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S. A. Khalid and H. Ali/ The Effects of Citizenship Behavior on Withdrawal Behavior

The Effects of Organizational Citizenship Behavior on Withdrawal Behavior: A Malaysian Study

Shaiful Annuar KhalidPaP, *Hassan AliPbP

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aPFaculty of Business Management, Universiti Teknologi Mara, 02600 Arau, Perlis

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bPFaculty of Business Management, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 Sintok, Kedah

*Corresponding author Email address: [email protected]

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Abstract

The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) on turnover intention and self-reported absenteeism. Data were gathered via questionnaire from 63 manager-subordinate dyads from star-rated hotels in the northern region of peninsular Malaysia. OCB was measured based on five dimensions: altruism, courtesy, sportsmanship, conscientiousness, and civic virtue. Managers provided ratings on employee OCB. Employees provided self-ratings of turnover intention and absenteeism. Correlation analysis and multiple regressions were used to analyze the data. The results show that civic virtue and sportsmanship affect turnover intention significantly and negatively. The results also indicate that only conscientiousness significantly influenced self-reported absenteeism. Key words: absenteeism, turnover, organizational citizenship behavior, withdrawal behavior, hotel ___________________________________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION The concept of organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) was first introduced by Bateman and Organ (1983) and Smith et al. (1983) and was discussed in greater detail by Organ in 1988. According to Organ (1988), OCB refers to a general set of behaviors exhibited by employees such as being helpful, discretionary and going beyond normal job requirements. Moorman and Blakely (1995) captured the essence of OCB when they indicated that a good citizen is an employee who offers support to the organization, even when such support is not verbally demanded. The study of OCB has received considerable attention in recent years (Farh et al., 1997) and has been identified as vital to the effectiveness of organization and teams (Bateman and Organ, 1983; Organ, 1988; Podsakoff et al., 1996). Previous research on OCB has generally focused on identifying factors affecting or contributing to OCB. Very little research attention has been given to empirically investigate the consequences of OCB on organizational effectiveness through direct measures such as job performance or

International Journal of Management and Entreprenuership, 1(1):30-40, 2005

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indirect measures using surrogates (Angle and Perry, 1981) such as turnover or absenteeism. According to Podsakoff, McKenzie, Paine and Bacharac (2000), although over 160 studies have been identified in the literature examining factors that influence OCB, nevertheless only five studies reported, attempted to investigate whether OCB does contribute to organizational effectiveness (Chen et al., 1998; Podsakoff and MacKenzie, 1994; Podsakoff et al., 1996). The present study examines the influence of OCB on withdrawal behavior by investigating the relationship between OCB and employee turnover intentions and self-reported absenteeism. The objective of the study is to provide additional evidence on the relationship between OCB and turnover intentions that shows a negative relationship and to determine the influence of OCB on absence behavior with a negative relationship. THEORETICAL RATIONALE AND DEVELOPMENT OF HYPOTHESIS Withdrawal Behaviors

Employee lateness, absence, and turnover are the most frequently used indicators of withdrawal behavior in organizational settings (Koslowsky and Dishon-Berkovits, 2001). Withdrawal refers to a set of behaviors employees use in attempts to remove themselves from their jobs or avoid work tasks (Koslowsky et al., 1997). Turnover describes permanent removal, voluntarily or involuntarily, of an employee from the organization (Koslowsky et al., 1997) whereas absenteeism refers to the fact that the worker misses work during the entire day. Individual acts of withdrawal (e.g., turnover, absenteeism) are highly visible, costly for most organizations, and some are potentially costly to the individuals enacting the behaviors (Hanisch and Hulin, 1990).

The nature and types of absenteeism and turnover are both voluntary and involuntary. The focus of this study is on the type of absenteeism for which employees have a comparatively great amount of discretion voluntary or avoidable absence. Avoidable absence represents situations in which employees could have attended if they had so chosen. This type of absenteeism was selected as it is under the control of the organization as well as the employees (Dalton and Mesch, 1991). Reasons for absenteeism, which should be regarded as avoidable, include hobbies, recreation, personal business, minor illness, house maintenance and personal discomfort (Johns and Xie, 1998). A reason for looking at turnover intention is that, it is under more individual control than actual turnover, which is more difficult to predict because it is affected by many factors (Koh and Goh, 1995). Additionally, the best predictor of behavior is behavioral intention (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980). Organizational Citizenship Behavior and Withdrawal Behavior

The underlying mechanisms explaining why individuals level of OCB may

influence their withdrawal behavior can be drawn from the general cognitive consistency theory. Cognitive consistency means the individuals mental states (e.g., attitudes, beliefs and preferences) fit together harmoniously and do not conflict. The cognitive consistency theory (Festinger, 1957) claims that individuals are predisposed to experience psychological discomfort when they behave in ways


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inconsistent with their values and moral standards. Thus, individuals try to maintain agreement between their behaviors, beliefs and attitudes. This means that individuals seek to align their attitudes and behavior so that they appear rational and consistent. Coon (1983) stated that when an individual decided something (form an attitude), the person then tended to behave in line with what have been decided (formulated attitude). After making a personal commitment, it is usually thought to shape the individuals future attitudes and actions. It seems that the contrast nature of citizenship behavior and withdrawal behavior may suggest one basic link between these behaviors. Chen et al., (1998) indicated that high levels of OCB reflect employees high organizational involvement. In contrast, withdrawal behavior is regarded as undesirable and dysfunctional (Pelted and Xin, 1999) and is potentially harmful to ones co-worker, group and organization. Based on the logic of cognitive consistency, it is reasonable to state that high level of OCB is inconsistent with high level of withdrawal behavior but it is not inconsistent with low level of withdrawal behavior. Previous studies across a variety of situations (see for example, Parish and Necessary, 1996; Ward, 1986; Green and Holeman, 2004) indicated that people who behave in a certain way at one point in time are likely to behave consistently in future. Taking a cognitive consistency orientation, the present study predicts that OCB is associated negatively with employees withdrawal behaviors.

Despite over 1,500 studies reported in the turnover literature (Shaw et al., 1998), previous research on this dysfunctional behavior has focused on such antecedents as job affect, cognitive process and demographic factors, but has not paid attention to the role of behavioral antecedents such as OCB. Study by Chen et al. (1998) was the first study to investigate the relationship between OCB and turnover among technical workers in the Peoples Republic of China. They found that subordinates who were rated as exhibiting low levels of OCB were found to be more likely to leave an organization than those who were rated as exhibiting high levels of OCB. Specifically, their study revealed that the level of altruism, conscientiousness and sportsmanship were higher among employees with no turnover than among employees who left the organization. A later study by Chen et al. (2002), involving employees of a large multinational bank found that a composite score of individuals as well as group-level OCB were negatively related to individual turnover intentions. Recently, Lee et al. (2004) did a study in the financial sector in the US and found that a composite score of OCB among the employees in that sector was negatively related to voluntary turnover. Due to the use of limited OCB dimensions and a composite score of OCB, the relatively few studies cited thus far do not permit much generalization on the relationship between OCB and withdrawal behaviors, thereby warranting further investigation and confirmation of research findings. This study therefore proposes the following general hypothesis:

Hypothesis 1: Organizational citizenship behavior is negatively related to turnover intention.

Research investigating the relationship between OCB and absenteeism is relatively sparse. Lee et al., (2004) found that a composite score of OCB was negatively related to absenteeism in the financial sector. Additionally, it is possible to argue that since turnover and absenteeism both involve physical withdrawal from the workplace and thus it would seem likely that they have several factors in common.


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Van Scooter (2000) indicated that extra-role behavior such as OCB demonstrates an employees willingness to be actively involved in the organization. In contrast, absenteeism could be an indication of withdrawing efforts from work environment (Viswesvaran, 2002). Thus, the contrast nature of both behaviors suggests that OCB should also have a similar effect on absenteeism as in turnover. According to Podsakoff et al. (2000), although empirical researches have yet to examine the effect of OCB on a broader dimension of withdrawal behavior, based on the available empirical evidence (Chen et al., 1998; Lee et al., 2004), a similar pattern of effects can be expected between OCB and absenteeism. Moreover, Organ (1988) argued that conscientious employees are those employees who are concerned with the life of the organization and thus have low inclination towards unscheduled absenteeism. This study then proposes the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 2: Organizational citizenship behavior is negatively related to absenteeism. METHODS Procedures and Participants

The respondents of the study were full-time hotel employees and their manager from five major star-rated hotels in the northern region of peninsular Malaysia. Employees from this industry were selected due to two major reasons. First, the hotel industry is facing a high rate of employee turnover. Studies indicated that high turnover rates in the hotel industry are not country specific but a world epidemic (Ron, 1997). Second, as a profit making organization, employee OCB is considered as an important ingredient for hotel organization effectiveness. The diversity and unpredictability of customer demands, combined with the broad scope of a hotels services, requires extra effort on the part of employees to go beyond formal duties to ensure customer satisfaction (Walsh, 2000).

To avoid the problem of common method variance (Podsakoff and Organ, 1986), data was collected using two separate questionnaires, one of which was completed by the respondents during working hours. The respondents manager (or head of department) completed the second questionnaire. Measures of turnover intentions and absenteeism were collected from respondents and their manager rated OCB in the second set of questionnaire. The first and the second questionnaires were coded so that they could be matched. Data collection involved one or two personal trips to each hotel to obtain approval, explain the objectives of the study and the rating procedures. A list of employees names was obtained from the Human Resource department of the respective hotels for the purpose of coding the two sets of questionnaires. A code number representing a particular employee was printed on each subordinates questionnaire and the name was printed on the manager questionnaire for manager evaluation of OCB. Both questionnaires were distributed and collected with the help of the human resource department of each hotel. In order to encourage the respondents to cooperate in the study, they were informed that their individual responses were anonymous, that the survey was not a test and there were no right or wrong answers, only opinions and ideas matter and participation was


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voluntary. The data collection commenced in early November 2003 and was in December 2003.

Analysis related to the hypothesis required the matching of managers responses with specific subordinates. In some cases, subordinates responses were obtained but no manager ratings to match. In other instances, manager ratings were obtained but no responses from the subordinates. Thus usable sample for correlating variables could not include all manager and subordinate responses. On the whole each manager rated between one and five subordinates but the majority of the managers rated two subordinates. This ratio is comparatively better than some previous studies whereby each manager rated up to ten employees (e.g. Cappelli and Rogovsky, 1995). A total of 69 manager questionnaires and 68 subordinates questionnaires were returned out of 150 manager and 150 subordinates questionnaires distributed. A detail screening of the returned questionnaires yielded 63 matched pairs of subordinates and manager questionnaires, which were used for the subsequent analysis. Average age of the respondents was 27.6 years. Thirty-eight were males (60.3%) and 25 were females (39.7%). The average tenure of the respondents was 3.9 years. The low average age of respondents mirrors the International Labor Organization (2001) report, which indicates the majority of hotel employees were less than 25 years old. Measures Independent Variable: Organizational Citizenship Behaviors

OCB was measured based on the five dimensions scale developed by Podsakoff and Mackenzie (as cited in Niehoff and Moorman, 1993). Each of the five constructs - altruism, courtesy, sportsmanship, conscientiousness, and civic virtue - included items describing specific behaviors. These dimensions have been conceptualized by Organ (1988) and selected for this study because it is frequently used by researchers (LePine et al., 2002; Schnake and Dumler, 2003). Managers and subordinates indicated their agreement on each item using a 5-point Likert scale format ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). The psychometric properties of this scale have been reported in Moorman (1991). The study by Moorman supports a five dimensions model of OCB and the reported reliabilities are 0.81 (altruism), 0.88 (courtesy), 0.87 (sportsmanship), 0.83 (conscientiousness), and 0.76 (civic virtue). Minor modifications were made to the questionnaire to suit the study sample. The words organization and company were replaced by the word hotel. For the manager questionnaire, every statement about OCB started with the words This employee. Dependent Variables: Turnover Intention and Self-reported Absenteeism

Turnover intention was measured using a 3 items scale adapted from Camman et al. (as cited in Chen et al., 1998). The internal consistency coefficient for this scale was 0.78 (Chen et al., 1998). The items are: (1) I often think of leaving the hotel, (2) It is very possible that I will look for a new job within the next year and (3) If I may choose again, I will choose to work for the current organization. Respondents rated their level of agreement with each item on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). Item 3 was reversely coded during analysis so that the higher score indicated higher turnover intention. The three items were averaged to form a single scale for the subjective measure of turnover intention.


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Due to several problems encountered in an attempt to obtain organizational records of avoidable absenteeism (e.g., lack of cooperation, confidentiality of absence records and records not comparable across organizations), this variable was measured based on self-reported data. Since absenteeism is a challenging variable to measure, recommendations by scholars are followed accordingly. First, Johns (1994) has suggested that to avoid memory lost, the appropriate period might be from 3 months to 6 months. Second, Sudman and Schwarz (1989) suggested a free-response format to measure absenteeism as it has been found to be less susceptible to recall bias. Finally, Sudman and Bradburn (1982) have suggested using longer and deliberately loading the question to assume that the behavior has been exhibited or that most people engage in the behavior. According to Johns (1994), the use of self-reported absence was not uncommon in absenteeism research and several studies found that self-reported absenteeism correlated with records-based data (Spector, 1987). The item is as follows: People have many reasons for missing work. Most people miss an auspicious day once in a while. Excluding annual leave and any other leave allocated by the hotel, how many total days were you absent from work for any reasons for the past three months? Please write in: _____.

This question distinguished absenteeism from other forms of non-attendance that are arranged in advance (e.g., annual leave) and any other legitimate absence (e.g., sick leave). Absenteeism data are generally truncated on the low end and positively skewed (Hammer and Landau, 1981) and violates a basic assumption of regression analysis. Square-root transformation of the self-reported absenteeism was normally used in the statistical analysis (Johns, 1994). In the results that follow, all analyses were conducted using the square root transformation of the self-reported absenteeism data. RESULTS Table 1 shows the mean, standard deviation, reliability coefficient, and correlation of all the variables used in the present study. An examination of results in Table 1 indicates that the reliability for the OCB dimensions ranged from 0.85 (altruism); 0.83 (civic virtue); 0.82 (sportsmanship); 0.80 (courtesy) and 0.70 (conscientiousness). The reliability for turnover intention is 0.78. No alpha coefficient was computed for self-reported absenteeism because it consisted of only one question. All variables excepting self-reported absenteeism have been tapped on a five-point scale. It can be seen that the mean for the five OCB domains are perceived as somewhat enriched (3.36 to 3.65). The mean of 2.58 on a five-point scale for turnover intention indicates that most of the respondents were not quite bent on leaving. The standard deviations of the variables ranged from .62 to 1.08, suggesting that none of the measures were marked by excessive restriction in range. The results of the bivariate correlation indicated that the OCB dimension of sportsmanship clearly had the strongest correlation with employee turnover intentions (r=-0.48), followed by civic virtue (r=-0.47), courtesy (r=-0.39), and altruism (r=-0.37). No significant correlation between conscientiousness and turnover intention was observed. The correlations were all negative and significant indicating that relationship between OCB dimensions and turnover intention among hotel employees was negative. The results of the bivariate correlation also indicated that


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conscientiousness (r=-0.38) and altruism (r=-0.27) were related significantly and negatively with self-reported absenteeism (r=-0.38). The results of the bivariate correlation provide general support for the hypothesis that employees who were high in OCBs were more likely to report low levels of withdrawal behavior. The size of the coefficients among OCB domains did not exceed 0.70, and therefore suggested no problem of multicollinearity (Nunnally, 1978).

Table 1. Mean, standard deviations and inter-correlations among variables

Variable Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Altruism (1) 3.49 0.68 (0.85) Courtesy (2) 3.65 0.62 0.68** (0.80) Sportsmanship (3) 3.61 0.69 0.62** 0.56** (0.82) Conscientiousness (4) 3.40 0.65 0.62** 0.53** .57** (0.70) Civic virtue (5) 3.36 0.69 0.56** 0.54** .45** 0.21 (0.83) Turn. Intentions (6) 2.58 1.08 -0.37** -0.39** -0.48* -0.22 -0.47** (0.78) SRA (7) 0.45 0.89 -0.27* -0.20 -0.19 -0.38** -0.03 0.09 -

*p


DISCUSSION

This study examined the relationship between OCB, turnover intentions and self-reported absenteeism among hotel employees. Because of the lack of previous research in this area, this study should be considered exploratory. The data provide general support for the hypothesis that OCB are related to withdrawal behaviors, although OCB tended to predict the turnover intentions better than self-reported absenteeism. The possibility of underreporting of absence incidents probably reduces the strength of the relationship between OCB and self-reported absenteeism. Nevertheless, the 14% of absence variance accounted for in this study is roughly comparable to that commonly found in previous studies such as 15 % by Kohler and Mathieu (1993) and 12 % by Watson (1981). The results of this study indicate that sportsmanship and civic virtue were related to turnover intentions. Employees who were rated as having higher levels of civic virtue and sportsmanship were more likely to report low turnover intentions. Additionally, employees with higher level of conscientiousness were more likely to report less absenteeism. Since data for OCB and withdrawal behaviors were obtained from different sources, the problem of common method variance can be eliminated (Podsakoff and Organ, 1986). The OCB absenteeism relationship has not been addressed in prior research, and our finding is a new contribution to the OCB research stream.

From the theoretical perspective, employees with high level of OCB reported lower propensity to engage in withdrawal behaviors presumably in an attempt to maintain their cognitive consistency. Although the study has generally indicated that OCB as a whole have been shown to be significantly and negatively related to employee turnover intentions, certain dimensions of OCB appear to be more directly responsible for the relationship than others. This finding suggests that to retain employees in a high turnover organization, management needs to focus on nurturing certain critical aspects of extra role behavior especially civic virtue and sportsmanship. The finding that conscientiousness explained absence behavior is generally consistent with theoretical arguments advanced by Organ (1988), which stated that conscientious employees have low inclination towards absenteeism. Organ (1988) theorized that conscientious employees improve organizational effectiveness through its impact on employee attendance whereby these employees generally avoid unnecessary absence. Even though other factors may also influence employees turnover decision and absenteeism, the present study demonstrated that OCB should also be considered as one of the many predictors. This study demonstrates that the relationship between OCB and withdrawal behavior and the theoretical justification behind this relationship is applicable to non-Western organizational members. Some possible limitations of these findings nevertheless should be noted. Firstly, this study used turnover intentions. However, intention plays only a partial role in behavior as other factors may interfere with actual turnover decision (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980). Secondly, the present study would have been improved had it been able to use organizational record of absenteeism.

Several lines of future research suggest themselves. Firstly, the sample size of the present study can be considered small. With larger samples, the models would have been more stable. Ideally, when using multiple regressions, the sample size will yield a subject-to-variable ratio of 15:1, which was not achieved in this study. Therefore the study has to be carried further to include a larger sample. Further, it would be of


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interest to study the impact of OCB on other types of withdrawal behavior such as lateness behavior or social loafing. It would also be worthwhile to investigate the presence of possible moderators in research of OCB consequences. Several studies (e.g., Kuehn and Al-Busaidi, 2002; Turnipseed and Murkison, 2000) found that older and longer service workers are more likely to exhibit high level of OCB. These may suggest that OCB may interact with some personal factors such as age and tenure in explaining employee withdrawal behavior.

The results of this study may have some implications for managers in the hotel industry. The hotel industry in Malaysia is large. It offers accommodation ranging from lodging houses to five-star hotels. As a result of the continuing tourism development, the hotel in Malaysia is also continuingly developed to cater for more foreign visitors and provide better services. Since employee turnover and absenteeism can affect product and service quality and consequently, profitability, the findings of this study suggest that hoteliers need to encourage OCB among its employees. Hotels that experience high rates of absenteeism probably may want to improve the level of conscientiousness among its employees. Hoteliers may also want to enhance the level of sportsmanship and civic virtue among its employees in order to dissuade them from leaving the hotel. Entrepreneurs who operate smaller hotels probably may want to foster OCB among its employees in order to develop committed and loyal employees, which can be a means to enhance the hotels competitiveness. REFERENCES Ajzen, I. and Fishbein, M. (1980). Attitude-behavior relations: A theoretical analysis and

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