theories successfully account for several features of Hadley circulation:

Width of circulation, position of subtropical jet which are controlled by geostrophy and conservation of heat and momentum

All use radiative-convective basic state, often with Newtonian relaxation to produce heating and cooling.

Monsoons and anticyclones

• Zonal asymmetries important: • Trenberth et al. (2000): Global monsoon, variability on

multiple time scales.• Rodwell and Hoskins (1996, 2001), Chen et al. (2001)

also used idealized models and relaxation to basic state.• Downward branch important for water vapor: drying of

subtropics above the boundary layer.• Pierrehumbert 1995, 1999; Spencer and Braswell 1997;

Lindzen et al. 2001; Salathe and Hartmann (1997): latter shows paths of moisture swirl and do not correspond to zonal mean Hadley circulation.

• Large scale subsidence driven by radiative cooling to space regarded as dominant process in subtropics.

• Iris effect: window to space for OLR.

Hadley Circulationzonal mean Pacific

DJF

Annual

Trenberth et al. 2002

Radiation TOA

Diabatic heating atmosphere Q1

Column latent heating Q2

Total heating Q1-Q2

ASR

OLR

NETRT

Difference due to ocean transportsTrenberth and Stepaniak 2003

Divergence of total atmospheric energy

Note how transient and stationary components almost exactly compensatein extratropics: Divergence by transients in subtropics is compensated by subsidence and hence convergence by stationary component and, at same time, values of opposite sign to north and south.

Trenberth and Stepaniak 2003

Note strong compensation locally in stationary component.Closer relation with DSE and LE transients. T&S 2003

Divergence of: DSE LE

The Hadley circulation is driven mostly from the subtropics through cooling by transient baroclinic waves in storm tracks at mid-lats.

This is reason Hadley circulation reverses with annual cycle.

The cooling drives the downward branch of the Hadley circulation, clears the skies to allow OLR to contribute, and allows solar radiation through to surface where it provides moisture through evaporation.Tropical SSTs determine where the upward motion is favored, and the upward motion is driven by latent heating. But the moisture comes mostly from the subtropics, transported by the Hadley circulation itself.

The subtropical OLR and the tropical latent heating are secondary consequences of the more fundamental drivers.

Ocean heat transport

Dynamical

cooling by

advection

Dynamical warming by subsidence

Radiationsolar downinfrared up

Moisturetransport

Moisture transport

Evaporation

Hadley circulation and heat budget in subtropics

Latent heating

in convectiv

e rain

warm

Heat transportby transients

Trenberth and Stepaniak 2003

2. In extratropics: transient baroclinic waves LE and DSE additive, moisture more prominent in low-mid-latitudes. 3. Subtropics: substantial cooling by baroclinic wavesCoordinated with Hadley circulation adiabatic warming; and upward motion near equator. I.e. Hadley circulation and mid-latitude storm tracks directly linked.

Gives seamless total energy transport: on seasonal time scales

1. In Tropics: Global monsoonTE transport is small residual of DSE and LE.Solar radiation in clear skies heats ocean, cooled by

evaporation: moisture transported into upward branch, feeds DSE.

Circulation that provides transport, supplies LE

PEMODELAN CUACA DAN ATMOSFER EKUATORPenulis: Dr. Plato M.Siregar,S.Si,M.Si

Ekuator adalah gambaran garis khayal pada planet,titik tengah antara kutub ke kutub,dimana permukaan planet bola secara kasar paralel pada sumbu rotasi. Ekuator membagi permukaan kedalam belahan bumi Utara dan Selatan. Lintang dari ekuator berada pada 0 derajat. Panjang ekuator bumi adalah sekitar 40070 km.

ATMOSFER INDONESIA

The atmosphere is represented by the model at 10 levels in the vertical at 100 mb intervals from 100 mb to 1,000 mb. Pressure is used as a vertical coordinate, and the horizontal coordinates are taken on a stereographic map projection. The state of the atmosphere at a given time is specified in the model by the height h of the pressure surfaces, the two components of wind u and v at each level and the humidity mixing ratio 7 of each of the seven 100 mb layers below 300 mb. The atmosphere is assumed to be dry above 300 mb and no distinction is made between the ice and water stage below 300 mb. The atmosphere is assumed to be hydrostatic and inviscid and the effects of friction and topography are ignored.

Model Atmosfer 10-level

A 10-level primitive equation model suitable for studying the dynamics of fronts and frontal rainfall is described. The atmosphere is assumed to be hydrostatic and inviscid and the effects of friction and topographyare ignored. Latent heat due to evaporation and condensation is incorporated in the thermodynamic equation. No distinction is made between the ice and water stage and the atmosphere is assumed to be dry above 300 mb. The horizontal grid length is 40 km. The results of one 24-hr integration are described in detail.

The basic equationsThe motion is assumed to be frictionless and inviscid and the horizontal equations ofmotion are used in the form

where rn is the map magnification factor sec2 (n/4 - 8/29, 6 being the latitude, wand f ia the Coriolis parameter.dp/dt

The equation of continuity is used in the form

The thermodynamic equation can be written as

The tendency equation, using the hydrostatic approximation and taking the vertical velocity w dz/dt = 0 at mean sea-level, since topography is ignored,

Numerical weather prediction has now reached the stage where forecasts of pressurepatterns on the scale of anticyclones and depressions can be computed for up to three daysahead. Many National Meteorological Offices produce numerical forecasts which rangein period from 24 to 72 hours and which vary from simple barotropic forecasts to thosebased on multi-level baroclinic models. Although some problems remain to be solved, thestandard of these forecasts is as good as, if not better than, those produced by conventionalmethods. It is clear that numerical weather prediction can be advanced in two main ways;by extending the useful period of the forecast and by increasing the amount of detail in theforecast. This paper describes a numerical experiment designed to investigate atmosphericdisturbances on the scale of fronts. This model has been developed for two main purposes;the study of the dynamics of fronts and the prediction of frontal rainfall.

A finite difference scheme is used which is similar to that described by Eliassen (1956).The essential feature of this scheme is that it is staggered both in time and space. Dependent variables are kept only at alternate horizontal grid points; u is kept at grid points mid-way between adjacent values of h in the y direction, v is kept between adjacent values of h in the x direction, and w is evaluated at the central points of a 2 grid length square, which has a value of h at each of the corners. Values of a dependent variable at odd time steps are computed at grid points diagonally adjacent to the points at which the variable is known at an even time step. The horizontal grid consists of 95 x 63 points approximately 40 km apartand there are 10 levels in the vertical.

Finite diflerence approximations and boundary conditions

Finite Dierence Method for Elliptic PDEs

Initial dataThe initial data consist of geopotential heights and humidity mixing ratios at the standard pressure levels, although no moisture parameter is included at levels above 400 mb. Simple interpolation formulae are used where necessary to obtain geopotential heights at

RESULTSThe results of the 24 hr forecast produced from initial data at 0000 GMT, 1 December 1961 are discussed in this section, these being the only data from which a 24 hr forecast

Calculations of percentage area of cloud cover at 18 and 24 hours are extremely interesting. The wind field at 1,000 mb exhibits an east-west oriented asymptote of convergence.

Aplikasi Model Untuk Bulanan• GCM & SKALA SINOPTIK

-Persamaan momentum horizontal

-Hidrostatik

-Persamaan Kontuniutas

-Energi Termodinamika• Input: U,V,H,T,Rh dari data BMG dan NCEP• Output: U,V,H,T,RH dan Tutupan awan • Analisa untuk prediksi hujan dan mengisi data kosong.• Analisa frekuensi data deret waktu antara indeks

kekeringan dengan gelombang atmosfer

Analisa Karakteristik Iklim: Luaran Model 10-level Atmosfer Indonesia

• 12 Tahunan (sunspot dan sinar kosmik)• 2,5, dan 7 tahunan( ENSO dan IOD)• Tahunan(monsun,seruak dingin) • Musiman(DJF,MAM,JJA dan SON)• Inter-seasonal(MJO,QBO dan Gel.Kelvin/Timuran)• Harian dan efek lokal (Sea Breeze,Land

Breeze,Topografi,konveksi,angin umum dan siklon tropis)

• Survey gangguan pada lintang rendah

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Tw

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TvQ

z

Tw

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Tv

x

Tu

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w

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p

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puf

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vw

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yffa

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MODEL IKLIM EKUATOR INDONESIAUntuk menganalisis dinamika iklim dibutuhkan persamaan pengatur,viskositas dan diffusi panas diabaikan,tetapi suku sumber atau penghilang ditambahkan pada Persamaan suhu untuk menyatakan bati panas dalam tropis dan panas yang hilang Pada lintang yang lebih tinggi,Q merupakan gaya termal. Diwilayah tropis faktor Corioli ditukar sebagai persamaan bidang beta.Berikut ini merupakan persamaan GCM (General Circulation Model)

)( tnzmylxieAu )(exp(,,,, 0000 ctxikUiVUuhvu

....)2cos()cos(

)cos(0

ftedtbatu

tuu

Solusi umum persamaan Iklim di Indonesia:

Pisahkan komponen distribusi ruangdan terserap dalam komponen Uo

SEKIAN DAN TERIMA KASIH