bahan kajian kompendium idr dalam kajian lingkungan dikoleksi oleh: prof dr ir soemarno pslp...

BAHAN KAJIAN

KOMPENDIUM

IDRDALAM

KAJIAN LINGKUNGAN

Dikoleksi oleh: Prof Dr Ir SoemarnoPSLP –PDKLP PPSUB MARET 2012

Kajian interdisipliner merupakan kajian yang tidak mengkhususkan diri pada suatu alat analisis yang bersandar pada paradigma keilmuan satu disiplin

tertentu. Kajian interdisipliner dalam melakukan analisisnya

menggunakan bidang-bidang keilmuan lainnya relevan dengan obyek kajian yang tengah diteliti.

DISCIPLINARY

“Disciplinary” merupakan istilah yang digunakan untuk mendeskripsikan tipe-tipe pengetahuan, ekspertais, ketrampilan, orang,

proyek, komunitas, problem, tantangan, kajian, penelaahan, pendekatan, dan bidang-bidang riset , yang berhubungan erat dengan bidang kajian akademik (disiplin akademik) atau bidang-bidang praktek

profesional (profession). Misalnya, fenomena gravitasi berhubungan erat dengan disiplin

akademik fisika, sehingga “gravitasi” dianggap menjadi bagian dari disiplin pengetahuan fisika.

Closely associated terms include multidisciplinary (multidisciplinarity), interdisciplinary (interdisciplinarity), transdisciplinary (transdisciplinarity), and

crossdisciplinary (crossdisciplinarity).Disciplinary knowledge associated with academic disciplines and professions

results in people who are known as expert or specialist, as opposed to generalist who may have studied liberal arts or systems theory.

Academic disciplines tend to coevolve with systems of professions. The academic disciplines and professions may be said to 'own' knowledge and the privilege/responsibility of validating/authorizing new knowledge extensions in

particular disciplinary areas. For example, astronomers define what is and is not a planet, and so the knowledge about the status of Pluto as a planet can

change.

Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disciplinary ….. Diunduh 22/3/2012

“Disciplinary” menyatakan pengetahuan yang berhubungan dengan satu disiplin akademik

atau profesi.

Permasalahan di dunia

nyata:

Pemanfaatan sumberdaya

alam, pembangunan dan dampak lingkungan

ANALISIS EKOLOGI

ANALISIS & VALUASI EKONOMI

ANALISIS SOSIAL

Metode Penelitian pendukung:Scientific methods

System theory and approaches

HASIL INTERDISIPLIN

RISET

Disiplin ilmu pendukung:Academic disciplines: Ilmu-ilmu dasar

Hasil dan Kesimpulan:

Keseimbangan ekonomi, sosial, dan

ekologi

Interdisciplinary Environmental Studies

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_disciplines

INTERDISIPLINARITAS

“Interdisciplinarity” melibatkan kombinasi dua atau lebih bidang-bidang akademik menjadi satu disiplin tunggal.

An interdisciplinary field crosses traditional boundaries between academic disciplines or schools of thought, as new needs and professions have

emerged.Originally the term interdisciplinary is applied within education and training pedagogies to describe studies that use methods and insights of several

established disciplines or traditional fields of study. Interdisciplinarity involves researchers, students, and teachers in the goals of

connecting and integrating several academic schools of thought, professions, or technologies - along with their specific perspectives - in the pursuit of a common

task.


APA MAKNA PENELITIAN INTERSIDIPLINER?

Interdisciplinary research (IDR) is a mode of research by teams or individuals that combines information, techniques, tools, perspectives,

concepts, or theories from two or more research traditions. Its purpose is to explore questions that are not confined to a single field of research. The increasing complexity of the relationship between nature and society has

heightened the need for IDR. At the same time, the development of science and technology has resulted in new forms and practices of inquiry

that continually change the disciplinary landscape of knowledge production.

IDR takes so many forms that it is best understood not as one thing but as a variety of different ways of bridging and confronting the prevailing

disciplinary approaches. Interdisciplinary environmental research will be characterized here in terms of its scope, depth, and goals.

The scope of IDR defines which fields or perspectives are involved. The depth of IDR, in turn, defines the level or type of intellectual interaction

between them. Finally, the goal of IDR indicates why an interdisciplinary approach is adopted.

(sumber: http://www.fidea.fi/index.php?page=interdisciplinarity)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_academic_disciplines

MULTI-DISIPLINARITAS

Multidisciplinarity merupakan campuran non-integrative beberapa

disiplin-disiplin dimana setiap disiplin mempertahankan methodologies dan asumpsi-asumsinya tanpa mengalami perubahan atau

pengembangan (pengkayaan) dari disiplin lainnya di dalam hubungan multidisiplinaritas.

Multidisciplinarity is distinctly different from Interdisciplinarity because of the relationship that the disciplines share. Within a multidisciplinary relationship this cooperation "may be mutual and cumulative but not

interactive" (Augsburg, 2005) while interdisciplinarity blends the practices and assumptions of each discipline involved.


Multidisciplinary, dalam kontek pengelolaan dan perawatan kesehatan, berarti bahwa

penyedia layanan kesehatan dari berbagai profesi bekerja bersama berkolaborasi untuk

melakukan diagnose, pendugaan/penilaian dan perlakuan, di dalam lingkup praktek dan bidang

kompetensinya.

MULTI-DISIPLINER

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdisciplinarity

INTERDISCIPLINARY.

Interdisciplinary refers to new knowledge extensions that exist between or beyond existing academic disciplines or professions. The new knowledge

may be claimed by members of none, one, both, or an emerging new academic discipline or profession.

An interdisciplinary community or project is made up of people from multiple disciplines and professions who are engaged in creating and

applying new knowledge as they work together as equal stakeholders in addressing a common challenge. The key question is what new

knowledge (of an academic discipline nature), which is outside the existing disciplines, is required to address the challenge.

Aspects of the challenge cannot be addressed easily with existing distributed knowledge, and new knowledge becomes a primary subgoal of addressing the common challenge. The nature of the challenge, either its

scale or complexity, requires that many people have interactional expertise to improve their efficiency working across multiple

disciplines as well as within the new interdisciplinary area.


An interdisciplinarary person is a person with degrees from one or more academic disciplines with additional

interactional expertise in one or more additional academic disciplines, and new knowledge that is claimed by more

than one discipline. Over time, interdisciplinary work can lead to an increase or

a decrease in the number of academic disciplines.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_knowledge

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interactional_expertise

TRANSDISCIPLINARY

Transdisciplinary refers to knowledge that exists in every individual, thus eliminating the need for discipline boundaries.

A transdisciplinary community or project is made up of transdisciplinary professionals, which is an ideal that can only be approached and not

actually achieved in practice. To exist in today's society, a transdisciplinary professional would possess certification or degrees in

all disciplines as well as experience in all professions. In essence, a truly transdisciplinary person contains all the distributed knowledge of the people in the community or project as their individual

common knowledge. Furthermore, they exist within a community of people that share that knowledge.

A transdisciplinary community is one in which common knowledge of individuals and the distributed knowledge of the collective are identical.


CROSS-DISCIPLINARITY

Crossdisciplinarity describes any method, project and research activity that examines a subject outside the scope of its own discipline without cooperation or integration from other relevant disciplines. In crossdisciplinarity, topics are

studied using foreign methodologies of unrelated disciplines, for example Ethics in clinical research and occupational health.

Crossdisciplinarity is distinctly different from Interdisciplinarity because of the relationship that the disciplines share. Within a crossdisciplinary relationship

disciplinary boundaries are crossed but no techniques or ideals are exchanged while Interdisciplinary relationships blend the practices and assumptions of each

discipline involved.

Multidisciplinarity is very closely related to crossdisciplinarity because there is no transfer of methodologies or cooperation between the disciplines but different

in that 'more than one' other outside discipline examines a specific topic..


WHY INTERDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH?

Definition

Interdisciplinary research (IDR) is a mode of research by teams or individuals that integrates information, data, techniques, tools,

perspectives, concepts, and/or theories from two or more disciplines or bodies of specialized knowledge to advance fundamental

understanding or to solve problems whose solutions are beyond the scope of a single discipline or area of research practice.

Interdisciplinary research (IDR) can be one of the most productive and inspiring of human pursuits—one that provides a format for conversations and connections that lead to new knowledge. As a

mode of discovery and education, it has delivered much already and promises more—a sustainable environment, healthier and more

prosperous lives, new discoveries and technologies to inspire young minds, and a deeper understanding of our place in space and time.

In recent decades, the growth of scientific and technical knowledge has prompted scientists, engineers, social scientists, and humanists

to join in addressing complex problems that must be attacked simultaneously with deep knowledge from different perspectives. Students show increasing enthusiasm about problems of global importance that have practical consequences, such as disease

prevention, economic development, social inequality, and global climate change—all of which can best be addressed through IDR.

Sumber: http://www.beckmanmacular.org/site/DocServer/Info_on_IDR.pdf?docID=121….. Diunduh 22/3/2012

“research, teaching, or problem solving that integrates several disciplines to create a

unified outcome”

James Collins

Interdisciplinary

Definition of “Interdisciplinary Research”

The process of answering a question, solving a problem, or addressing a topic that cannot be dealt with adequately by a single

discipline and draws on the ensemble of a disciplines defining elements and integrates the insights to produce a more

comprehensive understanding or cognitive advancement.

(SUMBER: http://www.idrsociety.org/what-we-do-2/idr-symposium-2011/)

Interdisciplinary research (IDR) is a mode of research by teams or individuals that integrates information, data, techniques, tools,

perspectives, concepts, and/or theories from two or more disciplines or bodies of specialized knowledge to advance

fundamental understanding or to solve problems whose solutions are beyond the scope of a single discipline or area of research

practice.

(sumber: http://www.pkal.org/collections/Vol4InterdisciplinaryResearch.cfm)

Multi- and Interdisciplinary Research

A

B common problem

Work on

A

B

C

A

B

Multidisciplinary

Interdisciplinary Interaction

forges new discipline

Lawrence Tabak, NIH

Challenges to Interdisciplinary Research

• The current system of academic advancement favors the independent investigator

• Most institutions house scientists in discrete departments

• Interdisciplinary science requires interdisciplinary peer-review

• Project management and oversight is currently performed by discrete Ics

• Interdisciplinary research teams take time to assemble and require unique resources

Lawrence Tabak, NIH

How to Facilitate Inter-disciplinary Research

• Inter-disciplinary research by definition requires the researchers to learn the other discipline’s vocabulary, methodology and techniques.

• This requires effort and investment of time.• The researchers involved must trust each other -have a mutual

respect for each other. It will not work if one discipline is perceived as superior to the other.

• There must be a reward system in place which will acknowledge the overhead in time and effort that interdisciplinary research takes.

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FIDEA : Frameworks for Interdisciplinary Environmental Analysis

The FIDEA group conducts interdisciplinary environmental research from both theoretical and empirical point of view. We investigate and develop the

conceptual basis for analysing environmental issues from a problem oriented, comprehensive perspective. At the same time, we build on this theoretical work and analyse the complex interaction between the social and ecological systems

in various empirical studies. Our approach is characterised by an interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary dialogue between different fields of

environmental knowledge.Integrating qualitative and quantitative methods is in the core of our activities.

The group develops soft system models of socio-ecological interaction and applies them to scrutinise expert and lay-people interviews, questionnaires, policy documents, and media content. These analyses are combined with

quantitative data on the various aspects of environmental change. We examine past trends and build scenarios for the future.

Our empirical studies focus on various environmental questions such as climate change, eutrophication,

energy, transport, agro-food, and forest biodiversity. Our results are broadly applicable to environmental

policy, management, education, and communication. Such a wide range of topics, materials, and methods are fruitfully brought together due to the theoretical research we conduct and the mutually developed approach of the

group. Continuous self-reflection and specific research focused on the concept and practice of interdisciplinarity enhance the ability to detect, understand and avoid many pitfalls

in interdisciplinary research.


INTER-DISIPLINARITAS SEMPIT DAN LUAS

Environmental research is, by definition, interdisciplinary. Understanding environmental processes requires collaboration between various natural and life sciences, and the way in which

environmental problems arise and are dealt with cannot be explained without the social sciences, humanities, and engineering.

A large majority of environmental research is interdisciplinary in a narrow sense, involving experts from fields that are conceptually and

culturally close to each other. This kind of research combines different expertise from biological and life sciences, from various fields of

technology, or from several social sciences, for example.

In environmental research, broad interdisciplinarity usually means interaction across the more deeply-rooted conceptual and cultural

boundaries between the districts of natural and social/human sciences. It is evident that the distance between the participating fields has a profound effect on the nature of interaction. In research with narrow

scope, the interaction between fields may not be exceptional or particularly challenging since the concepts, theories, methods, and

practices are relatively similar in their epistemological presuppositions.

For example, engineering research on transport carbon dioxide emissions may be conveniently integrated into a general circulation model in climate change research. When the scope of research is

broader, advanced interaction may become a real challenge because of the epistemological and cultural heterogeneity and thus increase the

likelihood of conflict and shortfalls of integration. For instance, applying sociological perspective into transport emissions is far less

straightforward.

Sumber: http://www.fidea.fi/index.php?page=interdisciplinarity ….. Diunduh 22/3/2012

LEVEL INTER-DISIPLINARITAS.

Interdisciplinary interaction in environmental research may occur at various levels of integration.

Multidisciplinary approaches juxtapose or coordinate disciplinary perspectives, adding breadth and available knowledge, information, and methods. Yet, they

speak as separate voices: the ingredients of new knowledge are imported, exported, or pooled across disciplinary boundaries without being integrated or

substantially adapted in the course of interaction. In contrast, “truly” interdisciplinary research integrates separate bodies of knowledge in order to create a synthetic view or common understanding of a complex environmental

problem; it goes beyond a sum of the parts.

Integration in a synergetic sense, however, is not the premise of IDR, since interdisciplinary dialogue across fields may occur in a critical manner as well. Critical dialogue between some technological and social science approaches,

for example, may have a profound effect on how environmental issues are handled.

Interdisciplinary environmental research is increasingly transdisciplinary today.

The concept is in some discourses understood as the highest level of integration, aiming to create generic

links between fields, inhabit a new territory of knowledge, or establish a new paradigm of inquiry.

More currently, the term is connected to the attempts to broaden the domain of research even more and

integrate also non-academic expertise. Both trends are clearly visible in environmental research, though

transdisciplinarity in the latter sense is a more recent phenomenon and is expanding rapidly.

MENGAPA HARUS INTERDISIPLINARITAS?

The motivation for crossing disciplinary boundaries in environmental research varies from a purely epistemological aim to advance understanding, to a clearly instrumental goal to achieve some

pragmatic goal.

Epistemological orientation is typically linked with a desire to produce more comprehensive understanding of environmental phenomena, a belief in cognitive synergies that arise from the sharing of expertise,

or an intellectual interest in novel approaches.

In instrumentally oriented research, in turn, the purpose of interdisciplinary approach is to find a technical, social, economic, or

other solution to a particular environmental problem.

Pendekatan interdisiplin dalam riset lingkungan diharapkan dapat

menghasilkan penjelasan yang komrehensif atas suatu “problem riil” dan

sekaligus menghasilkan alternatif solusinya.


. Interdisciplinary research in FIDEA

Within the FIDEA group, interdisciplinarity is understood and implemented at the broad scope.

We build on latest knowledge about the state of the environment and the ecological processes that change it, as well as on the understanding of the various social and political factors that

define how environmental problems are produced, interpreted and responded.

We integrate expertise from various approaches to environmental issues, including e.g. environmental policy, sustainability studies,

media analysis, futures studies, science studies and environmental education.

Our empirical focus has been on the environmental questions of climate change, eutrophication and biodiversity.

Energy, transport, forestry and agro-food issues have been the key socio-ecological systems analysed. In addition that our work brings these fields into close collaboration, each of them is also

interdisciplinary by definition.


How interdisciplinary is a given body of research?Alan L Porter, David J Roessner and Anne E Heberger

Research Evaluation (2008) 17 (4): 273-282.

AbstractThis article presents results to date produced by a team charged with evaluating the

National Academies Keck Futures Initiative, a 15-year US$ 40 million program to facilitate interdisciplinary research in the United States.

The team has developed and tested promising quantitative measures of the integration (I) and specialization (S) of research outputs, the former essential to

evaluating the impact of the program. Both measures are based on Thomson-ISI Web of Knowledge subject categories.

‘I’ measures the cognitive distance (dispersion) among the subject categories of journals cited in a body of research.

‘S’ measures the spread of subject categories in which a body of research is published.

Pilot results for samples from researchers drawn from 22 diverse subject categories show what appears to be a surprisingly high level of interdisciplinarity.

Correlations between integration and the degree of co-authorship of selected bodies of research show a low degree of association.

.

Sumber: http://rev.oxfordjournals.org/content/17/4/273.abstract….. Diunduh 22/3/2012

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http://rev.oxfordjournals.org/search?author1=Alan+L+Porter&sortspec=date&submit=Submit

http://rev.oxfordjournals.org/search?author1=David+J+Roessner&sortspec=date&submit=Submit

http://rev.oxfordjournals.org/search?author1=Anne+E+Heberger&sortspec=date&submit=Submit

Removing Barriers to Interdisciplinary ResearchNaomi Jacobs, Martyn Amos

Novel Computation Group. School of Computing, Mathematics and Digital Technology. Manchester Metropolitan University. UK.

Abstract

A significant amount of high-impact contemporary scientific research occurs where biology, computer science, engineering and chemistry converge.

Although programmes have been put in place to support such work, the complex dynamics of interdisciplinarity are still poorly understood.

In this paper we interrogate the nature of interdisciplinary research and how we might measure its "success", identify potential barriers to its

implementation, and suggest possible mechanisms for removing these impediments.

Sumber: http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1012/1012.4170.pdf ….. Diunduh 22/3/2012

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The nature of interdisciplinary researchAlthough one might assume that interdisciplinary research is simply work which

“covers more than one traditional discipline” or “falls between disciplines”, it is often difficult to find a definition that is truly useful to the identification of IDR (Aram,

2004). It is not often obvious where traditional disciplinary boundaries lie, or what actually constitutes crossing them.

There may also be different degrees or typologies of IDR (Huutoniemi, et al., 2010), which vary between institutions, or may be characteristic of specific disciplines

involved in a collaboration.

Siedlok and Hibbert (2009), investigate the usage of various terminologies and what, if any, differences exist between interdisciplinary, multidisciplinary, cross-

disciplinary, transdisciplinary research, or simply ‘borrowing’ (Zahra and Newey, 2009). They find that definitions vary and are often unclear, so in what follows, the

term ‘interdisciplinary research’ is used to cover all of the above terms.


1.Aram, J.D. (2004). Concepts of interdisciplinarity: configurations of knowledge and action. Human Relations 36, 407-421.2.Huutoniemi, K., Thompson Klein, J., Bruun, H., Huukinen, J. (2010). Analyzing interdisciplinarity: typology and indicators. Research Policy 39, 79-88.3.Siedlok, F., Hibbert, P. (2009). Interdisciplinary research: A review of contextual and process factors. Paper presented at Australia and New Zealand Academy of Management: Sustainable Management and Marketing, 1-4 December 2009, Melbourne, Australia.4.Zahra, S.A., Newey, L.R. (2009). Maximizing the impact of organization science: theory-building at the intersection of disciplines and/or fields. Journal of Management Studies 46:6, 1059-1075.



Following investigation and field testing, Aboelela et al. propose the following definition for IDR:

“[Interdisciplinary research is] any study or group of studies undertaken by scholars from two or more distinct scientific disciplines. The research is based upon a conceptual model that links or integrates theoretical frameworks from those

disciplines, uses study design and methodology that is not limited to any one field, and requires the use of perspectives and skills of the involved disciplines through-

out multiple phases of the research process.”Aboelela et al. (2007).

This definition raises the question of what constitutes a discipline, and exactly why discourse between them should be encouraged. The word “discipline” may be

defined as “a branch of instruction or academia”; however there exist secondary meanings of the word, in terms of “conforming to rules and order” (e.g. “self-

discipline”, etc.). The implication of this is that disciplinary boundaries are related to defined structures and strictures.

1.Aboelela, S., Larson, E., Bakken, S., Carrasquillo., O., Formicola., A., Glied, S., Haas, J. and Gebbie, K. (2007). Defining interdisciplinary research: Conclusions from a critical review of the literature. HSR: Health Services Research 42, 329-346.


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Why do interdisciplinary research?

Rhoten and Parker (2004) suggest that, in many fields, the ‘easy’ work may be ‘finished’ and that the remaining questions being posed defy easy categorisation

and fall outside traditional disciplinary frameworks. IDR programmes are therefore emerging to address these. It has been recognized that disciplinary boundaries can be limiting, and, in some cases, may create artificial barriers which restrict the type of questions that can be asked, due to differences in modes of thought (Frost and Jean, 2003). Staying within defined boundaries fosters the development of unique

worldviews, perceptions, and ways of framing knowledge (Kincheloe, 2001). However, as with any group which splits itself off from others, communication

outside the group may become more difficult. Individual researchers may seek to undertake IDR in order to overcome such limitations (Rhoten, 2004).

There is evidence to support the idea that “real-world” applicable solutions are more likely to result from IDR (Rafols and Meyer, 2009), and researchers with industry

connections are more likely to be involved in IDR (Carayol and Nguyen Thi, 2004). As noted by Jeffrey (2003, p.539), ‘Real-world problems do not come in disciplinary-

shaped boxes’. Klein (In Stehr and Weingart, 2000) suggests that the practice of interdisciplinarity is built upon the foundations of disciplinarity, and requires the boundaries of disciplines

to exist in order to create coherent work between them. This is backed up by Weingart (Ibid), who proposes that disciplinarity and interdisciplinarity are mutually

reinforcing strategies, each necessary for effective knowledge production.

1.Carayol, N. and Nguyen Thi, T.U. (2004). Why do academic scientists engage in interdisciplinary research? Research Evaluation 14, 70-79.2.Frost, S. and Jean, P. (2003). Bridging the disciplines. Interdisciplinary discourse and faculty scholarship. The Journal of Higher Education 74, 119-149.3.Jeffrey, P. (2003). Smoothing the waters: observations on the process of cross-disciplinary research collaboration. Social Studies of Science 33, 539-562.4.Kincheloe, J. (2001). Describing the bricolage: conceptualizing a new rigor in qualitative research. Qualitative Inquiry 7:6, 679-692.5.Rafols, I., Meyer, M. (2009) Diversity and network coherence as indicators of interdisciplinarity: case studies in bionanoscience. Scientometrics 82, 263-287.6.Rhoten, D (2004) Interdisciplinary research: Trend or transition. Social Science Research Council 5, 6-11.7.Rhoten, D. and Parker, A. (2004) Risks and rewards of an interdisciplinary research path. Science 306, 2046.




Barriers to interdisciplinarity

Carayol and Nguyen Thi (2004) investigate a variety of factors which, they hypothesise, affect the likelihood of IDR being carried out. These include the level of

multidisciplinarity in the research team and the diversity of a researcher’s publications, as well as personal factors such as the size of the laboratory and

researcher age. Siedlok and Hibbert (2009) list a variety of factors which can contribute to the failure

of IDR, grouped into four categories:(1) Disciplinary (such as cultural barriers).

(2) Personal (such as lack of experience and time constraints).(3) Institutional (such as funding schemes, career constraints and

authorship/patenting issues).(4) Procedural (such as lack of access to evaluation tools).

Some specific factors may fall into more than one category, and similar categorisations are also used by other investigators, such as Morse et al. (2007). Using the framework established by Siedlok and Hibbert (2009), we now examine

each class of barrier in more detail.


1.Carayol, N. and Nguyen Thi, T.U. (2004). Why do academic scientists engage in interdisciplinary research? Research Evaluation 14, 70-79.2.Morse, W.C., Nielsen-Pincus, M., Force, J.E., Wulfhorst, J.D. (2007). Bridges and barriers to3.developing and conducting interdisciplinary graduate-student team research. Ecology and Society4.12:2, 8.5.Siedlok, F., Hibbert, P. (2009). Interdisciplinary research: A review of contextual and process factors. Paper presented at Australia and New Zealand Academy of Management: Sustainable Management and Marketing, 1-4 December 2009, Melbourne, Australia.



Disciplinary barriers

As discussed above, the observation of disciplinary boundaries can lead to the emergence of particular styles of thinking and approaches to research within a

discipline. It may be argued that there are very good reasons why disciplines are the

preferred/traditional method for delineating academic research.Boundaries set by disciplines define the parameters and scope of new information to

be considered, whereas an “open-ended” framework could possibly overwhelm inexperienced researchers (Bruce et al., 2004).

Aram (2004) suggests that in order to begin an enquiry between or across disciplines, it is necessary to first identify the fundamental disciplines involved. The identification of underlying paradigms and assumptions is a crucial first step in any

interdisciplinary venture. The extent to which two or more disciplines encounter issues with collaborative thought depends on the clarity and stability of each

discipline's boundaries.Frost and Jean (2003) similarly note that disciplines (and institutions) each have their own patterns of attitudes, meanings, symbols and behaviours, and that the

thoughts and behaviours of discipline members are influenced by the “knowledge traditions” in which they reside. These include categories of thoughts, common

vocabularies and codes of conduct. Other prominent reasons for difficulty, include lack of existing conceptual frameworks upon which research can be built, the

comparatively long time frames required for IDR to be successfully implemented, and the fact that initially basic knowledge within the areas of overlap may be lacking

data points, leading to the necessary use of inductive approaches.

1.Aram, J.D. (2004). Concepts of interdisciplinarity: configurations of knowledge and action. Human Relations 36, 407-421.2.Bruce, A., Lyall, C., Tait, J., and Williams, R. (2004). Interdisciplinary Integration in Europe: The case of the Fifth Framework Programme. Futures 36, 457-470.3.Frost, S. and Jean, P. (2003). Bridging the disciplines. Interdisciplinary discourse and faculty scholarship. The Journal of Higher Education 74, 119-149.




Measuring success

An important aspect of IDR implementation is the notion of “success”. Lessons from the evaluation of IDR can inform its future implementation. In order to measure

success, we may evaluate previous initiatives and establish (a) how “successful” they were, according to an agreed definition of the term, and (b) what factors

contributed to this success. Klein (2008) and Boix Mansilla and Gardner (2003) note that the evaluation of

interdisciplinary research is a complex task, and few clear criteria for assessment exist in the literature. This is due, in part, to the highly variable nature of IDR, and the fact that context must be considered when carrying out assessment. Having

reviewed the literature on IDR evaluation, Klein suggests a set of generic principles of evaluation, which cover the potential areas for variability in assessment criteria.

Various measures have been used to examine the success of IDR, including publication data and bibliometrics (Morillo, Bordens and Gomez 2003), interviews, (Frost and Jean 2003), surveys and empirical analysis of research groups (Sanz-

Menendez et al. 2001). Boix Mansila and Gardner (2003) point out that there is a general lack of robust methodologies and toolkits for IDR assessment. However, Siedlok and Hibbert

(2009) argue that such a standardised approach would actually be counterproductive, because of the varied nature of the work under study.

1.Boix Mansilla, V., and Gardner, H. (2003). Assessing interdisciplinary work at the frontier: An empirical exploration of ‘symptoms’ of quality. CNRS and Institut Nicod, Paris.2.Klein, J.T. (2008). Evaluation of interdisciplinarity and transdisciplinarity research. American Journal of Preventative Medicine 35, 116-123.3.Frost, S. and Jean, P. (2003). Bridging the disciplines. Interdisciplinary discourse and faculty scholarship. The Journal of Higher Education 74, 119-149.4.Morillo, F., Bordons, M. and Gomez, I. (2003). Interdisciplinarity in science: A tentative typology of disciplines and research areas. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 54, 1237-1249.5.Sanz-Menéndez, L., Bordons, M. and Zulueta, M.A. (2001). Interdisciplinarity as a multidimensional6.concept: measure in three different research areas. Research Evaluation 10, 47-58.




Mencapai Keberhasilan IDRSeveral case studies examine the successful outcomes of specific interdisciplinary

programmes (Cech and Rubin, 2004). The authors often explicitly identify the factors which lead to a successful collaborative project, and we now summarise these

according to the types of barrier that they address.

Mengatasi Kendala IDRFay et al. (2006) suggest ways in which projects can avoid previously-discussed disciplinebased misinterpretations, and facilitate development of shared mental

models and common ground. They emphasise the importance of building a cohesive project ‘group’ via methods such as frequent non-project-related interactions, and

the creation of high level goals which are shared and supported by the entire project team. Communication issues arising from disciplinary differences must be

addressed by implementing both formal and informal communication strategies (Morse et al. 2007). However this process, and the development of a ‘shared

symbolic repertoire’, can be time consuming, and a long-term project in its own right (Duncker 2001).


1.Cech, T.R., Rubin, G.M. (2004). Nurturing interdisciplinary research. Nature Structural & Molecular2.Biology 11:12, 1166-1169.3.Duncker, E. (2001). Symbolic communication in multidisciplinary cooperations. Science, Technology and Human Values 26, 349-386.4.Fay, D., Borrill, C., Amir, Z., Haward, R. and West, M. (2006). Getting the most out of multidisciplinary teams: A multi-sample study of team innovation in health care. Journal of Occupational and Organisational Psychology 79, 553-567.5.Morse, W.C., Nielsen-Pincus, M., Force, J.E., Wulfhorst, J.D. (2007). Bridges and barriers to6.developing and conducting interdisciplinary graduate-student team research. Ecology and Society7.12:2, 8.

MEMAKNAI KAJIAN INTERDISCIPLINARY

Three definitions of interdisciplinary studies have gained wide recognition and express an emerging consensus among practitioners on what constitutes

interdisciplinary research.

The first is the definition advanced by Klein and Newell (1997):[Interdisciplinary studies is] a process of answering a question, solving a problem, or addressing a topic that is too broad or complex to be dealt with adequately by a

single discipline or profession . . . and draws on disciplinary perspectives and integrates their insights through construction of a more comprehensive perspective.

(pp. 393–394, italics added)

This definition and its core premises have been incorporated into the definition of interdisciplinary research recently advanced by the National Academy of Sciences,

the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine (2005):Interdisciplinary research (IDR) is a mode of research by teams or individuals that

integrates information, data, techniques, tools, perspectives, concepts, and/or theories from two or more disciplines or bodies of specialized knowledge to advance

fundamental understanding or to solve problems whose solutions are beyond the scope of a single discipline or area of research practice. (p. 39, italics added).



Veronica Boix Mansilla (2005) is particularly concerned with the product of interdisciplinary work or “interdisciplinary understanding.”

This, she says, is the capacity to integrate knowledge and modes of thinking drawn from two or more disciplines to produce a cognitive advancement—for example,

explaining a phenomenon, solving a problem, creating a product, or raising a new question—in ways that would have been unlikely through single disciplinary means.

(p. 16, italics added)

These definitions agree that interdisciplinarity involves

• A process mode of research• The disciplines or bodies of specialized knowledge (i.e., disciplinary

“perspectives”)• Integration of disciplinary insights

• A cognitive advancement.

Defining Interdisciplinary Studies.



From these definitions, it is possible to advance an integrated definition of interdisciplinary studies:

Interdisciplinary studies is a process of answering a question, solving aproblem, or addressing a topic that is too broad or complex to be dealt

with adequately by a single discipline and draws on disciplinary perspectivesand integrates their insights to produce a more comprehensive

understanding or cognitive advancement.

This definition includes four concepts—process, disciplinary perspectives , insights, and an interdisciplinary understanding.

Research of any kind is a process—a means or a tool, not an end—and to conduct research, it is reasonable to make this process as systematic as possible.

Interdisciplinarians typically describe the doing of interdisciplinary research as a “process” rather than “method” because process allows for greater methodological flexibility, particularly when working in the humanities. It also includes the notion of

reflexive scholarship or self-critique.

As Matts Alvesson and Kaj Sköldberg (2000) maintain, “The process of research must include self-reflexivity” (p. 144)..

Defining Interdisciplinary Studies.



Interdisciplinary Studies Is Not Multidisciplinary Studies

Regrettably, the terms “interdisciplinarity” and “multidisciplinarity” have often been seen as synonymous and, consequently, have caused much

confusion.

Multidisciplinarity refers to the placing side by side of insights from two or more disciplines as, for example, one might find in a course that invites instructors from different departments to explain their discipline’s perspective on the course topic in serial fashion but makes no attempt to

integrate the insights produced by these perspectives into an interdisciplinary understanding of the topic.

The main difference between them lies in the mechanism of the research process and the end product (Rogers et al.,

2005, p. 267).

By contrast, multidisciplinarity and interdisciplinarity seek to overcome disciplinary monism, but in different ways.

Multidisciplinarity limits its activity to merely appreciating different disciplinary perspectives.

But interdisciplinarity means defying disciplinary limits on what theories, concepts, and methods are appropriate to a problem and being open to alternative methods of inquiry, using different disciplinary tools, and carefully estimating

the degree of usefulness of one tool versus another to shed light on the problem (Nikitina, 2005, pp. 413–414).

Interdisciplinary Studies Is Not Transdisciplinary Studies

The contrast between interdisciplinary studies and transdisciplinary studies lies in their differing approaches to the disciplines. Interdisciplinary studies

relies primarily on the disciplines for their perspectives, insights, data, concepts, theories, and methods in the process of developing an

interdisciplinary understanding of a particular problem, not a class of similar problems. Transdisciplinarity is “the application of theories,

concepts, or methods across disciplines with the intent of developing an overarching synthesis” (Lattuca, 2001, p. 83).

Transdisciplinarity, like interdisciplinarity, is descriptive of collaborative research and problem solving that, unlike interdisciplinarity, crosses both

disciplinary boundaries and sectors of society by including stakeholders in the public and private domains.

Transdisciplinarity berbeda dengan interdisciplinarity dalam hal teori, konsep , atau methodenya tidak dipinjam dari satu

disiplin dan diaplikasikan ke disiplin lainnya yang mengkaji problematik yang sama;

tetapi lebih bersifat lintas disiplin dan oleh karenanya dapat digunakan pada banyak

bidang kajian.

. The Premise of Interdisciplinary Studies

A major premise of interdisciplinary studies is that the disciplines (including interdisciplines) themselves are

the necessary preconditions for and foundations of interdisciplinarity.

This premise is implicit both in the definition of interdisciplinary studies and, as already noted, in the very concept of interdisciplinarity itself. “Precondition” means prerequisite; it also means preparation. The disciplines,

despite their limitations, are appropriate starting points for doing interdisciplinary research.

Saying that the disciplines are the necessary “preconditions for” and “foundations of” interdisciplinarity does not mean that the other sources of knowledge using in their interdisciplinary work should be excluded or even

marginalized in every instance.

The interdisciplinary researcher must integrate them with disciplinary knowledge at some point in order to achieve the goal or result of the interdisciplinary research process—an interdisciplinary understanding. This understanding

provides new meaning to the object of inquiry.


How the Term Interdisciplinarity: Is Variably Used Today

The term interdisciplinarity has undergone a metamorphosis since it was coined by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) in France in 1972. The OECD distinguished multi-, pluri-, inter-, and transdisciplinary forms of

knowledge formation from disciplinarity.According to this typology, the most basic distinction is between “multidisciplinarity” and “interdisciplinarity.” As noted earlier, multidisciplinarity juxtaposes disciplinary perspectives. The disciplines speak with separate voices on a problem of mutual

interest. However, the disciplinary status quo is not interrogated, and the distinctive elements of each discipline retain their original identity. In contrast, interdisciplinarity consciously integrates separate disciplinary data, concepts, theories, and methods to produce an interdisciplinary understanding of a complex problem or intellectual

question (Klein & Newell, 1997).

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FORMS OF INTERDISCIPLINARITY

Klein (2005a) cautions, however, that not all interdisciplinarities are the same. “Disagreements about definition,” she says, “reflect differing views of the purpose of research and education, the role of disciplines, and the role of

critique” (p. 55). There are three major forms of interdisciplinarity: instrumental interdisciplinarity, conceptual interdisciplinarity, and critical

interdisciplinarity. Instrumental interdisciplinarity is a pragmatic approach that focuses on

research, methodological borrowing, and practical problem solving in response to the external demands of society. However, borrowing alone is

not sufficient for instrumental interdisciplinarity but requires integration. The key distinction between instrumental interdisciplinarity and critical

interdisciplinarity (discussed later in this chapter) is the objective:Instrumental interdisciplinarity seeks to solve real-world problems or to

illuminate and critique the assumptions of the perspectives (disciplinary, ideological, etc.) on which interdisciplinarity draws.

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Conceptual interdisciplinarity, also pragmatic

. Conceptual interdisciplinarity, also pragmatic, emphasizes the integration of knowledge and the importance of posing questions that have no single disciplinary basis (Salter & Hearn, 1996, p. 9). This notion of interdisciplinarity often implies a critique of disciplinary understandings of the problem, as in the case of cultural

studies, feminist, and postmodern approaches. An example of conceptual interdisciplinarity, where the integrative concept is identity, is a study of the role of

reggae music in affirming the cultural and political identity of postcolonial black Jamaicans (Lattuca, 2001).

The third form of interdisciplinarity is critical interdisciplinarity, which aims to interrogate existing structures of knowledge and education, raising questions of value and purpose. Critical interdisciplinarians fault the pragmatists for merely combining existing disciplinary approaches without advocating transformation.

Rather than building bridges across academic units for practical problem-solving purposes, critical interdisciplinarians seek to transform and dismantle the boundary between the literary and the political, treat cultural objects relationally, and advocate

inclusion of low culture (Klein, 2005).

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Interdisciplinarity Is Used to Describe a Research Process.

The interdisciplinary research process is the subject of Chapters 6–12. Asnoted in the integrated definition of interdisciplinary studies, the purpose or

product of the research process is a cognitive advancement or interdisciplinary understanding of a particular problem.

Integration is a means to that end, not an end in itself. The integrative part of the interdisciplinary research process involves identifying relevant

disciplinary insights into the problem; evaluating ways in which these may conflict; creating or discovering the common ground concept, theory, or

assumption by which the insights can be reconciled; and thereby producing an interdisciplinary understanding of the problem.

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.

The Interdisciplinary Research Process

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Interdisciplinarity Is Used to Describe a Change in Knowledge Production Knowledge production refers to scholarly research

published in the form of peer-reviewed articles and books.

The discussion about interdisciplinarity is a dialogue about innovation—that is, change—in the means of knowledge production.

Disciplinary researchers traditionally are trained to produce knowledge differently than are interdisciplinarians.

Interdisciplinarians borrow from the disciplines and integrate this information to produce new insights and meanings.

This activity, which goes against the grain of what many disciplinary researchers have been taught to do and to protect, is needed because

knowledge is increasingly interdisciplinary and boundary crossing is commonplace.

Institute for Demographic Research (IDR)The Institute for Demographic Research (IDR) is a department at the

Lithuanian Social Research Centre.

The main focus of IDR activities is the research of socio-demographic processes.

The IDR is gathering and analysing data of main demographic processes - fertility, family changes, migration, mortality and ageing. Moreover, the Institute is shaping the conceptual frameworks and strategic outlines of

population policy, analyses the efficiency of population policy. Due to the rapid changes of demographic situation, recently the emphasis is being put on analysis of demographic processes and structures, family structures and transformations of family relationships, population mortality

changes, socio-demographic differences and migration.

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http://www.gesis.org/knowledgebase/institutions/index.asp?stock=institutions&selcat=Lithuania%3E%3Enon-academic%20research%20institute%3E%3E&slice=1&switchto=instcountryorgen&order=sortinsten#5782

http://www.gesis.org/knowledgebase/institutions/index.asp?stock=institutions&selcat=Lithuania%3E%3Enon-academic%20research%20institute%3E%3E&slice=1&switchto=instcountryorgen&order=sortinsten#5782

Interdisciplinary Research InstitutesUNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM.

Research at VU University Amsterdam covers a wide range of fields that often cut across disciplinary boundaries. In order to encourage and accommodate interdisciplinary research, the university has established

interdisciplinary research (IDR) institutes in which researchers can meet, share their expertise and join forces in the acquisition of external

funding. The IDR institutes enhance the scientific quality and the societal impact

of research, and they enjoy an excellent reputation due to their successful PhD and research Master’s programmes, worldwide

recruitment of staff and students, and active participation in international networks and consortia.

They are also highly esteemed, both nationally and internationally, on account of their excellent research facilities.

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JOURNAL OF INTERDISCIPLINARY AND MULTIDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH. Volume 1, Issue 1, 2007

Promoting Tourism As U.S. Foreign Aid: Building On The Promise Of The Caribbean Basin Initiative

Dr. Robertico R. Croes

Abstract

Many economists are questioning the role of foreign aid as a development tool. The Caribbean region has received significant amounts of foreign aid but with

mixed results. The region confronts daunting development issues, such as declining productivity and employment against the backdrop of a challenging

international environment with a high risk of natural disasters. The study argues that tourism is a stable source of growth for the region and

has great potential as a mechanism for distributing foreign aid in a market driven approach that may avoid several of the shortcomings of traditional foreign aid.

The Caribbean Basin Initiative includes fiscal incentives for U.S. citizens to travel to certain Caribbean countries for the purpose of strengthening their economies and should serve as a model for further study and innovation.

This study assesses whether tourism can serve as an approach to delivering U.S. aid to the Caribbean..

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ConclusionsTourism has proven to be an important vehicle for the growth of many

Caribbean countries, and therefore, it would behoove U.S. policymakers to consider foreign aid initiatives which acknowledge this fact and attempt to

develop aid programs that expand tourism in the Caribbean. The United States attempted to achieve this by incorporating tax breaks in the

CBI legislation for Americans who attend conventions and conferences in designated CBI countries.

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JOURNAL OF INTERDISCIPLINARY AND MULTIDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH. Volume 1, Issue 1, 2007

Promoting Tourism As U.S. Foreign Aid: Building On The Promise Of The Caribbean Basin Initiative

Dr. Robertico R. Croes

ENVIRONMENT, DEVELOPMENT AND SUSTAINABILITYA Multidisciplinary Approach to the Theory and Practice of Sustainable

DevelopmentEditors-in-Chief: B. Nath; L. Hens; D. Pimentel. ISSN: 1387-585X (print version)

ISSN: 1573-2975 (electronic version). Journal no. 10668Springer Netherlands

Environment, Development and Sustainability is an international, multidisciplinary journal covering all aspects of the environmental impacts of socio-economic development.

Concerned with the complex interactions between development and environment, its purpose is to seek ways and means for achieving sustainability in all human activities aimed at such

development.

Coverage includes interactions among society, development and environment, and their implications for sustainable development; technical, economic, ethical and philosophical aspects of sustainable development; local, regional and global sustainability and their practical implementation; development and application of indicators of sustainability; development, verification, implementation and monitoring of policies for sustainable

development; sustainable use of land, water, energy and biological resources in development; impacts of agriculture and forestry activities on soil and aquatic ecosystems and biodiversity,

and much more.

Lingkup kajian jurnal ini meliputi:

1.Mutual interactions among society, development and environment, and their implications for sustainable development2.Technical, economic, ethical and philosophical aspects of sustainable development3.Global sustainability - the obstacles and ways in which they could be overcome4.Local and regional sustainability initiatives, their practical implementation, and relevance for use in a wider context5.Development and application of indicators of sustainability6.Development, verification, implementation and monitoring of policies for sustainable development 7.Sustainable use of land, water, energy and biological resources in development8.Impacts of agriculture and forestry activities on soil and aquatic ecosystems and biodiversity 9.Effects of energy use and global climate change on development and sustainability10.Impacts of population growth and human activities on food and other essential resources for development11.Role of national and international agencies, and of international aid and trade arrangements in sustainable development12.Social and cultural contexts of sustainable development 13.Role of education and public awareness in sustainable development 14.Role of political and economic instruments in sustainable development15.Shortcomings of sustainable development and its alternatives.

Environment, Development and SustainabilityVolume 11, Number 5, 971-988, DOI: 10.1007/s10668-008-9162-3

Exergy for better environment and sustainabilityMehmet Kanoglu, Ibrahim Dincer and Yunus A. Cengel

AbstractIn this paper, some key aspects and definitions of exergy are presented, and

practical examples are given in order to highlight its usefulness in design, analysis and performance improvement for various types of energy processes

for better environment and sustainable development. The relations between exergy, sustainability and environmental impact are illustrated to show how improving the performance of the process through

exergy efficiency affects the environmental impact and sustainable development.

Both exergy and energy efficiencies for various systems/processes are also studied for comparison purposes.

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http://www.springerlink.com/content/1387-585x/

http://www.springerlink.com/content/1387-585x/11/5/

http://www.springerlink.com/content/?Author=Mehmet+Kanoglu

http://www.springerlink.com/content/?Author=Ibrahim+Dincer

http://www.springerlink.com/content/?Author=Yunus+A.+Cengel

AbstractA critical review of the multidisciplinary literature on sustainable development reveals a lack of a comprehensive theoretical framework for understanding

sustainable development and its complexities. A critical review shows that the definitions of sustainable development are vague;

there is a lack of operative definitions and disagreement over what should be sustained; the concept is unclear in terms of emotional commitment; and it “remains

a confused topic”, “fraught with contradictions”. This article aims to theoretically synthesize the interdisciplinary literature on sustainable development, and then identify the results by broad categories.

Therefore, this article uses conceptual analysis, which reviews multidisciplinary literature on sustainable development, which recognizes patterns and similarities within the literature, then it synthesizes the patterns to different categories and

independent concepts, where each concept has distinctive meanings and represents close ideas on sustainability.

The analytical process elaborates seven concepts that together assemble the theoretical framework of ‘sustainable development’ and each concept represents

distinctive meanings of the theoretical framework. .

. Environment, Development and SustainabilityVolume 10, Number 2, 179-192, DOI: 10.1007/s10668-006-9058-z

A New Conceptual Framework for Sustainable DevelopmentYosef Jabareen

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http://www.springerlink.com/content/?Author=Yosef+Jabareen

Environment, Development and SustainabilityVolume 11, Number 5, 933-954, DOI: 10.1007/s10668-008-9159-y

Resource management for sustainable development: a community- and GIS-based approach

Tofael Ahamed, M. I. N. Khan, Tomohiro Takigawa, Masayuki Koike, Farhat Tasnim and J. M. Q. Zaman

Abstract

A combined approach utilizing GIS, Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and Focus Group Discussion (FGD) has been developed for resource mapping in a

rural poverty-prone area of Bangladesh.

This model integrated GIS and participatory tools to include the voices of the stakeholders in assessing available resources and needs.

The resource mapping framework, developed using PRA with local community people and community gatekeepers, was aimed at sustainable resource

management, and ArcView GIS was used to digitize the resource maps as a Decision Support System (DSS).

A detailed assessment and analysis of the quality, quantity and physical status of resources was first mapped in the field and then digitized using GIS. FGD-

based interaction with community people at each union in a subdistrict of Bangladesh revealed stakeholders’ opinions on land and water body

management. The present paper demonstrates the power of this model as a policy-making tool

for sustainable development and poverty eradication. It also recognized the need for collaboration between interdisciplinary policy planners and researchers

to develop and implement a policy on agricultural resource management for poverty-prone areas.




http://www.springerlink.com/content/?Author=Tofael+Ahamed

http://www.springerlink.com/content/?Author=M.+I.+N.+Khan

http://www.springerlink.com/content/?Author=Tomohiro+Takigawa

http://www.springerlink.com/content/?Author=Masayuki+Koike

http://www.springerlink.com/content/?Author=Farhat+Tasnim

http://www.springerlink.com/content/?Author=J.+M.+Q.+Zaman

Environment, Development and SustainabilityVolume 7, Number 4, 465-500, DOI: 10.1007/s10668-004-5410-3

Urbanisation Without Development: Environmental and Health Implications in African Cities

Kwasi Boadi, Markku Kuitunen, Kolawole Raheem and Kari Hanninen.

Abstract

Sustainable development advocates for a balance between socio-economic development and the environment in the pursuit of human advancement. In

Africa, high population growth and inadequate infrastructure in urban areas exert pressure on the environment and this threatens the health and wellbeing of

urban residents. The population of the African continent until the 1960s was predominantly rural. This scenario has taken a swift turn and some of the major shifts in the global

urbanisation process are taking place on the continent. Factors including natural increase in the population, rural–urban migration, strife

and hunger leading to the internal displacement of populations have exacerbated the urbanisation process in Africa.

The situation has been worsened by the imposition of Western development policies, including structural adjustment programmes on African nations, which has eroded the subsistence base of rural agricultural communities and further

ignited rural urban migration. The failure of industry to absorb the increasing labour force has created massive

unemployment and deepening poverty crisis in urban centres. Inadequate provision of infrastructure and services to meet the growth in urban populations has resulted in inefficient spatial development of urban centres, the proliferation

of squatter settlements, inadequate basic amenities including potable water, sanitation and waste disposal.

Poor environmental sanitation has resulted in the upsurge of infectious diseases and deteriorating urban health. Urban populations in Africa are also the worst affected by newly emerging diseases, particularly HIV/AIDS. The poor bear a

disproportionately large share of the problems due to their particular vulnerability to environmental and health risks.

.




http://www.springerlink.com/content/?Author=Kwasi+Boadi

http://www.springerlink.com/content/?Author=Markku+Kuitunen

http://www.springerlink.com/content/?Author=Kolawole+Raheem

http://www.springerlink.com/content/?Author=Kari+Hanninen

Influencing factors on sustainable development:a case study in Quang Tri province, Vietnam

Le Trinh Hai, Pham Hoang Hai , Tran Anh Dung , Luc Hens.Environ Dev Sustain (2010) 12:103–116

Abstract

Background Sustainable development (SD) is a common concept. Knowledge and attitudes are essential in the SD process.

This study assesses the knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) of local people about SD. Aim To study the factors that influence the understanding of the concept, contents, and indicators of different aspects affecting the health

and environmental issues.

Methods A cross-sectional study was carried out from June to July 2007 among 546 households in the Quang Tri province. Data were gathered on basis of socio-demographic variables, namely age, gender, education, occupation,

income, and region. Chi square tests and multivariate analysis were performed on the obtained data.

The data were cleaned and analysed using SPSS 15.0 for windows. Results Occupation is related to knowledge, attitude, or practice. Income is related to

knowledge or practice. Gender related to only attitude. Lastly, region is related to attitude or practice. The proportion of wrong understanding about SD is 2.0 times (95% CI: 1.3; 3.1, p\0.001) higher than that of the people who have good

understanding about it.

The rate of willingness to do any related SD programmes of the people who understanding is 2.1 times (95% CI: 1.4; 3.2, p\0.001) higher than that of the

people who have bad one.

Conclusions This study shows that knowledge on sustainability of the local communities is low. Occupation and income influence understanding of SD more

than region, age, gender, and education. Most of the local people who do not understand SD in general, do not want to participate or act in SD programmes..


RESEARCH METHOD

A cross-sectional community based study was conducted during the period of June to July 2007 where participants ranged between 16 and 75 years. A

random digit table was used to select the first household in a village. Thereafter, a ‘‘door to door’’ strategy was applied to select the next household until enough

households in each district were included. In each district, 182 households were conducted. If a village did not have

enough households, the investigators extended the sample size with households from a neighbouring village. In each household, one representative

spokesperson was interviewed to collect information on the composition of the family and their comprehension of SD, indicators, and their performance.

The completed questionnaires were manually checked before the results were transferred to the computer. The explanatory variables entail:

• Knowledge includes understanding the SD concept, (the SD concept was divided into 2 groups of knowing less than 5 issues and 5 to 9 issues), and the content of SD (involving 2 groups of less than 5 and from 5 to 16 indicators).

• Attitude: willingness to participate in SD programmes.• Practice: participation in programmes on health care and/or environment.

The sum of the scores for the above three aspects for those who have the knowledge about SD including the ones who know the concept and the ones who can identify the content and indicators ranging from 0 to 26 points are

divided as follows:• Not accepted indicates who scored from 0 to 12 points.

• Accepted indicates who scored from 13 to 26 points.

Pearson’s chi square-tests were used to compare the variables between factors and events. Logistic regressions using the forward stepwise method allowed us to determine the relationship between the factors. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS for Windows, release 15.0) was used for this purpose. The 95% confidence intervals were derived for each variable coefficient. A p-

value of 0.05 was considered statistically significant..




Path diagram of the factors influencing SD




Major factors contributing to environmental awarenessamong people in a third world country/Jordan

Anf H. ZiadatEnviron Dev Sustain (2010) 12:135–145.

Abstract

The objective of this research was to evaluate the major factors contributing toenvironmental awareness among people in a third world country such as Jordan. Two thousand individuals from different locations in the southern part of Jordan

participated in the survey and completed the questionnaire in the fall of 2004. The questionnaire consisted of 30 questions grouped into the following categories of

major environmental issues: general environmental problems, air pollution, water resources, solid waste, noise pollution, and desertification.

The target population encompassed people with different backgrounds including gender, age, education levels, location of residency, and social status. The

questionnaire was distributed according to the population density throughout five major cities and 59 villages.

Analysis of Variance was conducted on the means of the sample populations determined by gender, age, education, and geographic distribution to verify that the apparent differences of the means were statistically significant. The environmental awareness of females in this study as quantified by an overall index exceeded that

of males in each of the individual cities and villages surveyed and therefore throughout the region. For the entire study, the overall index was 65.3–62.8,

respectively. The statistical results of the survey revealed that the city of Aqaba in the southern region of Jordan had greater environmental awareness than the other

cities surveyed.

Environmental awareness among university students increased linearly as they proceeded from the first year to

the fifth year. The education level of the survey respondents played a significant role in the degree of

environmental awareness in all cities and villages surveyed. Environmental awareness was also affected by the difference in age range, with the older groups having more consistent responses and higher overall index of

environmental awareness..

METHODS OF ANALYSIS

Raw data from the surveys was entered into spreadsheets using EXCEL. Special records were arranged presenting the progress of work in all surveyed areas. The editing process focused on the completeness and consistency of data in order to minimize any data entry

errors. A team of senior students from the College of Engineering at Mutah University, Jordan, performed data processing with specialized coding and the final revision of already edited and

coded questionnaires. The process was under the direct supervision of the author.Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was conducted on the means of the sample sets determined

by age, gender, education level, and geographic distribution to determine if the apparent differences in the means of the datasets were statistically significant at a level of a = 0.05. The

P values from the ANOVA analysis are presented. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was also applied to the 2000 completed questionnaires.

Analyses were conducted on different parameters such as the correct responses to questions concerning current issues of general environmental problems, air pollution, water resources,

solid waste, noise pollution, and desertification. The SPSS program was used to link the environmental awareness among people to their

education levels, location of residency, gender, and age..

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Conclusions

Environmental awareness in Jordan as a third world country has moved a long way toward understanding the significance and need for a cleaner environment and

better social-environmental behaviors. However, personal actions, levels of political environmental literacy, and obligations of citizens to improve the environment

appear to lag behind in comparison with people in developed countries. This is due to the fact that people in third world countries still have other important priorities in their daily lives to deem than the environment, which includes and is not limited to

providing the financial daily basic needs for the family.

The following can be concluded from this research:

1.Environmental awareness among females in all cities and overall exceeded the total awareness of males in the southern region of Jordan.2.The results of the survey revealed that the city of Aqaba in the southern region of Jordan had better environmental awareness comparised to the other cities surveyed.3.Environmental awareness among university students increased linearly as they proceeded from the first year to the fifth year.4.This research demonstrates that people in third world countries with higher education levels have better environmental awareness.5.Environmental awareness is affected by the difference in the age range: the older the group’s age the higher the overall index for environmental awareness.



JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISMIncreasing to 8 issues in 2010

Now accepted for inclusion in the Thomson Reuter's Social Sciences Citation IndexPublished By: Routledge

Volume Number: 18. Frequency: 8 issues per yearPrint ISSN: 0966-9582. Online ISSN: 1747-7646

.

The Journal of Sustainable Tourism advances critical understanding of the relationships between tourism and sustainable development.

The journal publishes theoretical, conceptual and empirical research that explores one or more of the economic, social, cultural, political, organisational or environmental

aspects of the subject.Contributions are from all disciplinary perspectives, with inter-disciplinary work being

especially welcome. Holistic and integrative work is encouraged. All geographical areas are included, as are all forms of tourism, both mass and niche

market. The Journal of Sustainable Tourism encourages critical views, as well as new ideas and approaches in relation to the theory and practice linking tourism and sustainability.

.

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What is Ethical and Sustainable Tourism?

Ethical and Sustainable tourism is not

just limited to areas of ecological significance, but actively aims to

reduce negative impacts in a holistic way, in urban, rural, and wilderness

areas. Issues confronted include economic viability, socio-cultural

sensitivity, and environmental sustainability, at destinations of

natural and cultural significance, in both mass tourism and the various

niche tourism segments. Ethical Sustainable tourism not only

examines and responds to the needs of the present, but how current

actions will also reduce negative impacts in the long term.

Understanding how consumers view green hotels: how a hotel's green image can influence behavioural intentions

Jin-Soo Leea; Li-Tzang (Jane) Hsub; Heesup Hanc; Yunhi Kimd

Journal of Sustainable Tourism, Volume 18, Issue 7 September 2010 , pages 901 - 914 .

AbstractAs the public is increasingly concerned about environmental issues, green

management is rapidly becoming a strategic tool that can enhance a hotel's competitive advantage. This study explores how to develop the image and

branding of a green hotel using the concepts of cognitive, affective and overall images.

The study, based on a survey of 416 hotel users, also investigates how a green hotel image can affect behavioural intentions (i.e. intention to revisit, intention to offer positive recommendations to others and willingness to pay a premium). The

findings confirm that cognitive image components (namely value and quality attributes) can exert a positive influence on a green hotel's affective and overall

images. The affective image is also found to positively affect a green hotel's overall

image. A green hotel's overall image, in turn, can contribute to more favourable

behavioural intentions. Quality attributes were found to be more powerful than value attributes. The importance of the concept of selfish altruism and obtaining a

feeling of wellbeing from a purchase were shown to be very strong. A range of theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Sumber: http://mountsnow.com/the-mountain/about-mount-snow/green-snow/ Diunduh 22/3/2012

Conservation MeasuresHeating setback controls on base lodges and administrative

buildings turn back the heat at night regardless of the individual thermostat settings.

Exit lighting has been converted from incandescent to florescent, LED lighting and all exterior lighting has been converted to HID (high intensity discharge) lighting. Both measures together save approximately 5% in electricity.

Hotel guests may choose not to receive clean towels on a daily basis conserving water for laundry and reducing soap

used.New bathroom faucets operate with sensors, which eliminate

running faucets and reduce wasted water.Water outflows, a result of snowmaking, are routed back into snowmaking ponds so water may be conserved and reused

instead of just being released on the mountain.Street Lamps on Main Street switched from incandescent to

metal halide lighting

http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~db=all~content=t794297833

http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~db=all~content=t794297833~tab=issueslist~branches=18#v18

http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~db=all~content=g925870180

http://mountsnow.com/the-mountain/about-mount-snow/green-snow/

Toward a product-based typology for nature-based tourism: a conceptual framework

Julius Arneggera; Manuel Wolteringa; Hubert Joba

a Institute of Geography, Julius-Maximilians-University W rzburg, W rzburg, Germany

Journal of Sustainable Tourism, Volume 18, Issue 7 September 2010 , pages 915 - 928

Abstract

The traditional view of nature-based tourists as a relatively homogeneous group has been questioned, and several scholars have suggested various segmentation

typologies.

This paper discusses market and industry changes and notes key trends, as Fordist tourist products have been replaced by post-Fordist and neo-Fordist products, with

both McDonaldization and McDisneyization developments.

A range of visitor-based typologies are reviewed, and the conflict between capturing the diversity of today's nature-based tourists while offering management bodies

simple tools to segment visitors, identify core groups and improve their marketing is noted.

In an attempt to overcome this conflict, the paper presents a conceptual framework which focuses on nature-based tourism products instead of tourist types, therefore

incorporating aspects of both the demand and supply sides of the nature-based tourism industry market.

A two-dimensional matrix is suggested, linking four basic travel motivations (nature conservation, nature experience,

sports/adventure and hedonistic) to four different types of tourist products (independent, la carte, customized and standardized),

giving a total typology of 16 different types. The matrix should help protected area managers to better

understand tourist needs, suggest management measures and help to create more sustainable forms of tourism. Empirical testing is

suggested as a next step.


http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~db=all~content=t794297833~tab=issueslist~branches=18


Value orientations toward coral reefs in recreation and tourism settings: a conceptual and measurement approach

Mark D. Needhama

a Department of Forest Ecosystems and Society, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USAJournal of Sustainable Tourism, Volume 18, Issue 6 July 2010 , pages 757 - 772

AbstractThis paper examines recreationist and tourist value orientations toward coral reefs (e.g. protection-use, biocentric-anthropocentric), tests a scale for measuring these orientations in recreation and tourism settings, groups individuals based on their orientations and examines demographic and activity differences among groups.

Data were obtained from surveys of 2821 users at three coastal and marine sites in Hawai'i. Belief statements about reefs (e.g. “coral reefs have value whether humans

are present or not”) were used to measure value orientations. Users agreed with protectionist and disagreed with use-oriented beliefs. Except for one statement (“humans should manage coral reefs so that humans benefit”), the

scale provided a reliable and valid measure of value orientations toward reefs. Respondents were grouped into three subgroups (strong protection, moderate

protection, mixed protection-use). The largest number of users had strong protectionist orientations toward reefs, and there was no group possessing only use orientations. There were no relationships between value orientations and site, age and residence. Females, snorkelers and

sunbathers had stronger protectionist orientations, whereas most scuba divers and anglers had mixed orientations.

Given that most respondents had protectionist orientations, efforts to conserve reefs would be supported, whereas activities with deleterious effects on reefs would not

be widely supported.

Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_value_orientations….. Diunduh 25/3/2012

Social value orientations categoriesSocial value orientations are based on the assumption that individuals pursue different

goals when making decisions for which the outcomes affect others. Social psychologists generally distinguish between five types of social value orientations. The main difference between each category is the extent to which one cares about his or her own payoffs and

that of the other in social dilemma situations.1.Altruistic: Desire to maximize the welfare of the other2.Cooperative: Desire to maximize joint outcomes3.Individualistic: Desire to maximize own welfare with no concern of that of the other4.Competitive: Desire to maximize own welfare relative to that of the other5.Aggressive: Desire to minimize the welfare of the other6.Most individuals are either cooperative or individualistic.




Developing an evaluation model for destination attractiveness: sustainable forest recreation tourism in Taiwan

Cheng-Fei Leea; Hsun-I Huangb; Huery-Ren Yeha

Journal of Sustainable Tourism, Volume 18, Issue 6 July 2010 , pages 811 - 828

Abstract

This study explores the opinions of an expert panel on factors affecting the attractiveness of forest recreation tourism in Taiwan.

Twenty-three determinants of destination attractiveness were selected by reviewing the relevant literature. The relative importance of these determinants was analyzed

by a panel of experts using the Analytical Hierarchy Process method. Results show that the uniqueness of forest landscapes and scenery and special

climate phenomena are two of the most important attributes determining the attractiveness of forest recreation tourism. The reliability and convenience of access

to forest recreation sites owing to their remote location are also highly evaluated. The provision of high-quality accommodation and cuisine is considered an essential

component to enrich visitors' recreational experience in forest settings. The major implications for both the public and private sectors to achieve long-term

sustainability are threefold: ensuring sustainable use of natural environment, enhancing the reliability of access modes to the destination, and improving the

quality of lodging facilities and catering services. Together these three requirements can help create socioeconomic sustainability in

remote forest communities with limited alternative employment opportunities.

Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_Hierarchy_Process….. Diunduh 25/3/2012

The Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) is a structured technique for organizing and analyzing complex decisions. Based on mathematics and psychology, it was developed by Thomas L. Saaty in the 1970s and has

been extensively studied and refined since then.It has particular application in group decision making, and is used around

the world in a wide variety of decision situations, in fields such as government, business, industry, healthcare, and education.

Rather than prescribing a "correct" decision, the AHP helps decision makers find one that best suits their goal and their understanding of the

problem. It provides a comprehensive and rational framework for structuring a decision problem, for representing and quantifying its

elements, for relating those elements to overall goals, and for evaluating alternative solutions.




Resident attitudes toward sustainable community tourismHwansuk Chris Choi; Iain Murray

Journal of Sustainable Tourism, Volume 18, Issue 4 May 2010 , pages 575 - 594

AbstractThis study examined, using social exchange theory, a range of variables involved in

determining resident attitudes toward tourism development and the adoption of sustainable tourism.

After a comprehensive review of the literature on the role of residents in tourism development, and of the use of social exchange theory, 430 completed

questionnaires obtained in a Texas town involved in tourism were analyzed. A structural equation model (SEM) was utilized to understand the effects of selected

components of sustainability on the attitudes of the respondents about future tourism development and to test hypothesized causal relationships among the

variables. The findings revealed that three major components of sustainable tourism, namely long-term planning, full community participation and environmental sustainability within tourism, are critically related to support for tourism and to the positive and

negative impacts of tourism. The paper uses the findings to suggest critical implications that local governments

need to consider when developing tourism. .

Sumber: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0261517700000182 ….. Diunduh 22/3/2012




Modeling community support for a proposed integrated resort project

Robin Nunkoo; Haywantee RamkissoonJournal of Sustainable Tourism, Volume 18, Issue 2 March 2010 , pages 257 - 277

AbstractIn recent years Mauritius has experienced a rapid increase in integrated resort developments, which have been intended to secure income from new tourism

segments and to boost the local economy. Using data on the responses of residents of Le Morne, Mauritius, to a proposal

to construct an integrated resort, this study develops and tests a model of community support for the proposed development.

The structural model (SEM) indicates that residents' satisfaction with their own community, their utilization of the resource base, their perceptions of the state of the local economy and their environmental attitudes are antecedents of their views about the costs and benefits of the project. Opinions about the benefits and costs of the project were also found to determine the level of community

support. All factors in the model were found to be determinants of the perceived costs and benefits of the project, except for residents' perceptions of the impact

of the development on their utilization of the resource base. The theoretical and managerial implications of the study are discussed. The

most notable contribution of the study is its findings on the influence of residents' satisfaction with community services on their attitudes and support

for tourism development..

Sumber: http://www.tourismeconomics.com/services-economic-impact.php ….. Diunduh 22/3/2012

Tourism Economic ImpactThe economic importance of tourism to

a destination is commonly underappreciated and extends well

beyond core hospitality and transportation sectors. Tourism Economics offers a solution to

destination marketing organizations (DMOs) and to industry associations

that marries rigorous methodology and compelling communication to raise the

profile of tourism as an economic engine.




Rural tourism and sustainable rural tourismBill Bramwell

Journal of Sustainable Tourism, Volume 2, Issue 1 & 2 1994 , pages 1 - 6

AbstractThis theme issue of the Journal of Sustainable Tourism is devoted to the issues surrounding the

development of rural tourism and of more sustainable forms of rural tourism. They are examined in the context of rural areas in the developed nations of Western Europe. Earlier versions of these papers were presented at the Second International School on Rural

Development, held in Galway, Ireland in July 1993, which took rural and sustainable rural tourism as its themes.

Consideration is given to developing rural tourism in ways where the supply of tourist facilities and experiences is appropriate to the needs of the host community, the environment and the local

suppliers, and where it also matches the requirements of tourists on the demand side. Concern is expressed that rural tourism should not develop as the hapless outcome of inexorable,

external forces, and hence prominence is given to the role of local communities and local businesses in shaping rural tourism.

Sumber: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/journals.htm?articleid=1931211&show=html ….. Diunduh 22/3/2012




Journal of Sustainable TourismVol. 17, No. 5, September 2009, 567–581

Social learning and sustainable tourism development; local qualityconventions in tourism: a Greek case study

Alexandros Koutsouris.

ABSTRACTThis paper presents the trajectory of an innovative organisational scheme, the Local

Quality Convention (LQC), concerning sustainable tourism development in the Lake Plastiras area, a less favoured area in Central Greece. It outlines the development issues of the area, themain

actors, their views and practices and describes the creation, progress and emerging problems of the LQC scheme. Research reveals contradicting approaches to sustainable tourism development

which, in turn, influenced the LQC’s evolution.The findings are critically discussed in the light of the Social Learning (SL) approach to social

change and sustainable development. According to SL it is only through interactive (participative), concerted action that stakeholders are able to co-construct an issue and its solutions.

Given the dominance of “conventional” tourism in Greece as well as the top-down formation and implementation of policies, the importance of the long term facilitation of local stakeholders to

achieve sustainable tourism development is demonstrated, along with other related lessons for planners and managers..

Sumber: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0261517705000865 ….. Diunduh 22/3/2012

MethodologyThe research presented here was carried out within the CORASON project and

used a case study approach. Thus, besides the collection of data and documents relating to local tourism development and related projects in the area, a

number of in-depth interviews were carried out with the main actors relating to tourism development in the area.

These main actors included (1) the director as well as the key officers of the local LEADER project, and of the Rural Extension & Development Divisions of the

Development Agency of Karditsa (AN.KA.); (2) the first president and the consultant of the LQC scheme (The local quality convention); (3) the consultant of the

Plastiras-network and (4) six LEADER beneficiaries were carried out in late 2005, followed by two focus-groups with local people (one with tourism-related businesses

and other with farmers), non-LEADER beneficiaries in early 2006. Analysis of these materials led to a second round of interviews, to clarify emerging

themes (early 2006).

Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_study….. Diunduh 22/3/2012


Social learning and sustainable tourism development; local quality conventions in tourism: a Greek case study

Alexandros Koutsouris.

The Case Study as a Research MethodA case study is an intensive analysis of an individual unit (e.g., a person, group, or event) stressing developmental factors in relation to context. The case study is common in social

sciences and life sciences. Case studies may be descriptive or explanatory. The latter type is used to explore causation in order to find underlying principles. They may be prospective (in

which criteria are established and cases fitting the criteria are included as they become available) or retrospective (in which criteria are established for selecting cases from historical

records for inclusion in the study)."Case studies are analyses of persons, events, decisions, periods, projects, policies,

institutions, or other systems that are studied holistically by one or more methods. The case that is the subject of the inquiry will be an instance of a class of phenomena that provides an

analytical frame — an object — within which the study is conducted and which the case illuminates and explicates."

Rather than using samples and following a rigid protocol (strict set of rules) to examine limited number of variables, case study methods involve an in-depth, longitudinal (over a long period of time) examination of a single instance or event: a case. They provide a systematic way of looking at events, collecting data, analyzing information, and reporting the results. As a result the researcher may gain a sharpened understanding of why the instance happened as it did,

and what might become important to look at more extensively in future research. Case studies lend themselves to both generating and testing hypotheses.


Tourist satisfaction in relation to attractions and implications for conservation in the protected areas of the Northern Circuit, Tanzania

Moses Makonjio Okello and Sarah Yerian.

ABSTRACTThis study assessed tourist satisfaction and its links with tourist attractions and

infrastructure at the following six protected areas on the Northern Tourist Circuit of Tanzania: Tarangire National Park, Lake Manyara National Park, Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Serengeti National Park, Arusha National Park, and Mt.

Kilimanjaro National Park. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 185 tourists visiting the protected areas.

Satisfaction ratings for the Northern Circuit were high, with 86% of tourists willing to be repeat visitors. Tourists were attracted primarily to wildlife viewing.

Although most tourists were not influenced to visit the region by indigenous culture or physical features, 81% of tourists noted that non-wildlife attractions enhanced

their tourist experience. A range of ways to develop more sustainable forms of tourism emerged from the work, including lengthening stays, guide/driver capacity building, and partnership working with tour operators to improve marketing, increase satisfaction rates, and

diversify the product..

Sumber: http://id.shvoong.com/writing-and-speaking/presenting/2170427-pengertian-dan-fungsi-wawancara/….. Diunduh 22/3/2012

Pengertian dan Fungsi Wawancara

Salah satu metode pengumpulan data ialah dengan cara wawancara yaitu mendapatkan informasi dengan cara bertanya langsung kepada responden. Wawancara adalah salah

satu bagian yang terpenting dari setiap survey, tanpa wawancara, peneliti akan kehilangan informasi yang hanya dapat diperoleh dengan jalan bertanya langsung

kepada responden. Wawancara adalah percakapan dengan maksud tertentu. Percakapan itu dilakukan oleh

dua pihak, yaitu pewawancara (interviewer) yang mengajukan pertanyaan dan terwawancara (interviewee) yang memberikan jawaban atas pertanyaan tersebut.

Tujuan mengadakan wawancara: mengkontruksi mengenai orang, kejadian, organisasi, perasaan, motivasi serta memverifikasi, mengubah dan memperluas konstruksi yang

dikembangkan oleh peneliti sebagai pengecekan anggota.Fungsi wawancara adalah: 1. sebagai metode primer.2. sebagai metode pelengkap.3. sebagai kriterium.

The conceptual framework of tourism satisfaction

Tourism satisfaction is a key determinant of a person’s quality of life through life satisfaction and individual wellbeing linkages . In this model, tourism satisfaction is determined by both cognitive parameters (predetermined expectations and disconfirmation) and emotional experiences. The

cognitive parameters are those that influence satisfaction during and after consumptive experiences and help form future intentions. They include factors that influence tourist destination

image and expectations (print and electronic media, internet, film documentaries, and word-of-mouth publicity by people) of the destination and factors directly influencing disconfirmation

(attractions, services, and facilities).Conceptual framework of the factors influencing tourism satisfaction and its linkages to the life

satisfaction and quality of life based on the cognitive–affective theory (Oliver, 1993).





Methodology

Information was collected using a questionnaire with open-ended and closed questions to guide face-to-face interviews between researchers (and their assistants) and the tourists. Each interview

lasted for about 10 minutes, with a total of 185 tourists interviewed at the main gates of Lake Manyara, Tarangire, and Ngorongoro national parks. Interviews took place while the tour drivers were checking into protected areas. A few tourists left out last few questions if their drivers were ready to leave the gates of protected areas. Informationwas largely collected through personal interviews, but in some cases tourists preferred to read the questionnaire and fill in answers to

save time. If tourists arrived in groups (in a vehicle), only one member of each groupwas interviewed to minimize repetition and ensure independent collection of data. Interviews were

conducted in English; a very small groups of tourists, mostly from Asian countries, were therefore unable to participate. All vehicles passing through themain gatewith English-speaking touristswere

interviewed.

The interviews covered the tourists’ background and their assessment of the protected areas they had visited in the Northern Circuit. They were asked about their duration of stay in each protected

area, what other protected areas they had visited in Tanzania, and whether they were traveling alone (self-guiding) or with a tour company. They were asked whether past traveling experiences had influenced their wildlife attraction expectations, what large mammal species were they hoping

to see in the Northern Circuit, which ones had they actually seen, and in which protected area. Concerning physical features and cultural attractions, the tourists were asked about specific

physical attractions and cultures, as primary attractions, that had influenced their decisions to visit the Northern Circuit protected areas.

On tourist satisfaction, tourists were asked to rank protected areas in the Northern Circuit on a ten-point continuum scale from 0 (not satisfied at all) to 10 (highly satisfied), and to offer reason(s) for their ranking. Touristswere also askedwhether theywould become repeat tourists in the Northern Circuit, and if so, which protected areas would they prioritize on their repeat visit. Tourists were also asked, would they recommend acquaintances to visit the Northern Circuit, and if so, which

protected area would they highly advocate for. A copy of the questionnaire used in this work can be obtained by email on request from the authors.

Data analysis was done using SPSS Version 9.0 for Windows (SPSS). Basic tallies and percentages were done, and significant differences between the tallies were assessed using Chi-

Square Goodness-of-Fit test. Chi-square cross-tabulations were used to establish factors influencing tourism satisfaction visits in

the Northern Circuit. All statistical tests were done at an alpha of 5%..





IJER: INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH

Aims & Scopes

International Journal of Environmental Research is a multidisciplinary journal concerned with all aspects of environment. In pursuit of these, environmentalist

disciplines are invited to contribute their knowledge and experience. International Journal of Environmental Research publishes original research papers,

research notes and reviews across the broad field of environment. These include but are not limited to environmental science, environmental

engineering, environmental management and planning and environmental design, urban and regional landscape design and natural disaster management. Thus high

quality research papers or reviews dealing with any aspect of environment are welcomed. Papers may be theoretical, interpretative or experimental.

Editor-in-charge

Nabi Bidhendi, Gh. [email protected]

Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_design….. Diunduh 22/3/2012

Environmental design Environmental design is the process of addressing surrounding

environmental parameters when devising plans, programs, policies, buildings, or products. Classical prudent design may have always

considered environmental factors; however, the environmental movement beginning in the 1940s has made the concept more explicit.

Environmental design can also refer to the applied arts and sciences dealing with creating the human-designed environment. These fields include architecture, geography, urban planning, landscape architecture, and

interior design. Environmental design can also encompass interdisciplinary areas such as

historical preservation and lighting design. In terms of a larger scope, environmental design has implications for the

industrial design of products: innovative automobiles, wind-electricity generators, solar-electric equipment, and other kinds of equipment could

serve as examples. Currently, the term has expanded to apply to ecological and sustainability issues.

mailto:[email protected]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_planning

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landscape_architecture

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interior_design

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighting

Effects of Land use Change and Erosion on Physical andChemical Properties of Water(Karkhe watershed)

Mahmoudi, B., Bakhtiari, F., Hamidifar, M. and Daneh kar, A..Int. J. Environ. Res., 4(2):217-228,Spring 2010

ABSTRACT

Karkhe watershed (KW) with more than 5 million hectares recently encountered many problems in the natural, social and man-made habitats.

Unsuitable use of land, soil erosion and lack of rainfall are the most destructive factors in this watershed affecting the whole region fundamentally.

As expected, these problems have caused a considerable fall in biodiversity in fauna and flora, a decrease in volume and quality of water resources in

watershed and a rise in probability of destructive floods. In this study the changes in land use levels and erosion were assessed in 5 sub-

regions of Karkhe watershed in two periods of time ’1988 and 2002’ using images of LANDSAT. In addition, the effects of these manipulations on the

physico-chemical qualities of water such as, cation and anion concentration, acidity and salinity were quantified.

The results show that erosion changes in Karkhe Watershed are inconsiderable from 1988 to 2002. The extent of urban area and irrigated agricultural lands in

Karkhe sub-regions (Gamasiab, Gharresu Kashkan ) are around 1000 and 2000 km2 respectively , the decrease in river discharge around 121.6 m3/s , is the

most effective factors for the reduction in acidity(from 7.9 in 1988 to 8.1 in 2002), an increment in salinity ( from 1.6 mg/L in 1988 to 3.6 mg/L in 2002 as

average amount of SAR in all sub-regions of watershed) and the high density of the anions (from 8.1 mg/Lin 1988 to 16.4 mg/L in 2002) and cations (from 8.8

mg/L to 16.5 mg/L) in Karkhe River..

Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watershed_management….. Diunduh 22/3/2012

Watershed management Watershed management is the study of the relevant characteristics of a

watershed aimed at the sustainable distribution of its resources and the process of creating and implementing plans, programs, and projects to sustain and enhance watershed functions that affect the plant, animal, and human communities within a

watershed boundary.Features of a watershed that agencies seek to manage include water supply,

water quality, drainage, stormwater runoff, water rights, and the overall planning and utilization of watersheds. Landowners, land use agencies, stormwater management experts, environmental specialists, water use purveyors and communities all play an integral part in the management of a watershed.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply

MATERIALS & METHODSKarkhe watershed is located in the west of Iran, south-west of Zagros Mountains.Its longitude and

latitude are (460, 06' to 490, 10' E) and (300, 58‘ to 340, 56' N), respectively.In order to conduct an appropriate investigation into the environmental effects of land- use and

erosion in the past and present, having a good understanding of the vital role of water resources of the watershed was critical in terms of both qualitative and quantitative measures. Therefore, in the first step, five sub-regions namely Gamasiab, Gharresu, Saymareh, Kashkan and Soufli-Karkhe,

were determined on satellite images. The second step was the enhancement of digital spectral bands by “panchromatic band” with 15 meter separation ability for image processing and interpretation. Land use maps were drawn by TM 1988 and ETM+2002 digital (numeric) data and Arc GIS software under hybrid supervised

classification method in the third step (Eosat, 2002). Meanwhile, physicochemical quality of five sub-regions in 2 periods of time, i.e., “1988 and 2002”, was assessed with SPSS software.

Furthermore, the physical and chemical characteristics in hydrometric stations along the Karkhe river length, supplied by” Deputy of watershed management of Jihad agriculture in 2004" were

investigated, and the precision and accuracy of collected data was controlled.

Effects of Land use Change and Erosion on Physical andChemical Properties of Water(Karkhe watershed)

Mahmoudi, B., Bakhtiari, F., Hamidifar, M. and Daneh kar, A..Int. J. Environ. Res., 4(2):217-228,Spring 2010

The flowchart of method used in the research

Comparison of Different Hybrid Turbine Ventilator (HTV)Application Strategies to Improve the Indoor Thermal Comfort

Ismail, M. and Abdul Rahman, A. M..Int. J. Environ. Res., 4(2):297-308,Spring 2010

ABSTRACT

This paper discusses the results of the full-scale field measurement study to investigate the most efficient application strategy of the Hybrid Turbine Ventilator (HTV) in improving the indoor thermal comfort in hot-humid tropics. The effects of three different HTV application strategies performance on improving the levels of

indoor air temperature, relative humidity (RH) and air velocity were evaluated for a three-clear day period. The results were analyzed and compared based on two thermal comfort indices i.e. Operative Temperature (OT) and Standard Effective

Temperature (SET*).The study shows that the HTV for the occupied space with extractor fan at ceiling

level is the most efficient strategy when it succeeded to reduce indoor air temperature and relative humidity of up to 0.7°C and 1.7%RH, respectively. It also succeeded to induce air velocity in the occupied level up to 0.38m/s in

average and reduced the level of OT by 60% and SET* by 90% compared to the existing condition.

The overall results also indicated that the performance of the HTV could be enhanced by applying the device for both occupied space and attic space at the

same time and ensure that openings are kept opened..

Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_comfort ….. Diunduh 22/3/2012

Thermal comfort Thermal comfort is a term used by the American Society of Heating,

Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, an international body. It is defined as the state of mind in humans that expresses satisfaction with the surrounding environment (ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55). Maintaining

this standard of thermal comfort for occupants of buildings or other enclosures is one of the important goals of HVAC (heating, ventilation,

and air conditioning) design engineers.Thermal comfort is affected by heat conduction, convection, radiation, and evaporative heat loss. Thermal comfort is maintained when the heat generated by human metabolism is allowed to dissipate, thus

maintaining thermal equilibrium with the surroundings. It has been long recognized that the sensation of feeling hot or cold is not just

dependent on air temperature alone.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HVAC

MATERIALS & METHODSThe field study was conducted in the rectangular room (in the top floor of an institutional building in

Malaysia) with a dimension of 27.5m x 12m and 2.85 m height. The total floor area is approximately 330.0 m² and the volume of the occupied space and attic is 940.5 m³ and 330.0 m³, respectively. To ensure the conducive indoor environment, insulation barrier in the roof and large openings of 330.0 m² which is equivalent to 17% of the openings to floor area ratio was applied.

However, from the observation, the room still suffered a hot indoor air problem which is mainly due to relatively wide area of its roof exposed to the sun. This problem is worsen by the presence of large vegetations and newly built buildings adjacent to it which limit the effectiveness of natural

cross ventilation to ventilate the most area of the room (Fig. 1).As a response to the findings from the previous studies which illustrated that the turbine itself

could possibly be a major constraint to achieve higher rate of extraction air, a new configuration of the device with larger free outlet area on the upper part has been developed using conventional

18" turbine ventilator Fig.2(a). Integrated with solar-powered extractor fan with Ø30cm fan blade and Ø35cm aluminum

ventilation duct, three complete sets of the HTVs were installed on the roof along with 6 panels of polycrystalline photovoltaic (20 watt each) Fig. 2(b).In order to investigate the most efficient use of the device in improving thermal environment, three different application strategies and the existing

condition without it were studied.To validate the thermal neutrality using the PMV theory, the Software ASHRAE Thermal Comfort

Program V1.0 was used to make the calculations with several assumptions:♦ The Mean Radiant Temperature (MRT) was assumed to be the same as the air temperature

(26.5°C),♦ The relative humidity is 80% (the mean value for this climate),

♦ The metabolic rate is 1.0 met to indicate seating and writing activity and♦ The clothes were assumed to be 0.5 Clo.

Moreover, the air movement was taken as 0.1m/s to represent the condition with still air. From the analysis, it was found that the value for the PMV and Predicted Percent Dissatisfied (PPD) were

0.4 and 9%, respectively. Based on ISO7730, these values were obviously within the comfort zone when that standard stated that an acceptable PPD should be <10% which corresponds to a PMV between -0.5 and 0.5.On the other hand, the expression by de Dear and Brager (2002) based on

Auliciems (1981) correlation was used to validate the thermal neutrality of 26.5°C using the Adaptive Model.

Tcomf = 0.31Ta,out + 17.8

Where Tcomf = optimum comfort temperature and Ta,out = mean outdoor dry bulb temperature of the month.



Fig. 1. The test-bed (a) third floor plan of the building (b) graphic cross sectional view.

Fig. 2. Configuration of the HTV (a) before installation (b) three complete sets of the HTV installed on the roof



Improving the Natural and Built Ecological Systems in an Urban EnvironmentAminzadeh, B. and Khansefid, M.

Int. J. Environ. Res., 4(2):361-372,Spring 2010

ABSTRACT

This study investigates the application of landscape ecology in planning and design of urban ecological systems. The ecological approach to landscape planning and the concepts of designing and implementing ecological systems have gained increasing attention in the last two

decades. However, the ecological systems of urban environment need more research to consider built and natural patches and corridors together and to provide proper and applicable strategies

that meet all of the diverse aspects of planning and designing sustainable urban systems. This approach could help in defining sustainable landscape development, aiming for a balance

between both physical and natural systems in urban areas. This research is focused on Tehran’s metropolitan area as a case study to provide a relationship between landscape ecology and urban

planning and design to propose a model for analyzing and providing strategies and policies for conserving and resorting urban ecological systems.

The spatial structure of green and natural areas are studied and categorized based on the patch-corridor-matrix model. Overlaying the selected layers helped provide strategies for conservation

and reclamation, and policies to improve the structure and function of urban landscapes. The strategies to restore the ecological structure and to develop its function in Tehran metropolitan

area are based o.

Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landscape_ecology ….. Diunduh 22/3/2012

EKOLOGI LANDSEKAP

Landscape ecology is the science of studying and improving relationships between ecological processes in the environment and particular ecosystems.

This is done within a variety of landscape scales, development spatial patterns, and organizational levels of research and policy.

As a highly interdisciplinary science in systems ecology, landscape ecology integrates biophysical and analytical approaches with humanistic and holistic perspectives across the natural sciences and social sciences. Landscapes are spatially heterogeneous geographic areas characterized by diverse interacting patches or ecosystems, ranging from relatively natural terrestrial and aquatic systems such as forests, grasslands and lakes to human-

dominated environments including agricultural and urban settings.

The most salient characteristics of landscape ecology are its emphasis on the relationship among pattern, process and scale and its focus on broad-scale ecological and environmental issues. These necessitate the coupling between biophysical and

socioeconomic sciences. Key research topics in landscape ecology include ecological flows in landscape mosaics, land use and land cover change, scaling, relating landscape pattern analysis with ecological processes, and landscape conservation and sustainability

MATERIALS & METHODS

The data required for the research has been gathered from Tehran planning organizations and prior researches, reports and plans, satellite images and

aerial photos regarding the city natural and urban context. The data has been analyzed

based on patch-corridor-matrix model to come to the ecological structure of the city.

The environmental potentials and restrictions of the natural and built ecological systems are fol lowed by considerations and suggestions for structural and functional improvement of urban ecological systems in Tehran metropolitan

area.The base layers of data maps are overlaid to analyze the overall ecological

structure and function of the city, natural and built patches including open and green spaces, due to their fundamental role in the ecological structure of the city are recognized. Hydrological networks are studied as main ecological corridors

in the urban landscape context which vary from natural river valleys to manmade surface or subsurface water flows.

The main hydrological corridors influence energy, air and nutrients flow through the city. Main access of roads, highways and streets as main structural

elements and ecological corridors in urban context, especially in the densely built up urban fabric, as connecting elements of the ecological patches and as

structural elements of the ecological systems. The three mentioned layers have been analyzed to locate the main and most effective ecological patches and corridors in the city matrix. The overall ecological structure of the city is then

obtained by merging the layers of natural or manmade ecological patches and corridors into one single map which contains all the effective features in the

structure of the city.

The main effective element in the ecological structure and function of Tehran are natural and built patches, corridors and matrix.The abundant lands, remnant natural patches, the existing hills and high lands are located in central and

southeast Tehran. Where the micro climatic conditions allow, these patches are covered by bushes, low shrubs and dispersed trees. The natural patches are

under constant pressure of urban development .



MATERIALS & METHODS

The urban forests, parks, gardens, orchards and other built green areas in all shapes and sizes with interrelations with the whole landscape elements are named as built patches. They vary according to their sizes; two large urban forests in east and west side of the city are the main built patches with high ecological functions, small built patches of urban parks are scattered in the

urban fabric.

The seven river valleys, north-south, are characteristic of natural corridors of Tehran landscape structure. They are fertile habitats that support a variety of

flora and fauna and play a significant role as catchments and a place for energy and winds flows to remove air pollutions from the city environment, providing opportunity of connectedness with the natural upland-lowland natural context.

The natural hydrological corridors along the river valleys face more destructing factors and have less ecological functions from north to south because of their

structural modifications .

The natural corridors connect many natural or built patches that are scattered along them. The natural corridors are mostly oriented toward northsouth. The east-west ecological connections are restricted due to morphological structure

of city. Built corridors include linear parks along the river valleys, roads and highways and their boundaries, parts of the city greenbelt, tree lines along

avenues, canals and gutters and subterranean hydrological flows of Quanats.

The built corridors follow the hierarchy dictated by the main roads which are oriented toward east-west. Natural-built matrix is the most dominant element of

the Tehran landscape which varies from natural mountainous to the urban context, then the patches of nature in the centre and finally the agricultural

landscape and the desert edge in the south..



The process for improving the natural and built ecological systems in the urban environment based on landscape ecology approach.




JIBE: Journal of Indoor and Built Environment

Journal of Indoor and Built Environment is a fully peer reviewed international journal that publishes original research and review articles on any topic pertaining to the quality of the indoor and built environment, and how these might effect the

health, performance, efficiency and comfort of persons living or working there. Topics range from urban infrastructure, design of buildings, and materials used to

laboratory studies including animal simulations and in vitro effects.

Journal of Indoor and Built Environment publishes reports on any topic pertaining to the quality of the indoor and built environment, and how these might effect the health, performance, efficiency and comfort of persons living or working there. Topics range from urban infrastructure, design of buildings, and materials

used to laboratory studies including animal simulations and in vitro effects.

Indoor Environmental Quality:Indoor air quality and ventilation; perception and human factors; occupational and non-occupational health effects; exposure risk assessment of emissions in indoor air; materials emissions and biological effects; radon, combustion products and VOCs; urban environment and pollution dispersion; moisture and humidity risks;

thermal comfort; noise; heating and lighting; access safety; living space; sanitation; social and housing requirements.

Urban and transport infrastructure; building design and development; energy efficiency and low carbon housing; sustainable building

materials; HVACR systems; thermal and acoustic insulation; crime and fire prevention; building conservation; building environmental assessment methods; building energy and renewable energy applications; sustainable urban drainage systems (SUDS); contaminated land and land uses; flood risk management.

Built Environment

Occupant’s Perception and Preference of Thermal Environment in Free-running Buildings in China

Baizhan Li Meilan Tan Hong Liu Xiaolei Ma Wenjie Zhang.Indoor Built Environ 2010;19;4:405–412

Abstract

The purpose of this paper was to present the occupants’ perception and preferences of thermal environments in free-running buildings in China.

A study of the thermal environments in eight university dormitory buildings was conducted from September 2008 to July 2009 in Chongqing, China. A total of 1829

returned questionnaires were collected. Indoor and outdoor air temperatures,relative humidity and air velocities were measured while the questionnaire surveys

were conducted. The scores were given based on the subjective scales used for the study on the students’ indoor thermal perception and preferences.

The accepted temperature range was 15.9–28.2C. The preferred temperature was about 23.2C. The neutral temperature was 22.1C. A higher tolerance of temperature

was shown by the occupants in this sub-tropical climatic region of China. The relationship between thermal preference and actual thermal sensation in

different seasons was also analysed. People’s air movement sensation was related to their thermal sensation. The majority of subjects (53%) were satisfied with their

indoor air humidity when the thermal sensation was neutral. The relationship between humidity sensation and preferences showed that the effect of humidity on thermal comfort should not be ignored at high and low temperatures. Student dormitory buildings were used in this study to provide comparatively worse

case information on occupants’ thermal comfort characteristics in residential buildings in China..

Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Questionnaire ….. Diunduh 25/3/2012

QUESTIONNAIREA questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. Although they are often designed for statistical analysis of the responses, this is not always the case. The

questionnaire was invented by Sir Francis Galton.Questionnaires have advantages over some other types of surveys in that they are

cheap, do not require as much effort from the questioner as verbal or telephone surveys, and often have standardized answers that make it simple to compile data. However,

such standardized answers may frustrate users. Questionnaires are also sharply limited by the fact that respondents must be able to read the questions and respond to them. Thus, for some demographic groups conducting a survey by questionnaire may not be

practical.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Question

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_survey

RESEARCH Methods

The thermal environment and comfort surveys were conducted from September 2008 to July 2009. The surveys were carried out monthly during a complete year in Chongqing,

except for the month of August due to the summer vacation. The field studies were undertaken for 3–4 days during each month. Eight university dormitory buildings located in

campuses A and B at Chongqing University were selected for the study. The university dormitories were in ‘‘free running’’ conditions. Generally, the areas of dormitory rooms are

about 25 m2 and about 4–6 students sharing a room. The dormitories are designed as naturally conditioned spaces without air-conditioning and heating systems (HVAC), but are

equipped with ceiling fans and with operable, single-glazed windows. Most of these buildings are concrete structures. Students adapt to the indoor thermal environment by

adjusting their activity level as well as open/close the windows and switch on/off the ceiling fan. Compared to general residential buildings, dormitory buildings are characteristically small with a high occupant density but without HVAC, indicating that the indoor thermal

environment in dormitory buildings would be generally worse than normal residential buildings in China, especially in winter or summer.

A total of 1829 sets of physical measurements and questionnaires were collected to provide the subjective data. The subjects consisted of 709 (38.8%) male and 1120 (61.2%) female students. The age of 97% of the subjects was between 20 and 30 years old and 3% were

less than 20 years old.

Physical MeasurementsAccording to Fanger’s heat balance of the human body theory, there are four

environmental parameters that could affect human thermal comfort. They are air temperature (Tair), mean radiant temperature (Tr), air velocity (Vair) and relative humidity (RH). The instruments used in the survey were a psychrometer (DHM2)

and a hot-wire anemometer (Testo 425). The mean radiant temperature was determined by the globe temperature, which was considered to be the same as air

temperature..All measurements were taken at a height of 0.6m above the floor, representing the

height of an occupant at seated level. The measurement period for each environmental parameter was no less than 5 min. The average values were then

used for further analysis of the corresponding environmental variables in the investigated dormitories. The accuracy of the instruments conformed to the

requirements of ASHRAE Standard 55-1992 [1] and ISO 7726 [13].




Subjective SurveyThe subjective study involved simultaneously collecting data using questionnaires completed by

the subjects and measurements of the physical conditions, during each of the visits. The questionnaire was designed to reflect the indoor thermal environment for subjective assessments of respondents. The survey included: 1. Respondent demographics, such as gender and age; 2. Respondent activity rate and clothing; 3. Subjective sensation and preference of air temperature,

air movement and humidity.Clothing insulation and activity rate were estimated in accordance with ASHRAE standard 55-2004

. The respondents were sitting and reading or writing when the questionnaire surveys were conducted. The metabolic rate of the subjects was estimated to be 1.2 met (1 met¼58.15W/m2) as recommended by ISO7730 [3] for sedentary activity. The subjects wore various clothes in the different seasons. The students were free to adjust their clothing insulation level by putting on or taking off clothes. The chairs in all the dormitories were made of wood. Clothing insulation was

calculated according to ASHRAE 55-2004 .The ASHRAE seven-point thermal sensation scale was used in the survey to help respondents to express their thermal sensation. The seven points are, cold (3), cool (2), slightly cool (1), just right

(neutral) (0), slightly warm (1), warm (2) and hot (3), respectively. A seven-point scale was adopted to qualify respondent humidity sensation: too humid (3), humid (2), slightly humid (1), just

right (neutral) (0), slightly dry (1), dry (2) and too dry (3).Another item was primarily used to evaluate the potential impact of draughts on the thermal

comfort of respondents. A seven-point scale was used: too still (3), still (2), slight still (1), just right (neutral) (0), slightly windy (1), windy (2) and too windy (3), respectively.

Subject’s thermal preference was assessed by asking occupants this question: ‘‘At this point of time, would you prefer the conditions to be warmer, cooler, or no change?’’ The respondents were

also asked to indicate their preference for air movement and humidity.

Table 2 summarises the scales used in the surveys..



HASIL PENELITIAN.Change of clothing insulation with (a) indoor air temperature and (b) outdoor air

temperature.



. Regression of thermal sensation vote and indoor air temperature.

Preferred temperature based on probit analysis.

HASIL PENELITIAN.Dependence of thermal preference vote upon actual thermal sensation in different

seasons.



. The distribution of AMS vote and its relationship with indoor mean air velocity.

. The distribution of humidity sensation (HS) vote and its corresponding indoor air

temperature (Tair) and relative humidity (RH).

KESIMPULAN

To achieve a better knowledge regarding the subjective perception and preference of thermal environment in university dormitories, a field survey was carried out

monthly from September 2008 to July 2009 in university dormitories in Chongqing, including the summer, winter and transition seasons. The following conclusions

were drawn from the findings:1.The acceptable temperatures in university dormitories in Chongqing were between 15.9C and 28.2C. This was established by the regression analysis.2.A preferred indoor air temperature of 23.2C was obtained by probit analysis. The analysis of the relationship between thermal sensation and indoor temperatures in different seasons confirmed that people would prefer somewhat cooler conditions during summer season and warmer conditions in the winter season.3.AMS and preference would depend on the thermal sensation of the subject, rather than on the actual air velocity. People’s preferences for higher air movement would increase with an increase in thermal sensation. Even without a cooling requirement related to thermal comfort, people appear to welcome the feeling of air movement.4.The effect of relative humidity on thermal comfort should not be ignored at high and low temperatures. Voting in the non-central band of humidity sensation scale occurred only when a subject was under thermal discomfort, irrespective of the humidity level.

Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preference ….. Diunduh 22/3/2012



PREFERENCES In psychology, preferences could be conceived of as an individual’s attitude towards a set of objects, typically reflected in an explicit decision-making process (Lichtenstein & Slovic, 2006). Alternatively, one could interpret the term “preference” to mean evaluative judgment

in the sense of liking or disliking an object (e.g., Scherer, 2005) which is the most typical definition employed in psychology. However, it does not mean that a preference is

necessarily stable over time. Preference can be notably modified by decision-making processes, such as choices (Brehm, 1956; Sharot, De Martino, & Dolan, 2009), even in an

unconscious way (Coppin, Delplanque, Cayeux, Porcherot, & Sander, 2010).

"Preference" may also refer to non-choices, such as genetic and biological explanations for one's preference.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology

IJIES: INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INTERDISCIPLINARY ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

Editor(s):

Nicholas V. C. Polunin, University of Newcastle, UK

Environmental Conservation is one of the longest-standing, most highly-cited of the interdisciplinary environmental science journals. It includes research papers,

reports, comments, subject reviews, and book reviews addressing environmental policy, practice, and natural and social science of environmental concern at the

global level, informed by rigorous local level case studies. The journal's scope is very broad, including issues in human institutions, ecosystem

change, resource utilisation, terrestrial biomes, aquatic systems, and coastal and land use management.

Environmental Conservation is essential reading for all environmentalists, managers, consultants, agency workers and scientists wishing to keep abreast of current developments in environmental science. Selected papers are made freely

available online as part of EC Perspectives. .

http://www.fujixerox.com/eng/company/ecology/office/solution/casestudy/index.html

Environmental Conservation (2010), 37:136-146 Valuing complex environmental goods: landscape and biodiversity in

the North PenninesJULIE BLACK , E.J. MILNER-GULLAND , NICK SOTHERTON and SUSANA MOURATO.

SUMMARY

Human activities may have detrimental effects on biodiversity, and appropriate economic valuation of biodiversity can provide additional motivation to protect it. To date, there are no estimates of

visitor values for landscape and wildlife changes in the North Pennines (UK) and very few studies have explored competing influences of landscape and biodiversity in public preferences.

Contingent valuation estimates of visitor values for the North Pennines landscape and biodiversity, as expressed in voluntary contributions, were used to assess the importance of different factors in

influencing these valuations. Policy-linked scenarios were developed, each representing the outcome of a particular policy

direction such as grouse-moor specific subsidies, back-to-nature subsidies, or a ban or decline in red grouse shooting.

The influence of management information provision was tested and economic values were elicited for a number of alternatives. Landscape and biodiversity were both found to be important in

preference formation. In particular, respondents highly valued a mosaic landscape with increases in blanket bog and the associated increases in rare and threatened birds and mammals. Notably,

significant negative valuations were obtained for some of the scenarios presented. Provision of land use information did not significantly influence visitors' valuations, a surprising

result given the controversial nature of one of the primary land uses, namely red grouse shooting.

CONTINGENT VALUATION

Contingent valuation is a survey-based economic technique for the valuation of non-market resources, such as environmental preservation or the impact of contamination. While these resources do give people utility, certain aspects of them do not have a market price as they are not directly sold – for

example, people receive benefit from a beautiful view of a mountain, but it would be tough to value using price-based models.

Contingent valuation surveys are one technique which is used to measure these aspects. Contingent valuation is often referred to as a stated

preference model, in contrast to a price-based revealed preference model. Both models are utility-based. Typically the survey asks how much money

people would be willing to pay (or willing to accept) to maintain the existence of (or be compensated for the loss of) an environmental feature, such as

biodiversity.

(SUMBER: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contingent_valuation … diunduh 25/3/2012)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_survey

Environmental Conservation (2010), 37:210-221 Use of local ecological knowledge in the management of algal blooms

THOMAS A. SCHLACHER, STEWART LLOYD and AARON WIEGAND.

SUMMARYMore frequent and severe algal blooms are symptomatic of increasing

ecosystem stress in coastal waters. Economic losses typically follow and local governments are forced to ‘manage’ this issue. Because many blooms are not

monitored, local ecological knowledge (LEK) and oral history are the only practical tools to obtain data on bloom characteristics and identify their drivers.

LEK was applied to outbreaks of brown algae on popular tourist beaches in south-east Queensland (Australia). Structured interviews with local citizens who

had a close and frequent connection with the ocean provided 541 bloom records, which showed that blooms are regional (≥400 km) rather than local, and

that they are a historical (≥40 years) rather than a recent phenomenon. LEK frequently cited that particular wind regimes coincided with the arrival of

blooms, but this could not be verified by statistical cross-validation with empirical data. Harnessing LEK was valuable in engaging citizens, in generating testable

hypotheses about plume causes, in providing a previously unrecognized historical perspective and in identifying the correct spatial scale of the issue. Multi-pronged approaches will be most effective in addressing blooms where

local mitigation actions are combined with broader regional coastal environmental conservation efforts..

http://www.taiga.net/coop/community/1997/rptcom97.html

Environmental Conservation (2009), 36:289-300Road development and market access on Nicaragua's Atlantic coast:

implications for household fishing and farming practicesKRISTEN M. SCHMITT and DANIEL B. KRAMER.

SUMMARY

The simplistic portrayal of road development as a classic environment versus development debate may be because the indirect pathways connecting road building with environmental change are

poorly understood. Recent road development in previously remote regions of Nicaragua provides an opportunity to investigate these pathways.

This paper examines the effects of increased market access on household resource use on the Atlantic coast of Nicaragua. Specifically, it looks at shifting market flow and price changes for

natural resources and corresponding fishing and farming decisions in communities with varying degrees of market access before and after road completion.

Fisheries markets were more responsive to market access increases than agricultural markets. With increased access, fishers increasingly sold to non-local buyers, overall export of fisheries'

products increased and markets for new products emerged. Prices of fisheries goods were higher with proximity to markets and availability of non-local export outlets, and prices for some were

more stable after the road was completed. There were no observed changes in household fishing and farming investments during the year-

long study, and therefore the environmental implications of increased market access remain uncertain. Longer-term studies and additional biological monitoring are needed to determine the

full environmental consequences of market access.

Sumber: http://www.paramountcommunication.com/ubc/pdf/01_Market_Access_The_Definition.pdf ….. Diunduh 25/3/2012

Market Access—The Definition Depends on the ViewpointBy Sandy W. Robinson, MPA, Executive Director, Center for Pricing & Reimbursement

There are several dynamics surrounding the entrance of new drugs, biologics, devices, and diagnostics in the marketplace that have converged in the last five to ten years,

including:1.Rising costs of new drugs and biologics coming to market resulting in increased payer control and restrictions. 2.Increased concern regarding drug safety and the need to ensure that benefits outweigh risks—in the U.S. this has resulted in the Food and Drug Administration’s (FDA) implementation of Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategy (REMS)1 requirements, as well as elements to assure safe use (ETASU) requirements3.Creation and validation of survey instruments to demonstrate how patient-reported outcome (PRO) measures serve as meaningful endpoints in demonstrating product effectiveness4.More rigorous technology assessments in the global market that serve to inform decisions around how and when new products will be accessible5.Demand for more evidence that a product is not only safe and efficacious, but that the “value” can be clearly demonstrated, particularly as compared to competitive therapies

Environmental Conservation (2009), 36:301-311A bioeconomic optimization approach for rebuilding marine

communities: British Columbia case studyC. H. AINSWORTH and T. J. PITCHER.

SUMMARY

Many marine ecosystems are depleted of living resources as a result of long-term overexploitation. Restoration plans should perhaps consider the entire ecosystem as opposed to single species, yet there is currently no suitable framework available for the design and comparison of whole-ecosystem

restoration trajectories. This paper presents a novel addition to Ecopath with Ecosim's policy search

routine, the ‘specific biomass’ objective function, which allows gaming scenarios to be run using selective fishing as a tool to rebuild depleted marine

ecosystems or modify them into a preferred state. In this paper, restoration scenarios aimed to restore an ecosystem in Northern British Columbia to a

state similar to the historic ecosystem of 1950 AD. Restoration plans that achieve restoration quickly tend to require a large sacrifice in fishery profits, while slower plans allow for continued harvest benefits. A convex relationship between profit and recovered biodiversity

suggests that there may be an optimal rate of restoration. Cost-benefit analysis demonstrates that conservative restoration plans can

offer a rate of return superior to bank interest when viewed as an investment in natural capital. Increasing the selectivity of fishing gear improves the economic

outlook.

Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecopath ….. Diunduh 22/3/2012

Ecopath with Ecosim (EwE)Ecopath with Ecosim (EwE) is a free ecosystem modelling software suite. It

was initially a NOAA initiative led by Jeffrey Polovina, but since primarily developed at the Fisheries Centre of the University of British Columbia.

The Ecopath software package can be used to:1.Address ecological questions2.Evaluate ecosystem effects of fishing3.Explore management policy options4.Analyze impact and placement of marine protected areas5.Predict movement and accumulation of contaminants and tracers (Ecotracer)6.Model effect of environmental changes

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NOAA

Waste Management & ResearchEditor-in-Chief: Jens Aage Hansen, Aalborg University, DenmarkPublished in Association with International Solid Waste Association

Waste Management & Research (WMR) satisfies the growing demand for scientifically based essential information that can be utilised by waste management professionals in academia,

government, industry, engineering, management, planning, and public health.WMR is a fully peer reviewed international journal that publishes original research and review

articles relating to both the theory and practice of waste management and research. The editorial group seeks to promote innovation and provide a bridge between academic

studies and practical problems. Articles should address problems and solutions that are of general interest to the readers.

Waste Management & Research is available electronically on SAGE Journals Online at http://wmr.sagepub.com.

Sumber: http://www.gdrc.org/uem/waste/continuum/continuum.html ….. Diunduh 22/3/2012

The Waste Management Continuum has two axes. One is the horizontal stakeholder scale, ranging from municipalities and local governments to the community. The other is the vertical technology scale ranging from high tech/high energy disposal systems

to low tech low energy systems.

http://www.uk.sagepub.com/editorDetails.nav?contribId=530589

http://www.iswa.org/

Environmental assessment of Ämmässuo Landfill (Finland) by means of LCA-modelling (EASEWASTE)

Antti Niskanen, Simone Manfredi, Thomas H. Christensen; Reetta Anderson.Waste Management & Research. 2009: 27: 542–550

ABSTRACT

The Old Ämmässuo Landfill (Espoo, Finland) covers an area of 52 hectares and contains about 10 million tonnes of waste that was landfilled between 1987 and 2007. The majority of this waste was mixed, of which about 57% originated from

households. This paper aims at describing the management of the Old Ämmässuo Landfill

throughout its operational lifetime (1987–2007), and at developing an environmental evaluation based on life-cycle assessment (LCA) using the EASEWASTE-model. The assessment criteria evaluate specific categories of impact, including standard impact categories, toxicity-related impact categories and an impact categorized as spoiled groundwater resources (SGR). With respect to standard and toxicity-related

impact categories, the LCA results show that substantial impact potentials are estimated for global warming (GW), ozone depletion (OD), human toxicity via soil

(HTs) and ecotoxicity in water chronic (ETwc).

The largest impact potential was found for SGR and amounted to 57.6 person equivalent (PE) per tonne of landfilled waste. However, the SGR impact may not be viewed as a significant issue in Finland as the drinking water is mostly supplied from

surface water bodies.

The results demonstrate that gas management has great importance to the environmental performance of the Old Ämmässuo Landfill. However,

several chemicals related to gas composition (especially trace compounds) and specific emissions from on-site operations were not

available or were not measured and were therefore taken from the literature.

Measurement campaigns and field investigations should be undertaken in order to obtain a more robust and comprehensive dataset that can be

used in the LCA-modelling, before major improvements regarding landfill management are finalized..

Boundaries of the LCA and schematic illustration of modelled Old Ämmässuo Landfill..



Environmental assessment approachThe landfill is considered with respect to all of the waste landfilled, and its environmental aspects are assessed for a 100-year period after disposal. In LCA-terms this is defined as the functional unit of the LCA-modelling: ‘landfilling of 10 million tonnes of waste at the Old Ämmässuo Landfill considering a 100-year life-cycle time horizon, from 1987 (start of operations at the site) to 2087’.

‘Landfilling’ comprises all resources utilization and all emissions to the environment that are included in the life-cycle impact assessment (LCIA) boundary provided by Figure 1.

The main processes included in the system are waste disposal at the landfill site, transportation of soil, on site operations using specialized vehicles/machinery, gas collection, gas treatment by flaring, gas utilization for district heat production, leachate collection, leachate treatment at the

wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), electricity consumption at the landfill site and at the WWTP, and electricity generation and substitution through district heat production (Figure 1).

Waste collection, transportation and composting of separately collected organic waste were not included in the study, since the focus was on the environmental impacts caused by the waste

landfilling, and not on environmental impacts caused by the entire waste management system.All of the variables relative to gas and leachate generation (quantity and quality), collection, treatment and utilization are described by constant parameters within four time periods as

requested by EASEWASTE in order to better represent the time-dependent variable for the 100-year period..

The assessment considers a number of potential impact categories (Table 1) covering potential impacts in several environmental compartments (air, surface water bodies and groundwater), and

also potential hazards to humans. The environmental impact categories are divided into three groups: standard environmental impacts, toxicity-related impacts and impact on groundwater

resources. The standard impact categories include global warming (GW), photo-chemical ozone formation (POF), ozone depletion (OD), acidification (AC) and nutrient enrichment (NE). The

toxicity-related impact categories include ecotoxicity in soil (ETs) and in water chronic (ETwc), human toxicity via soil (HTs), via water (HTw), and via air (HTa). The potential impact on

groundwater resources is represented by the single impact spoiled groundwater resources (SGR) and is calculated based on the amount of groundwater that may be contaminated from an input of

leachate by diluting the leachate to the drinking water standard, as described by the guidelines provided by WHO (2006).

Standard and toxicity- related impact categories are direct impacts to the environment. Therefore, the estimated impacts, once normalized, can be compared across different categories. SGR is, instead, related to the consumption of a limited resource, thus from an LCA-perspective impact

potentials estimated for SGR should not be directly compared with the environmental impact categories.



Table 1: Physical basis and normalization references of the impact categories included in the assessment (Hansen et al. 2004, Stranddorf et al. 2005)..




Table 2: Collection and management of LFG in time periods at the Old Ämmässuo landfill.

Old Ämmässuo Landfill: description and modelling

From 1987 to 1992 all organic waste from the households in the Helsinki metropolitan area was landfilled at the Old Ämmässuo Landfill, until collection of

source-separated organic waste started in 1993 (YTV 1995). The amount of source-separated organic waste has increased yearly. In 2006, about

47 500 tonnes of source-separated organic waste were collected (YTV 2007). The collection of source-separated organic waste from households has reduced

organic waste input to the landfill. However, considerable amounts of organic waste were landfilled because of the relatively low in-house sorting efficiency organic

waste (about 50%, based on the estimations of YTV) and because nearly 23% of the households were not involved in a source-separated organic waste collection

scheme (YTV 2004). In addition to households, the service sector also produces a significant amount of

organic waste (YTV 2005, 2006). Waste from industry, trade, healthcare, public administration, education and social services was also landfilled, and in 2004 they constituted 43% (on a mass basis) of the total amount of mixed waste landfilled..

Landfill gas

Due to the large amount of organic fractions in the landfilled waste, the Old Ämmässuo Landfill generates a significant amount of LFG rich in methane (CH4). LFG collection was initiated in 1996 and since then all of the collected gas was

flared until 2004. The gas collection system consists of 220 gas wells, 23 km of

extract and of transport piping, four pumping stations, and seven control stations (Kouvo 2005).

The average gas collection efficiency from 1996 to 2003 was approximately 32%, whereas in 2006 it reached 75%, corresponding to about 7000 m3 h–1 of gas collected.

Spatial and multi-criteria decision analysis-based methodology for landfill site selection in growing urban regions

Hakan Ersoy, Fikri Bulut.Waste Management & Research. 2009: 27: 489–500

.ABSTRACT

The construction of landfills is not an alternative option, since a landfill is always a necessary component of the specific waste management system that will be developed. One of the serious and growing potential problems in large urban areas is the shortage of land for waste disposal. In solid waste management programmes, use of geographic information systems (GIS) is a very

significant tool because the selection of a suitable site is a very time-consuming process. The analytic hierarchy process in GIS provides objective mathematics to process the subjective

preferences of individuals or groups and arrive at a decision. The present paper describes a spatial methodology which comprised several methods, such as multi-criteria analysis, that

originate in different scientific fields. The final goal of the methodology was to evaluate the suitability of the studied area in order to

optimally select a landfill site. Different constraint maps were overlaid with spatial analysis modules to obtain a final suitability map for Trabzon City and five suitable areas were identified.

An analytic hierarchy process was applied to select the most suitable solid waste disposal site for municipal waste in the city among these alternative candidate sites.

The Düzyurt area was found to be the most suitable solid waste disposal site. However, geotechnical investigations indicated that some remedial measures would be needed before this

landfill site could be used.

MCDA: MULTIPLE-CRITERIA DECISION ANALYSIS

Multiple-criteria decision-making or multiple-criteria decision analysis is a sub-discipline of operations research that explicitly considers multiple criteria in decision-making

environments. Whether in our daily lives or in professional settings, there are typically multiple conflicting criteria that need to be evaluated in making decisions.

Cost or price is usually one of the main criteria. Some measure of quality is typically another criterion that is in conflict with the cost. In purchasing a car, cost, comfort, safety, and fuel economy may be some of the main criteria we consider. It is unusual to have the cheapest

car to be the most comfortable and the safest. In portfolio management, we are interested in getting high returns but at the same time reducing our risks. Again, the stocks that have the potential of bringing high returns typically also carry high risks of losing money. In service industry, customer satisfaction and the cost of providing service are two conflicting criteria

that would be useful to consider.In our daily lives, we usually weigh multiple criteria implicitly and we may be comfortable with

the consequences of such decisions that are made based on only intuition. On the other hand, when stakes are high, it is important to properly structure the problem and explicitly

evaluate multiple criteria. In making the decision of whether to build a nuclear power plant or not, and where to build it, there are not only very complex issues involving multiple criteria,

but there are also multiple parties who are deeply affected from the consequences.

(SUMBER: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-criteria_decision_analysis ….. Diunduh 25/3/2012)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operations_research

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investment_management

.

Materials and methods

The GIS-based landfill site selection methodology combines the spatial analysis tools provided by GIS to evaluate the whole region, based on certain evaluation criteria. The landfill siting model can

be divided into four main steps.1. Development of a digital GIS database (spatial data) and creating constraints mapping using

exclusion areas.2. Determination of the criteria/subcriteria weight percent and evaluation of the hierarchical

structure of the multicriteria problem using AHP.3. Application of spatial analysis using weight percent of these criteria in GIS.

4. Determination of the most suitable landfill site among alternative sites using AHP-based methodology.

The spatial and multi-criteria decision analysis-based procedure for assembling and displaying the relevant site selection information is illustrated in Figure 1..


KESIMPULAN

Waste management involves many aspects in planning and operation. Spatial and multi-criteria decision analysis-based methodology is a tool that reduces the time and cost of the landfill site selection. Thus, this paper presents AHP and GIS techniques for solid

waste disposal site selection. In this study, different constraint maps were overlaid with spatial analysis modules using ArcView 3.2 software to obtain the final map, and the final

suitability map was created with constraint of site selection criteria. Five suitable areas were determined in Trabzon City and AHP was applied to select the most suitable solid waste disposal site for municipal waste in Trabzon (north-east Turkey) between these

alternative candidate sites.

Finally, the Düzyurt area was chosen to be most suitable solid waste disposal site. As a result of this study, the geotechnical, hydrogeological and topographical properties of the rock masses in the study area were examined and indicated that the proposed landfill site

offers suitable conditions if some remedial measures are taken. Slope stability can be controlled by structure and rock mass strength. Slope heights and rock strengths are the

factors controlling failure through the rock mass. Probable failures estimated using kinematic analysis can be controlled with field observation. For that reason, some rock masses on the vertical slopes should be excavated from the site before landfilling to

remove the unstable slopefrom the site.

.

. The stages for both spatial and multi-criteria decision analysis-based methodology


Ecological EconomicsThe Transdisciplinary Journal of the International Society for Ecological

Economics (ISEE)

. The journal is concerned with extending and integrating the study and management of “nature's household” (ecology) and “humankind's household” (economics). This integration

is necessary because conceptual and professional isolation have led to economic and environmental policies which are mutually destructive rather than reinforcing in the long

term. The journal is transdisciplinary in spirit and methodologically open.

Specific research areas covered include: valuation of natural resources, sustainable agriculture and development, ecologically integrated technology, integrated ecologic-

economic modelling at scales from local to regional to global, implications of thermodynamics for economics and ecology, renewable resource management and

conservation, critical assessments of the basic assumptions underlying current economic and ecological paradigms and the implications of alternative assumptions, economic and ecological consequences of genetically engineered organisms, and gene pool inventory

and management, alternative principles for valuing natural wealth, integrating natural resources and environmental services into national income and wealth accounts, methods of implementing efficient environmental policies, case studies of economic-ecologic conflict

or harmony, etc. New issues in this area are rapidly emerging and will find a ready forum in Ecological

Economics.

Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_economics ….. Diunduh 25/3/2012

ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS

Ecological economics is a transdisciplinary field of academic research that aims to address the interdependence and coevolution of human economies

and natural ecosystems over time and space. It is distinguished from environmental economics, which is the mainstream economic analysis of the

environment, by its treatment of the economy as a subsystem of the ecosystem and its emphasis upon preserving natural capital. One survey of German economists found that ecological and environmental economics are

different schools of economic thought, with ecological economists emphasizing "strong" sustainability and rejecting the proposition that natural

capital can be substituted by human-made capital.A primary objective of ecological economics (EE) is to ground economic thinking and practice in physical reality, especially in the laws of physics (particularly the laws of thermodynamics) and in knowledge of biological

systems. It accepts as a goal the improvement of human well-being through development, and seeks to ensure achievement of this through planning for

the sustainable development of ecosystems and societies.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coevolution

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem

Sustaining Human Carrying Capacity: A tool for regional sustainability assessment

M.L.M. Graymore, Neil G. Sipe and Roy E. Rickson.Ecological Economics. Volume 69, Issue 3, 15 January 2010, Pages 459-468

Abstract

Regional sustainability is an important focus for natural resource management. Measuring how social and economic systems are progressing to sustainability is

therefore a critical need. But it is dependent upon the development of analytical and methodological tools to measure progress, particularly, we argue, at the regional

level. Achieving sustainability at the regional scale is important since it's at this scale

where social institutions and ecological functioning are most closely linked. However, our recent study that evaluated the effectiveness of current sustainability assessment methods at the regional scale found methods developed for the global, national and state scales are not entirely effective at assessing sustainability at this

spatial scale. Following on from this critique, we developed and tested a new method for

assessing sustainability, which we believe is applicable at the regional scale.

The framework, Sustaining Human Carrying Capacity (SHCC), evaluates the sustainability of regional

human activities by considering the pressures these activities have on regional ecosystems.

SHCC was tested and evaluated at the regional scale, demonstrating its potential to be an effective method

for monitoring sustainability. It also has potential to be used to inform the community and decision makers about the

sustainability of their region, and help guide strategic planning to progress sustainability..

Sustaining Human Carrying Capacity (SHCC)

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/09218009

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Regional sustainability and carrying capacitySocial and ecological systems are intimately linked through the social system's dependence on ecosystem goods and services and through its impacts on the

ecological system. Thus, sustainability requires linked social–ecological systems to produce no net negative impacts on either the social or ecological system . to guide the assessment of sustainability with current knowledge and within data availability limitations at the regional scale a conceptual model of regional sustainability has

been developed (Fig. 1. Conceptual model of regional sustainability).



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Model of major pressures placed on ecosystems by human activities (adapted from Rapport et al. (1998)).



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Methods: Developing the regional sustainability assessment framework

The framework presented assesses the major pressures caused by human activities against sustainability thresholds for these activities to determine if they have exceeded the human

carrying capacity. If these pressures are found to be at an unsustainable level by the assessment, the assessment suggests that human activity has exceeded the region's carrying capacity, in part, and is impacting on the resilience, state and function of its

systems; hence the system is unsustainable. Thus, by covering all the major aspects of regional sustainability identified in the regional sustainability model (Fig. 1), this framework

forms a holistic sustainability assessment.

The methodology is based upon the Wellbeing Assessment framework developed by Prescott-Allen (2001) as the method is easy to use and the aggregation method produces

information appropriate to a range of audiences without the loss of information. Indicators are grouped into dimensions based on the regional sustainability model. For each dimension, the

indicators chosen assess equity, population and major pressures human activities have on carrying capacity. Each indicator was required to: 1) have data available; 2) be relevant to sustainability and the dimension it was to be used; 3) reliably measure pressure against

sustainability thresholds; and 4) have a known sustainability threshold, target or similar to enable the development of a sustainability scale for standardisation of data. The indicators

chosen measured the largest impacts on carrying capacity, so the indicator set could be small and manageable, as other studies have shown that more indicators do not necessarily

give a better assessment.

Standardising indicator data to a common unit enables comparisons and aggregations of indicator data. For SHCC, for the standardisation of indicator data, a sustainability ranking

scale was developed (Table 1), similar to that used in the Wellbeing Assessment. The scale was based on literature and expert opinion on sustainability thresholds/targets thought to be applicable worldwide. However, when SHCC is used, the first step should include a review of

the scales to ensure new information hasn't changed the understanding of what is sustainable for the indicator and that they are applicable to the region.

The use of known or assumed sustainability thresholds or targets for the sustainability ranking allows for an assessment based on the best science available. A four-point scale was used so that indicator data can be ranked without the need for calculations. Individual

indicator ranks can be aggregated to produce ranks for each dimension, as well as an overall rank. This aggregation provides information about regional sustainability at a number of

different levels appropriate to a range of audiences, from regional managers and professionals to the wider community.



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Table 1. The indicators and sustainability ranks for SHCC (for more information on indicator rank development see Graymore, 2005).

Dimension Indicator UnitsSustainability rank 1

Sustainability rank

2

Sustainability rank

3

Sustainability rank

4

Ref.

Population Population growth %1.4 or − 1.4

0.33 or − 0.33

0.033 or − 0.033

0 b, e

Visitor nights% of

population20 10 5 2 b

Equity Poorest 20% income to richest 20% income Ratio 1:33 1:17 1:5 1:3 a

Highest level of school completed—% males to females completed Year 12

Ratio 9:1 5:1 3:1 1.5:1 a

Major pressure

1) Physical restructuring

Land clearing rate % total area 0.66 0.33 0.1 0 b

Percent of total runoff in dams % 100 60 20 10 a

Percent of land area protected from restructuring

% 0 10 30 50 c

Percent of ecosystems ‘endangered’ or ‘of concern’

% 50 30 10 5 c

Percent of land modified (agriculture, urban, forestry, industrial, commercial and

service provision)% 100 80 40 20 a

Percent of remnant remaining % 10 20 50 80 a






Major pressure2)

Overharvesting

Catch per unit effort (CPUE) as percent of lowest level in 1986–1994

% reference point

50 70 100 110 d

Timber fellings as a percent of mean annual increment (MAI) (m3/ha)

% 200 130 100 80 a

Water consumption per capita L/cap/yr 1,000,000 500,000 200,000 75,000e, f, g,

h

Soil erosion: sediment supply to waterways t/ha/yr 50 5 0.5 0.25 i

Major pressure3) Waste residuals

CO2 emissions kg C/cap 6,400 3,200 800 400 a

CO2 emissions: Energy use per person kWh/cap/yr 24,000 12,000 3,000 1,500 a

CO2 emissions: Number of vehicles registered per 1000 people

Number per 1000 people

1000 800 540 270 b

Sewage: percent wastewater treated to tertiary level % 0 35 80 90 b

Sewage: amount of effluent reused % 0 15 30 60 bSolid waste: amount of solid waste produced per

personkg/cap 2000 750 400 200 b

Solid waste: percent of waste recycled % 0 5 25 50 j

Waste in water: total nitrogen in inland water mg/L 20.00 2.00 0.50 0.25 a, k

Waste in water: total nitrogen in coastal water mg/L 10.00 1.20 0.30 0.12 a, k

Waste in water: total phosphorous in inland water mg/L 5.00 1.00 0.05 0.01 a, k

Waste in water: total phosphorous in coastal water mg/L 1.000 0.120 0.030 0.025 a, k

Waste in water: total suspended solids in inland water

mg/L 2000 1000 25 5 a, k

Waste in water: total suspended solids in coastal water

mg/L 1000 270 30 10 a, k

Waste in water: faecal coliforms in inland waterNumber of

coliforms per 100 mL

10,000 1000 30 10 a, k

Waste in water: faecal coliforms in coastal waterNumber of

coliforms per 100 mL

10,000 1000 30 10 a, k

Waste in air: annual mean ambient air concentration of sulfur dioxide

μg/m3 400 200 50 25 a, l, m

Waste in air: annual mean ambient air concentration of carbon monoxide

μg/m3 9200 4600 2300 1150 a, l, m

Waste in air: annual mean ambient air concentration of nitrogen dioxide

μg/m3 320 160 40 20 a, l, m

Waste in air: annual mean ambient air concentration of suspended particulate matter

μg/m3 720 360 90 45 a, l, m

Waste in air: annual mean ambient air concentration of fine particulates 10 micrometers or less in diameter

(PM10)μg/m3 400 200 50 25 a, l, m

Waste in air: days ambient air visibility-reducing particles exceeds guidelines

Days 224 112 28 14 a, l, m





References:

a Prescott-Allen (2001);b Graymore (2005);

c McAlpine et al. (2002); d BRS (2003);

e Cohen (1995); f ACTEW (2009); g DSE (2009) ; h QWC (2008)

i Saskatchewan (2004); j Newton, et al. (2001);

k ANZECC and ARMCANZ (2000); l WHO (1998); m Neale (2004).


Major pressure

Percent of assessed introduced pest species found in area % 75 50 10 2 b

Area of exotic plantation forest% of

plantation area

80 45 15 5 b

Percent of species listed as ‘endangered’ or ‘of concern’ % 32 16 4 2 a

















. Testing and validating SHCCThe regional sustainability assessment framework was tested based upon data describing South

East Queensland (SEQ). SEQ was chosen because its diverse characteristics make it a reasonable and practical representative region. It is ecologically and demographically diverse, with

a growing population spread through metropolitan, rural farm and non-farm communities, with a combination of coastal, land and water management issues. The evaluation criteria matrix (Table 2

) was developed from the literature and was applied by assessing each criterion. This gave an indication of how well the method met the criteria, and thus, its effectiveness for assessing

regional sustainability and usefulness for regional managers and the community.

Table 2. The evaluation criteria matrix SHCC (developed in Graymore et al., 2008). The scores are 1 = meets criteria, 2 = partially meets criteria, 3 = does not meet criteria and n/a is not applicable.

Evaluation criteria SHCC

A. Overall effectiveness of sustainability assessment at regional scale 1

1. Assesses regional sustainability 1

• Equity intergenerational and intragenerational 1

• Level of human activity 1

• Level of pressure on supporting systems 1

• Status of supporting systems n/a

Ecosystem

Social

Economic

2. Data availability and accessibility 1

• Uses existing data 1

• Data is locatable and accessible 1

• Data describes the region 1

• Data collection is cost effective (money and time) 1

• Ability to assess sustainability without all data 1

3. Assessment is easy to use 1

• No complicated calculations 1

• No specialist knowledge required (e.g. matrices) 1

• No specialist software required 1

• Easy to follow method 1

• Easy to use 1

• Small indicator set (i.e. manageable data set < 40 indicators) 1

• Not time intensive (i.e. less than 3 months to complete) 1



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Table 2. The evaluation criteria matrix SHCC (developed in Graymore et al., 2008). The scores are 1 = meets criteria, 2 = partially meets criteria, 3 = does not meet criteria and n/a is not

applicable..

B. Method 24. Assesses sustainability directly 2 • Produces an overall sustainability score/index through aggregation of indicator data

1

• Aggregation method is logical 1 • Objective assessment of sustainability 2 • Integrated assessment including relationships between indicators 25. Information not lost during aggregation of data 1 • Indicator performance is reported 1 • Sub-system/dimension performance is reported 1 • Overall system sustainability is reported 16. Transparency in method used to produce results 1 • Method was clear and well documented 1 • Easy to understand how final results were derived from indicator data 1

• Simplifications and assumptions kept to minimum to reduce impact on results 1

C. Usefulness of results 17. Simplifies complexity of sustainability and facilitates communication to a range of audiences

1

• Easy to understand and interpret what results mean for regional sustainability 1

• Result can be described in a single page report card 1 • Able to visually represent the results 1 • Sustainability reported at a range of levels 1 Detailed indicator performance 1 Sub-system/dimension performance 1 Overall system sustainability 18. Usefulness of the sustainability assessment results 1 • Time and data efficiency of assessment 1 • For regional managers 1 Sustainability reported at a range of levels 1 Relates to policy, strategic planning, decision-making 1

Points out where management actions are needed 1 Targets or thresholds to measure against 1 Can be used to assess trends overtime 1 •For community capacity building, social learning 1 Result easy to understand 1 Simple to use 1 Data accessible 1 Demonstrates links between sustainability and community activity 1



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ConclusionThis paper developed a regional sustainability assessment method based on a

regional sustainability model. The framework, SHCC, proved to be a valid and effective method for regional

sustainability assessment. The method was easy to use with easily accessible data and no complicated calculations.

The results of the assessment can provide useful information about regional sustainability, including the level of intragenerational equity, population and the

pressure human activities are placing on a region's carrying capacity. The evaluation of the method showed that SHCC met most of the criteria for an effective sustainability assessment method. It was able to produce information about regional

sustainability that is easily understood and useful for managers to produce well-informed strategic planning and natural resource management to progress

sustainability. It has potential as a tool for raising community awareness about sustainability and

the link between human activity and regional sustainability. Thus, we attempt to fill a gap in sustainability science by providing an effective tool for regional sustainability..



Human carrying capacity is the maximum rates of resource harvesting and waste generation (the maximum load) that can be sustained indefinitely without progressively

impairing the productivity and functional integrity of relevant ecosystems wherever the latter may be located. The size of the corresponding population would be a function of technological sophistication and mean per capita material standards. (sumber:

http://sunhomedesign.wordpress.com/2008/10/16/human-carrying-capacity-and-the-2008-financial-meltdown/)

As the environment is degraded, carrying capacity actually shrinks, leaving the

environment no longer able to support even the number of people who could formerly have lived in the area on a

sustainable basis. No population can live beyond the

environment’s carrying capacity for very long. –

William E. Rees



http://sunhomedesign.files.wordpress.com/2008/10/we-are-here.jpg

Estimating land degradation risk for agriculture in Italy using an indirect approach

Luca Salvatia, b, and Margherita Carluccia

a Department of Economics, University of Rome ‘Sapienza’, Piazzale A. Moro 5, I-00185 Rome, Italy

b Department of Statistical, Historical, Geographical and Linguistic Studies for the Regional Analysis, University of Rome ‘Sapienza’, Via C. Laurenziano, I-00161 Rome, Italy

Abstract

This paper illustrates a two-step procedure for measuring land degradation (LD) risk in agriculture. The procedure estimated the potential costs of LD from a standard index of land sensitivity to

degradation (ESAI: Environmental Sensitive Area Index ) by calculating, over 784 local districts covering the entire Italian territory, a ‘depletion factor’ in relation to the agricultural value added. The procedure was based on changes in the ESAI (1990–2000) and ancillary variables (i.e., per

capita value added, share of agriculture in the total production, and agricultural profitability). On average, the estimated costs of LD in Italy amounted to nearly 0.5% of the agricultural value added (which corresponded to 12€/ha of cultivated surface). These figures are comparable to those presented in the literature for regions with similar environmental conditions. This paper

contains descriptions of the assumptions under which the proposed scheme works and comments on their empirical plausibility.

The problem of land degradationPRESSURES ON THE REGION'S AGRICULTURAL LAND ARE LEADING TO EXTENSIVE

LAND DEGRADATION. THE CAUSES ARE POVERTY, LAND SHORTAGE AND INCREASING POPULATIONS

(sumber; http://www.fao.org/docrep/v9909e/v9909e02.htm)

The two most important driving forces of land

degradation in Asia and the Pacific are limited land

resources and population increase.

The result is small farms, low production per person

and increasing landlessness. A

consequence of land shortage is poverty.

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DATA AND INDICATORS

In this study, the level of land sensitivity to degradation was determined through the ESA (Environmental Sensitivity Areas) scheme. This procedure allows the calculation of a composite index of land sensitivity (the so-called

ESAI) by considering more than ten variables that quantify climate, vegetation, and soil quality. ESAI is regarded as an “early warning” indicator of LD, as it

assesses changes in the variables that, taken together, are supposed to determine the environmental conditions leading to LD. In other words, ESAI does not involve a specific evaluation of the elementary processes triggering

LD (e.g., soil erosion, salinization, compacting, sealing, etc.

ESAI is a valuable standard for the assessment of sensitivity to LD in the Mediterranean basin, because it has been extensively validated at both the

regional and local scales. Theoretically, ESAI scores range from 1 to 2. Lower scores indicate negligible or low LD sensitivity, while the higher ones indicate

that the “critical” environmental conditions observed in a particular place determine a high level of land sensitivity.

According to Basso et al. (2000) and Madrau and Zucca (2008), areas can be classified as not affected by LD (if ESAI is lower than

1.175), potentially affected (1.175 < ESAI < 1.225), “fragile” (1.225 < ESAI < 1.375), and “critical” (ESAI > 1.375) (Table 1).

These classes were determined by studying the empirical distribution of ESAI in several observation sites and analyzing independent

indicators that quantify potential soil degradation.

LD : LAND DEGRADATION




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Table 1. Classification of the study area by level of land sensitivity according to the ESA index.

Source: Slightly modified from Madrau and Zucca (2008).

ESAI score

Vulnerability class

Land description (examples)

< 1.175 Not affected Areas not threatened by LD

1.175–1.225

Potentially affected

Areas threatened by LD under significant climate change, if a particular combination of land use is

implemented or where off-site impacts will produce severe problems elsewhere

1.225–1.375

Fragile Areas in which any changes in the delicate balance of natural and human activities is likely to bring

about LD. As an example, the impact of predicted climate change could affect vegetation cover,

intensify soil erosion, and finally shift the level of vulnerability of the area to the ‘critical’ class. A land

use change (e.g. a shift towards cereal cultivation on sensitive soils) might produce immediate increase in runoff and soil erosion, and perhaps pesticide and

fertiliser pollution down-stream> 1.375 Critical Areas already degraded through past misuse,

showing a threat to the environment of the surrounding land (e.g. badly eroded areas subjected

to severe runoff and sediment loss).




http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VDY-4X7BJCK-1&_user=10&_coverDate=01%2F15%2F2010&_rdoc=10&_fmt=full&_orig=browse&_origin=browse&_srch=doc-info(%23toc%235995%232010%23999309996%231577610%23FLA%23display%23Volume)&_cdi=5995&_sort=d&_docanchor=&_ct=27&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=ed2903c886e87c2ce91ff066f88566fb&searchtype=a&artImgPref=F#bib37%23bib37





Estimation of LD Risk

The procedure adopted here to develop an original index of LD risk in agriculture includes the following steps: (i) calculating the average ESAI and its change (1990–2000) at the district level, (ii) defining concepts of land quality and degradation through (mainly) bio-physical benchmarks included in the ESAI, (iii) estimating the (potential) depletion of land quality over time through

changes in the ESAI, (iv) choosing an appropriate discount rate, (r) and, finally, (v) quantifying LD risk as a depletion factor (R) to the agricultural value added. R evaluates the (potential) economic

impact of different levels of land sensitivity to degradation on the agricultural profitability. The underlying assumption is that, in the long run, the agricultural product is threatened by LD, as a result of, e.g., soil erosion, salinization, compaction, contamination, and sealing. Physical and chemical properties of the soil may further degrade as a result of the combined effects of poor

farming practices and agricultural policies (Montanarella, 2007). Changes in land reserves due to degradation may be thus quantified indirectly using the assessment of variation in land quality over

an adequate time span (e.g., Walpole et al., 1996).

We start by assuming that environmental conditions turning to the worse may stimulate LD, thus reducing land quality (Mairota et al., 1998). We considered this process, which is quantifiable in physical terms, as responsible for a decrease in agricultural productivity (Ibanez et al., 2008).

The quality of land resources at the initial time was assessed through ESAI in 1990. Depletion of land quality was estimated as changes in ESAI from 1990 to 2000. We used the difference

between the maximum ESAI score (ESAImax = 2) and the ESAI value measured in 1990 to quantify the initial land quality reserves. Here ESAImax simulates the environmental conditions where land is

affected by serious LD processes and soil fertility is dramatically reduced ([Rubio and Bochet, 1998] and [Basso et al., 2000]).

The ESAI reaches the maximum score when, e.g.,

1.The aridity index (i.e., the ratio between rainfall and reference evapo-transpiration) is less than 0.5 (this value is a typical benchmark used to classify arid zones), 2.Soil depth is less than 15 cm (which may be regarded as a critical value below which soil fertility and land productivity are seriously threatened over the long term), 3.Vegetation cover is less than 10% of the total investigated surface (likely indicating critical problems of soil erosion in those areas), 4.Annual population growth is higher than 5% (indicating a significant human pressure on land), and 5.Fire risk is classified as “extremely high” .














Under the assumption of constant increases in LD severity, the life expectancy of the land reserves measured in years (i.e., the number of periods during which the resource is completely

degraded, n) is:

(1)

which means that n is estimated from the ratio between total reserves and whatever amount is “extracted” in the observation period based on the degradation rate observed in the same

period. Even if this hypothesis represents a simplification of the inner mechanisms of desertification in the Mediterranean basin, the procedure may estimate LD severity at a

resolution scale at which direct measures are not available. Moreover, it could be frequently updated in order to incorporate possible changes in LD sensitivity over time.

Following Ahmad et al. (1989), the finite series of earnings from the use of land resources (e.g., a ten-year series of annual land revenues under LD conditions that may lead to the progressive degradation of the resource) could be converted into an infinite series of revenues, and the two constituent portions of the agricultural product can be split into the perpetual income (X) and the depletion allowance (S) component. S represents the (constant) annual depletion/user cost due

to the potential, net effect of LD. Following El Serafy (1999), “The user cost approach is also applicable to renewable resources. If extraction of a renewable resource is within its capacity to regenerate itself, then no adjustment to the flow accounts will be necessary (…). If exploitation

of a renewable resource exceeds regeneration and its stock declines, the resource in fact is being ‘mined’. The stock decline should then be subjected to a user cost estimation.” By

assuming constant prices and stationary technology, S can be expressed as follows:

(2)

where Y is agricultural profitability, r is the discount rate, and n is the life expectancy of land resources as defined above. Based on the suggestions of Daly (1999), a discount rate of 4% was selected. LD risk was expressed in percentage terms (R) as the ratio between S and Y. This index takes into account, even indirectly, the cumulative degradation process impacting

on agriculture. The distribution of R and S was described through computation of average figures for both variables by geographical area, elevation, income, and economic

specialization of each investigated district. The distribution of S was further illustrated through a map of the study area.







http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=MathURL&_method=retrieve&_udi=B6VDY-4X7BJCK-1&_mathId=mml1&_user=10&_cdi=5995&_pii=S0921800909003565&_rdoc=10&_issn=09218009&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_userid=10&md5=af0a835308b28bac338f88fb0977d1f9

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=MathURL&_method=retrieve&_udi=B6VDY-4X7BJCK-1&_mathId=mml2&_user=10&_cdi=5995&_pii=S0921800909003565&_rdoc=10&_issn=09218009&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_userid=10&md5=a9934d9079bc2fb53e94af2b9a0b26b5

2012 Walden University.

Interdisciplinary studies is a process of answering a question, solving a problem, or addressing a topic that is too broad or complex to be

dealt with adequately by a single academic major or profession. Since most significant issues have multiple causes, interdisciplinary

studies integrates a range of perspectives to provide a more comprehensive understanding of issues and challenges.

In Walden’s B.S. in Interdisciplinary Studies program, you will blend coursework from different academic areas and apply your new

knowledge and skills to real-world scenarios through an internship, a public service or study abroad opportunity, or a seminar in

interdisciplinary research.

Through a series of interdisciplinary core courses, you will learn to identify connections among areas of interest and actively engage in problem-solving that

crosses ethnic, regional, and global boundaries.

Sumber: http://www.waldenu.edu/Degree-Programs/Bachelors/33102.htm ….. Diunduh 22/3/2012

APA YANG DIMAKSUD DENGAN PROGRAM STUDI INTERDISIPLINER?

IJES: The International Journal of Environmental Studies

The environment is understood to comprise the natural and the man-made, and their interactions; including such matters as pollution, health effects,

analytical methods, political approaches, social impacts etc. Papers favouring an interdisciplinary approach are preferred, because the evidence of 30 years appears to be that many intellectual tools and many

causes and effects are at issue in any environmental problem - and its solution.

Sumber: http://www.afedonline.org/en/inner.aspx?contentID=88

International Journal of Environmental Studies, Volume 67, Issue 4 August 2010 , pages 531 - 542

A South Asian approach to aquatic macrophyte restoration

Gautam Mukhopadhyaya

Abstract Degradation by human impact, poverty and limited ecological

knowledge pose challenges for aquatic macrophyte restoration in India. The present paper proposes a framework for restoration of

aquatic macrophytes in both freshwater and wastewater lentic ecosystems.

The framework includes both ecological and economic aspects of aquatic macrophytes.

River and lakes landscape water treatment The main pollution of river and lakes landscape water in city is non-point source pollution,such as natural rainfall,surface runoff,atmospheric dust,underground water supply nutrient pollution,long term accumulated mud in the bottom of lake and the

hazardous substances released from mud etc.(SUMBER; http://www.gwfilter.com/post/7.html)



Challenges and responses to agricultural practices in Gerado area, South Wello, Ethiopia

Asmamaw Legass Bahira International Journal of Environmental Studies, Volume 67, Issue 4 August

2010 , pages 583 - 598

Abstract This paper presents the results of a study in rural areas of Ethiopia into the problems facing and ameliorating those problems so as to peasant farmers

produce food security. The research, using both quantitative and qualitative research

methods, identified a range of social, economic and natural problems for the agricultural activity of the area.

Furthermore, the shortage of draught animals, nutrient depletion and food insecurity were serious for many households. Hence, the local people used

various structural and biological land management techniques and they diversified their sources of income to minimise the constraints of land degradation

and the impact of food insecurity.

The cropping system with two crop systems (from Fresco 1986, p. 111).

Sumber: http://web.idrc.ca/openebooks/280-5/



Climate change: the views of forestry students in a Greek university

Evangelos I. Manolasa; Stilianos A. Tampakisa; Paraskevi P. Karanikolaa International Journal of Environmental Studies, Volume 67, Issue 4 August

2010 , pages 599 - 609

Abstract

The trend to global warming is one of the most important problems of our time. This paper reports the findings of self-management

questionnaires, in regard to views held on the issue of climate change by the students of the Department of Forestry and Management of the

Environment and Natural Resources of the Democritus University of Thrace.

Carbon Sequestration- above and below ground.The agricultural sector is an important source of three major greenhouse gases. It contributes

about one third of the total carbon dioxide emissions and is the largest source of methane (from livestock and flood rice production) and nitrous oxides (primarily from application of inorganic

nitrogenous fertilizer). Conversion of forest to annual crops or pasture also results in major loss of carbon stocks and its release to the atmosphere. Thus, agriculture can play an important role in

climate change mitigation by reducing its own emissions. (sumber: http://www.fao.org/es/esa/pesal/AgRole2.html)



Biodiversity conservation in China: barriers and future actions

Xiaojiang Yu Department of Geography, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon, Hong

Kong, China International Journal of Environmental Studies, Volume 67, Issue 2 April

2010 , pages 117 - 126

Abstract

Four barriers impede biodiversity conservation in China.

These are :1.the loss, fragmentation and disturbance of wildlife habitats; 2.the invasion of exotic species; 3.over-harvesting and illegal hunting/trade; and 4.environmental pollution and climate change.

The pressure of the large population is an additional fact, together with unsustainable socio-economic development, inappropriate management, and a general lack of an environmentally sound

attitude towards wildlife in China's society.

There is an emphatic need for family planning, moving towards ecologically sustainable development, improving the country's overall

biodiversity management systems, and promoting a social awareness of biodiversity conservation.



Coastal and marine environmental issues in the Pearl River Delta region, China Xiping Zhou; Lizhe Cai

The College of Oceanography and Environmental Science, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China

International Journal of Environmental Studies, Volume 67, Issue 2 April 2010 , pages 137 - 145

Abstract The Pearl River Delta (PRD) region has become the most prosperous

region in China. Unfortunately, this rapidly growing economy has incurred high environmental cost.

Our paper explores land-based pollution input increases, eutrophication, mangrove deforestation, oceanic fisheries depletion, marine biodiversity loss and more frequent occurrences of red tides.

Long periods of monitoring data on benthic organisms have confirmed environmental deterioration in Shenzhen Bay. A system of government

perceived to be inappropriate, the inefficient functioning of marine institutions and the public's low awareness of environmental sensitivity

are together responsible for the current environmental degradation.

This paper proposes reconciling the goals of economic development and environmental protection to evaluate the

government's performance, setting up a comprehensive agency in the PRD, increasing investment in ecological

improvement, and making a more concerted effort to stimulate public awareness on environmental

deterioration.



A new mechanism for science-policy transfer and biodiversity governance?

JORGE M. SOBERON and JOSE K. SARUKHANEnvironmental Conservation (2009), 36:277-288

ABSTRACT

New initiatives are being proposed to create knowledge-transfer mechanisms between biodiversity

science and so-called ‘decision makers’ that are apparently ignoring some of the significant differences to which biodiversity governance is subject at different

scales. Shifting scales seriously change the rules of

knowledge transfer; some implications of this are explored. Appropriate scope and focus are vital for

international initiatives. There is no substitute for the full development of

local capacities, and the multinational lending agencies interested in the conservation of

biodiversity, the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals, and others should support

such national efforts and establish regional training facilities to help generate the human and

basic institutional capacities needed.

Deforestation and conservation in major watersheds of the Brazilian Amazon

RALPH TRANCOSO, ARNALDO CARNEIRO FILHO, JAVIER TOMASELLA, JULIANA SCHIETTI, BRUCE RIDER FORSBERG and ROBERT PRITCHARD

MILLEREnvironmental Conservation (2009), 36:289-300

ABSTRACT

Conserving natural vegetation cover is of critical importance for maintaining the ecological integrity and hydrological properties of large river basins (more than 100 000 km2). Recent estimates indicate that more than 700 000 km2 of Brazilian Amazon have already been deforested, and to reduce further losses and preserve the important natural and cultural resources in this region, large

conservation areas have been created by the Brazilian government. The present study analysed land cover and land use change in the major

watersheds of the Brazilian Amazon, in order to evaluate the current balance between deforestation and conservation of natural areas in the region.

The results show that watersheds draining the southern part of the basin have suffered the highest deforestation rates, with the largest losses (8.3–20% of

total basin area) occurring in the Madeira, Tapajós, Xingu, Araguaia and Tocantins river basins. Most large watersheds already have significant

deforestation in their headwaters, which can affect hydrological functions and ecological sustainability. The greatest allocation of land for conservation was

encountered in the Trombetas, Xingu and Negro watersheds, where conservation areas occupied 92.5, 56.9 and 50.6% of the total basin, respectively. While extensive areas of the Amazon biome have been

deforested, on the scale of large watersheds there is a positive balance between conservation areas and deforestation, and on average the area delimited by conservation areas is more than three times larger than the

deforested areas.

An analysis by subwatersheds, however, indicates that certain regions have achieved more critical levels of deforestation, in some situations affecting

more than 80% of the subwatersheds.

Road development and market access on Nicaragua's Atlantic coast: implications for household fishing and

farming practicesKRISTEN M. SCHMITT and DANIEL B. KRAMEREnvironmental Conservation (2009), 36:301-311

ABSTRACT

The simplistic portrayal of road development as a classic environment versus development debate may be because the indirect pathways connecting road

building with environmental change are poorly understood. Recent road development in previously remote regions of Nicaragua provides an

opportunity to investigate these pathways.

This paper examines the effects of increased market access on household resource use on the Atlantic coast of Nicaragua. Specifically, it looks at

shifting market flow and price changes for natural resources and corresponding fishing and farming decisions in communities with varying

degrees of market access before and after road completion.

Fisheries markets were more responsive to market access increases than agricultural markets. With increased access, fishers increasingly sold to non-local buyers, overall export of fisheries' products increased and markets for

new products emerged. Prices of fisheries goods were higher with proximity to markets and availability

of non-local export outlets, and prices for some were more stable after the road was completed.

There were no observed changes in household fishing and farming investments during the year-long study, and therefore the environmental

implications of increased market access remain uncertain.

A bioeconomic optimization approach for rebuilding marine communities: British Columbia case study

C. H. AINSWORTH and T. J. PITCHEREnvironmental Conservation (2009), 36:321-326

ABSTRACTMany marine ecosystems are depleted of living resources as a result of long-term

overexploitation. Restoration plans should perhaps consider the entire ecosystem as opposed to single species, yet there is currently no suitable framework available for the

design and comparison of whole-ecosystem restoration trajectories. This paper presents a novel addition to Ecopath with Ecosim's policy search routine, the

‘specific biomass’ objective function, which allows gaming scenarios to be run using selective fishing as a tool to rebuild depleted marine ecosystems or modify them into a

preferred state. In this paper, restoration scenarios aimed to restore an ecosystem in Northern British

Columbia to a state similar to the historic ecosystem of 1950 AD. Restoration plans that achieve restoration quickly tend to require a large sacrifice in fishery profits, while slower

plans allow for continued harvest benefits. A convex relationship between profit and recovered biodiversity suggests that there may be

an optimal rate of restoration. Cost-benefit analysis demonstrates that conservative restoration plans can offer a rate of return superior to bank interest when viewed as an

investment in natural capital. Increasing the selectivity of fishing gear improves the economic outlook.

ECOPATH

Ecologists use path models to estimate the direction and strength of all factors that influence the way ecosystems function. The original ECOPATH model described energy

flow through the coral reef food web. Starting at the top of the food chain, scientists tracked tiger sharks to determine what and how much they consumed. They extended their

observations to other members of the food chain all the way down to algae, simple plants known as primary producers in the parlance of ecological science. Path models allow

scientists to calculate direct and indirect effects from a multitude of ecosystem components, providing them with the first means to model an ecosystem’s true complexity.

ECOPATH was also a product of a multi-agency research initiative in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, where scientists applied path analysis to the French Frigate Shoals atoll. While numerous NOAA field studies had been done in this region to collect information on

specific organisms, creating the ECOPATH model allowed scientists to understand the complex biological inter-relationships among all the living things that made up this insular

community, from the simplest marine plants to the largest ocean predators.

(sumber: http://celebrating200years.noaa.gov/breakthroughs/ecopath/welcome.html ….. Diunduh 25/3/2012)

Reflecting on the next generation of models for community-based natural resources management

C.M. SHACKLETON, T.J. WILLIS, K. BROWN and N.V.C. POLUNINEnvironmental Conservation (2010), 37:1-4

ABSTRACTCommunity-based natural resource management (CBNRM) has

been a pervasive paradigm in conservation circles for three decades. Despite many potentially attractive attributes it has been extensively

critiqued from both ecological and sociological perspectives with respect to theory and practice (for example Leach et al. 1999; Berkes

2004; Fabricius et al. 2004; Blaikie 2006).

Nonetheless, many successful examples exist, although an equal number have seemingly not met expectations.

Is this because of poor implementation or rather a generally flawed model? If the criteria and conditions for success are so onerous that relatively few projects or situations are likely to qualify, what then is

the value of the model?

The questions thus become: How and what can we learn from the past theory and practice to

develop a new generation of flexible, locally responsive and implementable CBNRM models, and what are likely to be the

attributes of such models?

IJER: International Journal of Environmental Research

is a multidisciplinary journal concerned with all aspects of environment. In pursuit of these, environmentalist disciplines are

invited to contribute their knowledge and experience. International Journal of Environmental Research publishes original research papers, research notes and reviews across the broad field of environment. These include but are not limited to environmental science, environmental engineering, environmental management and planning and environmental

design, urban and regional landscape design and natural disaster management.

Thus high quality research papers or reviews dealing with any aspect of environment are welcomed. Papers may be theoretical, interpretative or

experimental.

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Environmental engineering is the application of science and engineering principles to improve the natural environment (air, water, and/or land resources), to provide healthy water, air, and land for human habitation (house or home) and

for other organisms, and to remediate polluted sites.

It involves waste water management and air pollution control, recycling, waste disposal, radiation protection, industrial hygiene, environmental

sustainability, and public health issues as well as a knowledge of environmental engineering law.

It also includes studies on the environmental impact of proposed construction projects.

Environmental engineers conduct hazardous-waste management studies to evaluate the significance of such hazards, advise on treatment and containment,

and develop regulations to prevent mishaps.

Environmental engineers also design municipal water supply and industrial wastewater treatment systems as well as address local and worldwide

environmental issues such as the effects of acid rain, global warming, ozone depletion, water pollution and air pollution from automobile exhausts and

industrial sources.

(Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_engineering ….. Diunduh 25/3/2012)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollution

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste_disposal

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming

Environmental Sustainable Management of Small Rural Tourist Enterprises

Ferrari, G ., Mondéjar-Jiménez, J., Vargas - Vargas, M International Journal of Environmental Research

ABSTRACTRural and nature tourism has experienced high growth over the past 20 years. One of the

primary challenges facing rural tourism management is to establish a profitable and environmentally sustainable industry. Moreover, sustainable tourism is a complex concept

and it requires that nature and tourism activity should be studied from an integrated point of view.

In this paper, we analyze how the environmental perceptions of entrepreneurs are included into business management. Through a partial least squares (PLS) model, we estimate

several latent factors related to various aspects of business management and, in a second phase, we use the FIMIX-PLS algorithm to achieving a segmentation of entrepreneurs

according to the structure of relationships obtained, which may allow identification of which factors are more related to an “ecopreneurial management”

PARTIAL LEAST SQUARES

Partial least squares regression (PLS regression) is a statistical method that bears some relation to principal components regression; instead of finding hyperplanes of maximum

variance between the response and independent variables, it finds a linear regression model by projecting the predicted variables and the observable variables to a new space. Because both the X and Y data are projected to new spaces, the PLS family of methods are known as bilinear factor models. Partial least squares Discriminant Analysis (PLS-DA) is a variant used

when the Y is binary.PLS is used to find the fundamental relations between two matrices (X and Y), i.e. a latent variable approach to modeling the covariance structures in these two spaces. A PLS model

will try to find the multidimensional direction in the X space that explains the maximum multidimensional variance direction in the Y space. PLS regression is particularly suited when the matrix of predictors has more variables than observations, and when there is

multicollinearity among X values. By contrast, standard regression will fail in these cases.

The PLS algorithm is employed in PLS path modelling, a method of modeling a causal network of latent variables. This technique is a form of structural equation modeling,

distinguished from the classical method by being component-based rather than covariance-based.

(Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_least_squares_regression ….. Diunduh 25/3/2012)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variance

A New Approach Towards Environmental Monitoring Plan in Steam Power Plants

Salehi, F. , Monavari, S . M. Arjomandi, R. Dabiri, F and Samadi , R . International Journal of Environmental Research

ABSTRACTProduction of electricity for promotion of people’s welfares is inevitable.There are about 54000 MW of

various power plants in Iran. The type of power plants includes gas, steam, combined, hydro and a very minute

amount of wind mills. The per capita electricity production is about 2200 Kwh. Power plants can impose adverse environmental impacts during construction and utilization phases. Environmental monitoring plan (EMP) can continuously examine the effects of power plants on

the surrounding environment. In the present investigation, we have carefully examined

the steam power plants of the country to develop appropriate EMP for the utilization phase.

Results of study show that while emissions from stack need continuous monitoring, the other part of power

plants can be monitored on monthly, seasonally or even yearly basis. Further, preparation of appropriate log

sheets to record the results of EMP for the necessary action plans by authorities can lead to environmental

monitoring program.The comparison amongst log sheets of various years may eventually provide

environmental monitoring performance.

Community-Based Preferences for Economic Incentives to Promote Biodiversity Conservation in a Tropical

Rainforest

Ezebilo, E . E .International Journal of Environmental Research

ABSTRACT

This paper discusses the study of community’s preferences for biodiversity conservation management institution which may

motivate them to support conservation efforts in the Okwangwo Division of the Cross River National Park, Nigeria. The empirical data was generated from personal interviews and factors influencing the respondents’ choice were examined with the aid of multinomial logit

model.

The results showed that most of the respondents preferred an institution that has less transaction costs.

Respondents’ choice of biodiversity conservation institution were influenced by factors such as income from farming activities, income from non-timber forest

products, and income from non-traditional employment. This study will contribute to the

knowledge of natural resource management policy.

Recreation Value of Hara Biosphere Reserve using Willingness-to-pay method

Dehghani, M. , Farshchi, P. , Danekar, A. , Karami, M. and Aleshikh, A. A.International Journal of Environmental Research

ABSTRACTHara Biosphere Reserve in southern Hormozgan province with 85686 hectares areas is located

between Bandar Khamir and Queshm Island. This area can be considered as the most spectacular regions of Iran for a unique coastal Seascape. Mangrove forests and amazing biodiversity make this

region as the most significant ecotourism areas throughout the country. This research attempts to determine recreation value of Mangrove forests and willingness of the tourists to pay for ecotourism areas using Contingent Valuation Method and dichotomous choice

questionnaire. Socio-economic assessment of the study area was carried out through the analysis of the touristfilled questionnaires in 2006 based on proper and logical time and place distribution. Logit

model was used to determine the willingness of individuals, because the model’s parameters are based on methods of Maximum likelihood.

Results show that 81.2 % of the individuals are willing to pay for recreation value forms of Mangrove forests. The annual average Willingness-to-Pay for this region is us 5 per visit. Moreover, the annual economic value of Mangrove forests was estimated us 97.5/ acre which shows Existence values of these kinds of forests and also the necessity for planning to employ the recreation capabilities in the

study area.

WILLINGNESS TO PAY (WTP)

In economics, the willingness to pay (WTP) is the maximum amount a person would be willing to pay, sacrifice or exchange in order to receive a good or to avoid something undesired, such as pollution. This term stands in contrast to

willingness to accept payment (WTA), which is the minimum amount an individual is willing to receive to give up a good or to accept something undesirable. Several methods have

been developed to measure consumer willingness to pay. These methods can be differentiated whether they measure consumers' hypothetical or actual willingness to pay

and whether they measure consumer willingness to pay directly or indirectly.Choice modelling techniques may be used to estimate the value of the WTP through a

choice experiment. Unlike WTA, WTP is constrained by an individual's wealth. For example, the willingness to pay to stop the ending of one's own life can only be as high as one's

wealth, while the willingness to accept payment to accept the ending of one's life would be an extremely high number, perhaps approaching infinity.

Formal definitionLet u(w, x) be an individual's utility function, where w is the person's wealth and x is a variable that

takes the value one in the presence of a good and takes the value zero in the absence of that good. The utility function is assumed to be increasing in both wealth and x. Also, define w0 as the person's

initial wealth. Then the "willingness to pay", denoted WTP, is defined by

Thus WTP is the amount of payment which, combined with the presence of the good, gives the person the same level of utility as would occur if there were no payment and no acquisition of the

good.(Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willingness_to_pay ….. Diunduh 25/3/2012)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_%28economics_and_accounting%29

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_externalities

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willingness_to_accept

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choice_modelling

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility_function

Designing a Structural Model for Explaining Environmental Attitude and Behavior of Urban Residents (Case of Tehran)

Kalantari, Kh. and Asadi, A.

ABSTRACTEarlier, environmental problems have been considered as technical and economic problems. In

the last decades of the twentieth century the societal dimensions of environmental problems and environmental issues attracted more public attention. As a result of this circumstances a

new social scientific discipline, “environmental sociology” was appeared to investigate the environmental behavior of the societies.

This paper is an attempt to investigate the environmental issue in grate Tehran and design a structural model for explaining environmental Attitude and behavior of urban residents. To achieve this objective a conceptual model derived out from review of literature to examine

structural relations among personal factors, attitude towards environment and environmental behavior. To examine this model, 1200 individuals of Tehran residents were randomly chosen and interviewed about their opinion on environmental legislations, environmental knowledge

and information, environmental attitude and behavior. The results of this study show that for Tehran residents the environment is not yet thought to

be an important problem, when compared with other social and economic issues. Overall, results of the survey show that people are ready to spend time or to organize themselves to

take part in a campaign to protect the environment, but they believe that money for environmental protection should come from the government. The structural model indicates that, feeling of stress, environmental information, preparedness to act and environmental

legislation have an important impact on environmental attitude and behavior.

STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELING (SEM)is a statistical technique for testing and estimating causal relations using a combination of statistical

data and qualitative causal assumptions. Structural Equation Models (SEM) allow both confirmatory and exploratory modeling, meaning they are suited to both theory testing and theory development. Confirmatory modeling usually starts out

with a hypothesis that gets represented in a causal model. The concepts used in the model must then be operationalized to allow testing of the relationships between the concepts in the model. The model is tested against the obtained measurement data to determine how well the model fits the data. The causal assumptions embedded in the model often have falsifiable implications which can be tested

against the data.With an initial theory SEM can be used inductively by specifying a corresponding model and using data

to estimate the values of free parameters. Often the initial hypothesis requires adjustment in light of model evidence. When SEM is used purely for exploration, this is usually in the context of exploratory

factor analysis as in psychometric design.Among the strengths of SEM is the ability to construct latent variables: variables which are not

measured directly, but are estimated in the model from several measured variables each of which is predicted to 'tap into' the latent variables. This allows the modeler to explicitly capture the unreliability of measurement in the model, which in theory allows the structural relations between latent variables

to be accurately estimated. Factor analysis, path analysis and regression all represent special cases of SEM.

In SEM, the qualitative causal assumptions are represented by the missing variables in each equation, as well as vanishing covariances among some error terms. These assumptions are testable in

experimental studies and must be confirmed judgmentally in observational studies.(Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_equation_modeling ….. Diunduh 25/3/2012)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical

Improving the Natural and Built Ecological Systems in an Urban Environment

Aminzadeh, B. and Khansefid, M.International Journal of Environmental Research

ABSTRACT

This study investigates the application of landscape ecology in planning and design of urban ecological systems. The ecological approach to landscape planning and the concepts of

designing and implementing ecological systems have gained increasing attention in the last two decades. However, the ecological systems of urban environment need more research to

consider built and natural patches and corridors together and to provide proper and applicable strategies that meet all of the diverse aspects of planning and designing sustainable urban

systems. This approach could help in defining sustainable landscape development, aiming for a balance between both physical and natural systems in urban areas.

This research is focused on Tehran’s metropolitan area as a case study to provide a relationship between landscape ecology and urban planning and design to propose a model for

analyzing and providing strategies and policies for conserving and resorting urban ecological systems. The spatial structure of green and natural areas are studied and categorized based

on the patch-corridor-matrix model. Overlaying the selected layers helped provide strategies for conservation and reclamation, and policies to improve the structure and function of urban

landscapes. The strategies to restore the ecological structure and to develop its functionin Tehran metropolitan area are based on structural congruence, aggregate with outliers, local

compensation and indispensable patterns.

MODEL MATRIKS

Istilah “Model Matriks” mengacu pada salah satu dari konsep berikut:

1.In theoretical physics, a matrix model is a system (usually a quantum mechanical system) with matrix-valued physical quantities.2.The "old" matrix models are relevant for string theory in two spacetime dimensions. The "new" matrix model is a synonym for Matrix theory.3.Matrix population models are used to model wildlife and human population dynamics.4.The Matrix Model of substance abuse treatment was a model developed by the Matrix Institute in the 1980s to treat cocaine and methamphetamine addiction.5.A concept from Algebraic logic.6.The term "Matrix model" is used to describe Matrix management where each worker in an organisation has two managers, one "functional": managing their expertise, the other "executive": managing their work on an a project.

(Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_model ….. Diunduh 25/3/2012)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_%28math%29

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_theory

Journal of Environmental ManagementVolume 91, Issue 12, December 2010, Pages 2519-2528

Trade-offs between development, culture and conservation – Willingness to pay for tropical river management among urban Australians

Kerstin K. Zander, Stephen T. Garnett and Anna Straton

AbstractAustralia’s system of tropical rivers constitutes one of the largest and least changed drainage networks in the world. However increasing demand for water in parts of Australia, along with

ongoing drought, is driving pressure to develop these rivers. This paper reports the results of a choice experiment (CE) to assess the benefits of different

management strategies for three tropical rivers in northern Australia: the Daly, Mitchell and Fitzroy Rivers. The CE was carried out using a survey mailed to Australian urban populations.

The results showed that 90% of Australians were willing to pay a once-off payment for the management of tropical rivers. Respondents who had visited or lived near the rivers were willing to

pay more for cultural, recreational and environmental services than those who had not. Respondents classed as ‘developers’, who made up only 4% of the 684 respondents, considered

a substantial income from irrigated agriculture as important. Unlike ‘environmentalists’ and ‘neutrals’, ‘developers’ were unwilling to pay for high quality recreational fishing or for having floodplains in good environmental condition. All groups, however, were willing to pay for high

cultural values.

CHOICE MODELLING

Choice modelling attempts to model the decision process of an individual or segment in a particular context. Choice modelling may also be used to estimate non-market environmental benefits and costs.Well specified choice models are sometimes able to predict with some accuracy how individuals would

react in a particular situation. Unlike a poll or a survey, predictions are able to be made over large numbers of scenarios within a context, to the order of many trillions of possible scenarios.

Choice modelling is believed by some to be the most accurate and general purpose tool currently available for making some probabilistic predictions about certain human decision making behavior. Many alternatives exist in econometrics, marketing, sociometrics and other fields, including utility

maximization, optimization applied to consumer theory, and a plethora of other identification strategies which may be more or less accurate depending on the data, sample, hypothesis and the particular decision being modeled. In addition Choice Modelling is regarded as the most suitable method for

estimating consumers’ willingness to pay for quality improvements in multiple dimensions.

Choice modelling is particularly useful for:1.Predicting uptake and refining New Product Development2.Estimating the implied willingness to pay (WTP) for goods and services3.Product or service viability testing4.Variations of product attributes5.Understanding brand value and preference6.Demand estimates and optimum pricing7.Brand value.

(Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choice_modelling ….. Diunduh 25/3/2012)


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Econometrics

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marketing

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociometrics

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimization

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_theory

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sample_%28statistics%29

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothesis


A basic neural traffic noise prediction model for Tehran’s roads Sh. Givargis, and H. Karimia,

AbstractWe present an artificial neural network model to predict hourly A-weighted equivalent sound pressure levels (LAeq,1h) for roads in Tehran at distances less than 4 m from the nearside

carriageway edge. Our model uses the UK Calculation of Road Traffic Noise (CORTN) approach. Data were obtained

from 50 sampling locations near five roads in Tehran at nearside carriageway edge distances of less than 4 m. The data were randomly assigned to training, testing, and holdout subsets. Model

training was carried out using the training and testing subsets and comprised 60% and 20% of the data, respectively.

Model validation was performed using the remaining 20% of data as a holdout subset. We examine the overall model efficiency using non-parametric tests, such as the Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-rank test for the training step and the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test for two independent

samples for the validation step. Our results indicate that a neural network approach can be applied for traffic noise prediction in

Tehran in a statistically sound manner. The Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks test detects no significant difference between the

absolute testing set errors of the developed neural network and a calibrated version of the CORTN model.

Road Traffic Noise ApproachTypically, road traffic noise is measured outdoors in either a free field situation or at the façade of a

potentially affected building. It is always important when measuring road traffic noise to ensure that the environmental conditions under which the measurements are conducted are as favourable as

possible. Environmental conditions can include factors such as the weather (e.g. wind, temperature, rain, humidity) and the operation of other sources of noise that are not related to the road traffic noise being investigated. The latter can include a multitude of sources like rustling foliage, animals, insects, plant and equipment. Further, it is critical that all relevant conditions and factors that could potentially

affect the measurements are both monitored and recorded. While this may at first appear to be an intuitively obvious requirement, it is often both difficult and time consuming to achieve.

One key reason for this is that it is often not clear just what conditions and factors are relevant and could affect the measurements.

The process of measuring road traffic noise involves the following:

• Setting objectives and identifying data applications;• Establishing sites and measurement locations;

• Recording all site details• Measuring the relevant noise levels and descriptors;

• Monitoring traffic conditions during the measurement period;• Monitoring and measuring the weather conditions during the measurement period; and

• Fully documenting all results.(Sumber: http://www.tmr.qld.gov.au/~/media/6e4d383e-c41b-4dab-a254-d20631076d85/

roadtrafficnoiseassessment.pdf ….. Diunduh 25/3/2012)


Towards the ecotourism: A decision support model for the assessment of sustainability of mountain huts in the Alps

Mojca Stubelj Ars, , and Marko Bohanec

Abstract

This paper studies mountain hut infrastructure in the Alps as an important element of ecotourism in the Alpine region. To improve the decision-making process

regarding the implementation of future infrastructure and improvement of existing infrastructure in the vulnerable natural environment of mountain ecosystems, a new

decision support model has been developed.

The methodology is based on qualitative multi-attribute modelling supported by the DEXi software. The integrated rule-based model is hierarchical and consists of two submodels that cover the infrastructure of the mountain huts and that of the huts’

surroundings. The final goal for the designed tool is to help minimize the ecological footprint of tourists in environmentally sensitive and undeveloped mountain areas and contribute to mountain ecotourism. The model has been tested in the case

study of four mountain huts in Triglav National Park in Slovenia.

Study findings provide a new empirical approach to evaluating existing mountain infrastructure and predicting

improvements for the future. The assessment results are of particular interest for decision makers in protected areas,

such as Alpine national parks managers and administrators. In a way, this model proposes an approach to the

management assessment of mountain huts with the main aim of increasing the quality of life of mountain environment

visitors as well as the satisfaction of tourists who may eventually become ecotourists.


http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=PublicationURL&_tockey=%23TOC%236871%232010%23999089987%232405738%23FLA%23&_cdi=6871&_pubType=J&view=c&_auth=y&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=b7b38a8b888a906190a365bf0e5b3255


Integrated emergy, energy and economic evaluation of rice and vegetable production systems in alluvial paddy fields:

Implications for agricultural policy in China Hongfang Lu, Yu Bai, Hai Ren, , and Daniel E. Campbell

Abstract

China is the largest rice producing and consuming country in the world, but rice production has given way to the production of vegetables during the past twenty

years. The government has been trying to stop this land-use conversion and increase the area in rice-vegetable rotation. Important questions that must be

answered to determine what strategy is best for society are, “What is the reason behind this conversion?”; “Which system is more productive and which is more sustainable?”; and “How can economic policy be used to adjust the pattern of

farmland use to attain sustainable development?”

To answer these questions, a combined evaluation of these agricultural production systems was done using emergy, energy and economic methods. An economic analysis clearly showed that the reason for this conversion was simply that the economic output/input ratio and the benefit density of the vegetable production

system were greater than that of rice. However, both energy and emergy evaluations showed that long-term rice was the best choice for sustainable

development, followed by rotation systems. The current price of rice is lower than the em-value of rice produced from the long-term rice system, but higher than that

of rice produced from the rotation system.

Scenario analysis showed that if the government increases the price of rice to the em-value of rice produced from the long-term rice system, US$0.4/kg, and takes the value of soil organic matter into account, the economic output/input ratios of

both the rice and rotation systems will be higher than that of the vegetable system. The three methods, energy, emergy and economics, are different but

complementary, each revealing a different aspect of the same system. Their combined use shows not only the reasons behind a system’s current state or

condition, but also the way to adjust these systems to move toward more sustainable states.


The real world problems:

The rice production has given way to

the production of vegetables.

Agric land conversion

Sustainable farming system

A combined evaluation of these agricultural production systems was done using emergy, energy and economic methods.

Scenario analysis of sustainable farming system

Metode Penelitian pendukung:Energy analysis methodEmergy analysis method

Economics analysis method

INTERDISIPLIN RISET

Disiplin ilmu pendukung:Land conversion, cropping system, Kebijakan Pembangunan pertanian ; BOT tanah sawah


Rice price policySoil organic matter

Rice roitation system

Interdisciplinary Environmental StudiesIntegrated emergy, energy and economic evaluation of rice and

vegetable production systems in alluvial paddy fields: Implications for agricultural policy in China

The Journal of Sustainable Tourism advances critical understanding of the relationships between tourism and

sustainable development. The journal publishes theoretical, conceptual and empirical research that explores one or more of the economic, social, cultural,

political, organisational or environmental aspects of the subject. Contributions are from all disciplinary perspectives, with inter-disciplinary work

being especially welcome. Holistic and integrative work is encouraged. All geographical areas are

included, as are all forms of tourism, both mass and niche market.

The broader framework of sustainable development of tourism, with four main motivations:

1. Sustainable use of biodiversity and natural resources;2. Impact minimization, especially in terms of climate change and

energy consumption;3. Empowerment and fully informed participation of local stakeholders,

particularly local communities and indigenous peoples;4. Awareness raising and environmental education of travelers and

hosts.

http://www.uneptie.org/shared/publications/cdrom/webx0139xpa/about/iye.htm

Understanding how consumers view green hotels: how a hotel's green image can influence behavioural

intentions Jin-Soo Leea; Li-Tzang (Jane) Hsub; Heesup Hanc; Yunhi Kimd

Abstract

As the public is increasingly concerned about environmental issues, green management is rapidly becoming a strategic tool that can enhance a hotel's

competitive advantage.

This study explores how to develop the image and branding of a green hotel using the concepts of cognitive, affective and overall images. The study,

based on a survey of 416 hotel users, also investigates how a green hotel image can affect behavioural intentions (i.e. intention to revisit, intention to

offer positive recommendations to others and willingness to pay a premium).

The findings confirm that cognitive image components (namely value and quality attributes) can exert a positive influence on a green hotel's affective and overall images. The affective image is also found to positively affect a

green hotel's overall image.

A green hotel's overall image, in turn, can contribute to more favourable behavioural

intentions. Quality attributes were found to be more

powerful than value attributes. The importance of the concept of selfish

altruism and obtaining a feeling of wellbeing from a purchase were shown to be very

strong. A range of theoretical and practical

implications are discussed.

Toward a product-based typology for nature-based tourism: a conceptual framework

Julius Arneggera; Manuel Wolteringa; Hubert JobaJournal of Sustainable Tourism, Vol 18, No 7 Sept 2010 , pages 915 - 928

Abstract

The traditional view of nature-based tourists as a relatively homogeneous group has been questioned, and several scholars

have suggested various segmentation typologies. This paper discusses market and industry changes and notes key

trends, as Fordist tourist products have been replaced by post-Fordist and neo-Fordist products, with both McDonaldization and

McDisneyization developments. A range of visitor-based typologies are reviewed, and the conflict between capturing the diversity of today's nature-based tourists while offering management bodies

simple tools to segment visitors, identify core groups and improve their marketing is noted.

In an attempt to overcome this conflict, the paper presents a conceptual framework which focuses on nature-based tourism

products instead of tourist types, therefore incorporating aspects of both the demand and supply sides of the nature-based tourism

industry market. A two-dimensional matrix is suggested, linking four basic travel motivations (nature conservation, nature experience, sports/adventure and hedonistic) to four different types of tourist products (independent, la carte, customized and standardized),

giving a total typology of 16 different types. The matrix should help protected area managers to better understand tourist needs, suggest management measures and help to create more sustainable forms of

tourism. Empirical testing is suggested as a next step.




Ecotourism and conservation: factors influencing effective conservation messages

Sheila Peakea; Peter Innesa; Pam DyeraJournal of Sustainable Tourism, Vol 17, Issue 1 Jan. 2009 , p.107 - 127

Abstract

Environmental education and interpretation have largely focused on individual mechanisms (e.g. cognitive processes) leading to intention

and behavioural change. Less has been said about the role of the situation and communication processes between tour guides and

tourists in ecotourism experiences.

This paper examines the role of interpreters and individuals as jointly influencing the effectiveness of communicating conservation messages. A survey of over 1500 visitors was undertaken to

ascertain the factors crucial to whether visitors received a conservation message in an ecotourism setting.

The results indicate a three-tier effect: individual characteristics, specifically respondent's age, were initially important. The second tier represents the impact of conservation-related information from the tour guide/interpreter. This information acts as a stimulus to the third and most crucial tier of influence - visitor empowerment. The tertiary stage comprises a two-way communication process that

influences a positive conservation message.

The process involves the interpreter suggesting positive conservation action that translates into what we term “a locus of

responsibility” for the visitor and subsequent higher levels of satisfaction. All of these drive effective communication of

conservation message comprehension.



The Monetary Impact of Tourism on Protected Area Management and the Local Economy in Dzanga-Sangha

(Central African Republic)Allard Blom

Journal of Sustainable Tourism, Vol 8, Issue 3 May 2000 , p.175 - 189

Abstract

This paper analyses the premise that revenues from tourism can provide economic sustainability for the management of both the Dzanga-Sangha Special Dense Forest Reserve and the Dzanga-Ndoki National Park, both in the Central African Republic.

Second, the paper examines the impact of tourism on the local economy.

The results demonstrate that the present form of tourism has so far been unable to become self-financing. In particular, if investments and depreciation are taken into

account it becomes evident that private commercial financing of similar investments is unlikely to be viable. Tourism alone provides insufficient revenue to cover the

operating costs of the Park and Reserve.

The impact of tourism on the local economy, however, is substantial. Revenue from tourism contributed to the

acceptance of the Dzanga-Sangha Project by the local population and has probably contributed to an increase in

effectiveness of law enforcement. The Dzanga-Sangha Project tourism programme has at least been partially successful in providing an alternative economic

option to more environmentally destructive activities, but it needs to raise additional revenue.

The Project should also pursue alternative funding mechanisms, such as trust funds, and generate additional

income through gorilla tourism, safari hunting and sustainable forestry.

Nature-based Tourism and Environmental Sustainability in South Africa

Anna SpenceleyaJournal of Sustainable Tourism, Volume 13, Issue 2 March 2005 , pages 136

- 170

Abstract

Assessments of environmental factors contributing to sustainable tourism are described in relation to four photographic wildlife tourism

enterprises in South Africa. A series of qualitative and quantitative results are presented to

demonstrate how nature-based tourism enterprises in protected areas address their environmental impacts.

Field-based evaluations and interviews with local community members show how a new Sustainable Nature-based Tourism Assessment Toolkit (SUNTAT) was used to evaluate enterprise performance.

Motivations underlying environmentally responsible activities undertaken by private- and public-sector enterprises are described, in

addition to their limitations and constraints.

Conclusions are made regarding the need for environmentally responsible

activities to utilise commercially appropriate best practice, and to consider both the local level and

neighbouring livelihood strategies.


Sustainable wildlife

tourism and environmental

impacts

Sustainable Tourism

Sustainable Nature-based Tourism Assessment Toolkit (SUNTAT)

Field-based evaluations and interviews

Metode Penelitian pendukung:Metode Analisis Kualitatif dan Kuantitatif

INTERDISIPLIN RISET

Disiplin ilmu pendukung:Photography, Wildlife ecosystem, Tourism

enterprise


Appropriate best practiceThe local level and

neighbouring livelihood strategies.

Interdisciplinary Environmental Studies:Nature-based Tourism and Environmental Sustainability in

South Africa

International Planning StudiesAims & Scope

Planning, at urban, regional, national and international levels, faces new challenges, notably those related to the growth of globalisation as both an

objective socio-economic process and a shift in policy-maker perceptions and modes of analysis.

International Planning Studies (IPS) addresses these issues by publishing quality research in a variety of specific fields and from a range of theoretical

and normative perspectives, which helps improve understanding of the actual and potential role of planning and planners in this context.

D

Planning and environmental linkages in decisionmaking processes are depicted by the arrows showing the relationship between transportation planning and

environment planning, as well as the relationship between systems planning and project level decisions.

SUMBER: http://www.planning.dot.gov/documents/BriefingBook/BBook.htm

Methodological Frameworks and Interdisciplinary Research on Gated Communities

Sonia Roitmana; Chris Websterb; Karina Landmanc International Planning Studies, Vol 15, Issue 1 Febr 2010 , p 3 - 23

Abstract

The paper examines gated communities as an object of study that has received intense scholarly attention from diverse disciplines over the last 10

years. The many conference presentations and published papers on the subject have not, however, always contributed to a cohesive body of

knowledge.

We suggest in this paper that clearer frameworks for empirical investigations are needed; not only for specific disciplines, but also for providing an

interdisciplinary perspective.

The paper focuses on methodology:

first highlighting three different approaches to the analysis of urban fragmentation (social, spatial and institutional); and second, outlining a framework for

interdisciplinary analysis. In the latter part, we illustrate the connections that may

be made between the analyses of the social, spatial and institutional fragmentation effects and causes of

gated communities and suggest ways of handling phenomenological as well as linguistic complexity in

this multi-disciplinary area of urban scholarship.

Planning and the Challenges of the Metropolitan Landscape: Innovation in the Netherlands

Adri Van Den Brinka; Arnold Van Der Valka; Terry Van Dijka

International Planning Studies, Vol 11, Issue 3 & 4 Aug 2006 , p 147 - 165

Abstract

The physical appearance of the Netherlands is rapidly changing. The land of prosperous towns and villages embedded in rich, flat and open agricultural land is

turning into a metropolis. A distinctive quality of this metropolis is the mix of highly urbanized centres and open, green areas that come in different shapes

and sizes. But how to design an appropriate planning system for this environment? Mixing “red” (urban) and “green” (rural) land uses, for instance,

now becomes problematic as Dutch spatial planning has always focused primarily on the urban domain whereas planning of green areas has its origins in

agricultural land consolidation policy.

A genuinely integrated approach to the planning of built-up areas and green areas in the open spaces is a distant ideal in this setting. In addition, the regional administrative level, being so important for metropolitan spatial challenges, needs

reinforcing.

. The authors make a plan for a reframing of the notion of spatial planning at the national and provincial geographical and administrative scale. It takes a new object for planning,

design and analysis to do the trick. The traditional rural-urban opposition is traded for “metropolitan landscape”, a new

image reflecting the integration of built-up and non-built-up distinctively urban and rural land uses. Planning for the

metropolitan landscape requires a reassignment of duties and responsibilities among national, provincial and municipal

governments and other stakeholders.

International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Advances in Engineering (IJMRAE).

International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Advances in Engineering (IJMRAE) is a referred reviewed periodical multidisciplinary research journal.

The journal welcomes papers that arouse and fuel new areas of research in Electronics, Computer, Mechanical, Civil, Produ-ction, Petrochemical,

Telecommunications, Chemical, Electrical, Aerospace, Mining, Petroleum and Gas, Software, Instrumentation and Industrial engineering, Information technology, Food

technology, Pulp and paper technology, Metallurgy, Artificial Intelligence, Communication & IT, Computer Databases & Software, Machine Learning,

Networks and Communications, Web Tec- hnologies, Data Warehouse, Data Mining, Soft Computing, Modeling and Simulations, Signal Analysis and Processing,

Detection and Estimation, Audio and Video, Filters, Algorithms and Techniques, Basic engineering and allied areas.

The IJMRAE is an international journal published quarterly by Ascent Publication, Pune, India. This journal publishes high quality original research papers in all areas of various disciplines of engineering and their applications in real life and industry. Research provides the much needed inspiration for the birth of new ideas, which in

turn breathes new life into products.

The journal is basically devoted to interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary

research in Engineering and Techn -ology, which can improve the present methods and technology being used in Industry.The real -life problems involve multi-

disciplinary knowledge, and thus strong multidisciplinary approach is the need of

the Research.

Interdisciplinary Environmental Review (IER).http://www.inderscience.com/browse/index.php?journalCODE=ier

The objectives of IER are to enhance communication on environmental issues across traditional disciplinary, philosophical, and political boundaries

such that, at a minimum, the main points, arguments, and “take-home” message of any paper are accessible to readers from any discipline. The

journal also seeks to provide a publication outlet for integrated environmental research that does not fit comfortably into existing individual academic

disciplines, and to establish and strengthen a dialogue on environmental issues between individuals or groups that do not normally communicate in

order to foster the exchange of information across the range of environmental academics and practitioners..

Topik-topik yang menjadi lingkup kajian Jurnal ini:

1.Research of any spatial or temporal scale in interdisciplinary environmental science or study2.Case studies related to interdisciplinary environmental management, ethics, economics, or similar, both local and international3.Comparative studies on environmental topics, including analyses of historic or contemporary environmental issues4.Advances, applications, and consequences of environmental technology, policy, management, or choices approached from an interdisciplinary perspective5.Intersection of socio-political, economic, and scientific forces regarding any environmental topic6.Significance of literature, journalism, and public opinion as pertaining to an environmental issue7.Developments, options, analyses, and issues regarding sustainability and green technology

Interdisciplinary Environmental Review, Vol. 11, No. 1, 2010 69The economic contributions of anglers to the Los Cabos economy:

quantifying value in a sustainable fisheryRob Southwick, Russell Nelson and Jose Antonio Arean.

AbstractIn 2007 and 2008, a comprehensive study was conducted to estimate

the dollars, jobs and tax revenues created by anglers in the Los Cabos region. Inthat period an estimated 354,013 people, most all of them international visitors,fished in Los Cabos. While in Los Cabos, they spent an estimated $1,785 each

for lodging, charter boats, food, transportation, tackle, fuel, and much more.These expenditures then started a series of economic effects rippling through

the local economy, creating: US$633.6 million in retail sales, 24,426 jobs,US$245.5 million in local and federal tax revenues, and US$1.125 billion in

total economic activity. These results have been used to inform Mexican

business and political leaders of the value of low-impact and sustainablesportfishing tourism as an attractive alternative to high risk exploitation by

industrial fisheries..

Sumber: http://www.inderscience.com/storage/f112108396117524.pdf ….. Diunduh 24/3/2012

Optimum Fishing Efforts for Sustainable Fisheries

http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/MEETING/004/X8488E/x8488e05.htm

Interdisciplinary Environmental Review, Vol. 11, No. 1, 2010 69The economic contributions of anglers to the Los Cabos economy: quantifying

value in a sustainable fisheryRob Southwick, Russell Nelson and Jose Antonio Arean.

MethodsThe key data required to operate the economic model are estimates of angler

expenditures. Angler expenditures were estimated using a combination of angler and

general Los Cabos visitor surveys combined with existing reports and information sources.

The three primary data sources for this project were:1.In-person interviews with sportfishing and tourism-related businesses in the Los Cabos area to identify existing data sources and information needed by the local business community, and to secure their participation in the various surveys.2.Surveys of local businesses were conducted to provide the information needed to develop an economic model and to develop an understanding of how and when businesses receive and re-spend angler dollars. These surveys also identified when angler dollars leave the local economy.3.Visitor surveys were conducted to collect expenditure data from anglers and non-angler visitors who have or could potentially visit BCS.Once all data were obtained, the two principle analytical tasks were:1.develop visitor and angler expenditure estimates based on the survey results and existing data sources regarding the number of annual visitors to Los Cabos and the percentage who fish while in Los Cabos2.construct an ad hoc economic model of the Los Cabos economy.

Survey of existing data and in-person interviews

A substantial effort was made to identify existing data before investing resources intoproducing new data. A series of interviews were held in the Los Cabos region and in Mexico City

with state and federal government representatives, business associations, private companies, sportfishing representatives, conservation organisations, and elected officials.

The purpose of these interviews was to inquire about available studies and data of possible use to this project. At these interviews, each company was provided with a signed and notarised

confidentiality agreement providing assurances of data security. Information obtained included passenger arrival data to the Los Cabos airport, information on the economic size and trends

regarding the timeshare business, cruise ship passenger arrival counts, marina information, and more. All published sources are listed in the Bibliography .




Business surveys

Seven surveys were conducted with three of these focusing on Los Cabos business sectors. Business survey results were used to provide the information needed to

develop the Los Cabos economic model, to assist in quantifying the dollars injected into the Los Cabos region by anglers, and to understand how expenditures move from anglers’ pockets to the various businesses and governments within the Los Cabos

regional economy. To maximise response rates, the surveys did not inquire about exact business revenues

as initial input from regional business leaders revealed that direct questions about a business’s revenues would likely reduce cooperation and survey completion.

Therefore, the questions focused on ‘percentage’ terms, such as ‘What percentage of your revenues come from anglers?’. This point was stressed in all pre-survey

announcements and in-person interviews.

Businesses were assured, backed by signed and notarised confidentiality agreements, that their individual responses would remain confidential and protected. Only

aggregated, averaged results would be released.

Organisations and leaders were identified for three business sectors in Los Cabos: the general Los Cabos business community, led by the local chamber of commerce –

CANACINTRA; hotel management identified by the Los Cabos Convention and Visitors Bureau (LCCVB); and the Los Cabos charter boat fleet. The three business surveys are

described.




TOURIST ANGLER SURVEYS

Three economic surveys were conducted of anglers and visitors to Los Cabos: US anglers who visited Cabo; Hotel and resort guests (not just anglers); and owners of private boats in the

Marina Cabo San Lucas (MCSL). These surveys were designed to: quantify the typical expenditures made in Los Cabos per angler and visitor, including estimates for specific items

such as travel, lodging, tackle, boats, vehicles, meals, souvenirs, etc. The information collected focused on:

Survey methods

Angler and visitor surveys were conducted online. E-mail addresses of Los Cabos anglers and visitors were obtained from resorts, charter businesses, and fishing tournament organisers. In most cases, to protect the security of their customer lists, participating businesses preferred to send e-mails directly to their guests explaining the purpose of the survey and inviting them to click an embedded link connecting to the online surveys. In other cases, businesses provided lists of customers, who were then sent identical e-mails. To prevent abuse, each e-mail was embedded with a unique link that allowed the recipient to take the survey only once. In the

case of one hotel, operators asked their guests to take the online survey while their check-out paperwork was being prepared. For convenience, a computer terminal was provided on the

check-out counter linked directly to the survey website.

Though survey respondents were restricted from taking the survey more than once, during the data analysis stages, the responses were carefully reviewed to identify possible multiple

responses. Scans for multiple responses were based on an analysis of the time of the person’s visit, timing of when surveys were received, activities participated in, and similar data

variables. Only two possible multiple responses were identified and eliminated. Multiple responses were naturally discouraged by the length of the survey questionnaires, the lack of

offered incentives, and the qualitative nature of the questions, which did not ask about specific issues or activities to be influenced by the survey results.




ECONOMIC MODELLING

Economic input-output models (I-O models) are statistical simulations of a regional or national economy. Using information regarding the flow of products and dollars from

consumers to businesses, I-O models help explain the increase or decrease in economic activity occurring as a result of dollars being injected into an economy, a change in employment, and more. I-O models applicable to sportfishing were not available for Mexico, the State of Baja California Sur, or the Los Cabos region.

Currently, there are no models or sources of economic multipliers available for the region under study, so it was necessary to develop an ad hoc model to estimate the

economic contribution of sportfishing to the Los Cabos economy.

Detailed model description is given in Southwick Associates et al. (2008) and the modelled expenditure flow is depicted in Figure 1. This methodology can be applied in other locations in Latin America where detailed economic information and data are also

scarce.

Input to the economic model was developed by the multiple angler and visitor surveys described earlier. Data used by the model to report the economic impacts resulting

from angler expenditures were obtained from the various specifically designed surveys of charter boat companies, hotels and resorts, and the general business community

conducted in 2007 and 2008. The expenditures, or input, used in the economic model were estimated from the survey of people who fished in Los Cabos.

The model first divides angler expenditures into two types of expenses: dollars that remain in the Los Cabos economy, and dollars that immediately leave the area for

suppliers of products located outside the Los Cabos area, such as airlines, companies exporting supplies to the isolated Los Cabos area, and more. When estimating the jobs

and tax revenues generated in Los Cabos, only the dollars remaining in the local economy were considered.




Schematic depiction of expenditures flow (see online version for colours)


The economic model was designed to follow the dollars spent by anglers as they move through the different layers of the Los Cabos economy. The model starts by allocating anglers’ dollars to the products reported in the survey such

as charter boats, lodging, food, transportation, tackle, souvenirs, etc.The sum of expenses made by businesses in the supply chain is called the indirect effect, while the sum of the expenditures by employees, business

owners, and their families is the induced effect. The direct effect is the amount spent by anglers that starts the whole process. The direct effect, indirect

effect, and induced effect add up in order to obtain the total multiplier effect:

The multiplier depends on the number of rounds in the economy, and the number of rounds is optimal when the indirect and induced effects are too small to reasonably measure. In this project, the number of rounds of spending was capped at four, meaning that the economic analysis ended after anglers’ dollars changed hands four times, with very little remaining in the Los Cabos economy at that point .

Interdisciplinary Environmental Review, Vol. 11, No. 1, 2010 57In search of symbiosis: constructing built environments based on

site thermal climatic characteristicsGiancarlo Mangone.

Abstract

Utilising nature as a building system input generates symbiotic interrelationships between the occupants and the built and natural environment, and suggests an innovative

design methodology grounded in the contextual natural processes of a given site. This approach was explored through the design of an office building within a variant climate

site, Takoma Park, Washington DC. The focus was on the design and integration of the program spaces with the building infrastructure with regard to providing maximum thermally

optimal occupied spaces throughout the year. This was achieved through the interrelation of the extreme iconic thermal spaces of a cave

ecosystem, a thermal mass, with a greenhouse, a glazed, low thermal storage capacity environment responsive to site thermal characteristics, supplemented with gradient spaces..

Sumber: http://www.inderscience.com/storage/f489107651232111.pdf….. Diunduh 22/3/2012

GROUNDED METHODOLOGY

The phrase "grounded theory" refers to theory that is developed inductively from a corpus of data. If done well, this means that the resulting theory at least fits one dataset perfectly.

This contrasts with theory derived deductively from grand theory, without the help of data, and which could therefore turn out to fit no data at all.

Grounded theory takes a case rather than variable perspective, although the distinction is nearly impossible to draw. This means in part that the researcher takes different cases to be wholes, in which the variables interact as a unit to produce certain outcomes. A case-

oriented perspective tends to assume that variables interact in complex ways, and is suspicious of simple additive models, such as ANOVA with main effects only.

The basic idea of the grounded theory approach is to read (and re-read) a textual database (such as a corpus of field notes) and "discover" or label variables (called categories,

concepts and properties) and their interrelationships. The ability to perceive variables and relationships is termed "theoretical sensitivity" and is affected by a number of things

including one's reading of the literature and one's use of techniques designed to enhance sensitivity.

Of course, the data do not have to be literally textual -- they could be observations of behavior, such as interactions and events in a restaurant. Often they are in the form of field

notes, which are like diary entries.

(Sumber: http://www.analytictech.com/mb870/introtoGT.htm ….. Diunduh 25/3/2012)



Thermal design strategyFigure 1 compares the range of temperatures at which the occupants would becomfortable to the monthly range of external temperatures. In order to provide a

thermally comfortable interior constructed environment for occupants, the external air

moisture and thermal levels must be augmented before being introduced to the interior

environment throughout the course of the year. Typical dehumidification and activethermal conditioning processes are energy intensive and lead to sealed building

envelopesolutions. Through the measured identification of the level of dehumidification andthermal conditioning needed throughout the year, passive design solutions can be

incorporated that reduce building energy consumption and reduce or eliminateinhabitants’ segregation from the external environment that is typical in modern

buildingenvironments.

Figure 1 Annual exterior temperature with interior comfort zones




During the average summer day, dehumidification is required in the afternoon, while in the morning, spaces can be thermally comfortable through the utilisation of natural ventilation strategies, as illustrated in the psychometric chart in Figure 2. Figure 3

illustrates that on thermally extreme summer days, dehumidification is required throughout the course of the workday.




General office floor plan and section


Gradient space summer daily thermal comfort range



Intermixing of thermal gradientsA comprehensive, energy efficient thermal conditioning strategy utilising five thermal

conditioning modes to accommodate the site’s variant climate was developed.During humid thermal conditions, the building must be closed to the external

environment and the interior must be dehumidified. The proposed strategy channelsintake air into the ground level internal cave space, which is thermally cooler in the

summer than the other internal spaces. Upon entering the cave environment, the air is dehumidified by passing over a radiantly chilled vertical surface, whereupon moisture in the air condenses, cooling the air in the process.6 The air is further cooled by passing the intake air through the cooler cave thermal environment before allowing air into the gradient spaces, thus combining the two thermal

environs


Humid climate air flow strategy and CFD analysis



Conclusions

The integration of this developed design process into the design of built work minimises the building’s impact on the natural environment while providing the

opportunity for the building to be a positive asset to the local environment, through the provision of sources of fresh, filtered water and air, and natural habitat for local

flora and fauna in otherwise harsh, polluted urban environments.

This design process reduces the short and long term fiscal costs of the project, through the development of passive thermal conditioning strategies and the

integration of various components of the construction budget, such as utilising the cave spaces as a component of the mechanical system while providing conference

spaces, private offices, and social space.

These spaces are typically the most underutilised spaces in commercial work environments, and yet consume a large portion of an office’s construction and

operations budget (O’Donnell and Wagener, 2007).

This strategy also minimises building operation costs by reducing active thermal conditioning, lighting, and other energy requirements, while improving the social

quality of the work environment by providing comfortable spaces and opportunities for social interaction, which increases worker productivity and innovation.

As occupants circulate between the cave and greenhouse spaces based on their work needs, collaborative and independent work in the greenhouse and gradient spaces, and meetings and conferences in the cave spaces, the probability of co-

workers running into each other, socialising, and collaborating is increased through the provision of open, public circulation paths and informal, tranquil meeting

spaces, such as coffee tables situated along the edge of a reflecting pool.




CONCLUSIONS

Furthermore, each typology, the cave and the greenhouse, generates different methods and means for inhabitants to engage the site and provides optimal

environments for different types of work. Notably, cave spaces, which inherently are low light level environments, are optimal for work that requires maximum contrast and concentrated light environments, such

as digital projection work, conference spaces, and private offices.

These dedicated work spaces provide concentrated areas of light that promote social gathering, while the overall low light levels allow the inhabitants to be

conscious of the movement of light over the course of the day.

External light penetrating the cave has a singular, specific spatial quality. Naturally daylit greenhouse and gradient spaces provide optimal collaboration and lounge

spaces.

These spaces consist of open floor plates to accommodate short term reorganisation of work space that fluctuates throughout the course of the day in

quantities of participants and between collaborative to independent work. Since the visual work environment must be glare free, these are spaces of reflected, refracted,

and diffuse light. Through the provision of these varied spatial environments in regards to their

thermal, visual, and acoustic qualities, a more cohesive, adaptable, and efficient work environment that allows for a broader and more optimal range of work is

developed, while performing at maximum efficiency and serving as a community and environmental asset, promoting new levels of social, environmental, and spatial

interactions..


JIES: Journal of Integrative Environmental SciencesFormerly Environmental Sciences

Official journal of and founded by VVM, EFAEP and EFCAPublished By: Taylor & Francis (http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/nens)

Volume Number: 8. Frequency: 4 issues per yearPrint ISSN: 1943-815X. Online ISSN: 1943-8168

Journal of Integrative Environmental Sciences (JIES) aims to provide a stimulating, informative and critical forum for intellectual debate on

significant environmental issues. It brings together perspectives from a wide range of disciplines and methodologies in both the social and natural

sciences in the effort to develop integrative knowledge about the processes responsible for environmental change. The Journal is especially concerned with the relationships between science, society and policy and a key aim is

to advance understanding of the theory and practice of sustainable development.

The subject matter, authorship and readership are international in scope and cover issues from across a range of scales, from the global to the local. Key

themes include: interdisciplinary assessment methodologies; governance and regulation; technology and innovation; science, society and policy; knowledge, perceptions and discourse. The journal publishes work on a

wide range of issues, including:ENERGY

CLIMATE CHANGEPOLLUTION, WASTE

URBAN SUSTAINABILITYBIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENTENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

Journal of Integrative Environmental Sciences is keen to publish original material including theoretical developments, new empirical data, innovative

methods and policy analysis. The Journal publishes original research articles, review articles, essays, research notes and book reviews. The

journal also publishes occasional Special Issues covering interdisciplinary research and policy perspectives on specific environmental issues.

Published papers are accessible to a wide audience consisting of natural and social scientists, professionals and policy makers.

Sumber: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/nens….. Diunduh 22/3/2012

The Built Environment Induced Urban Heat Island Effect in Rapidly Urbanizing Arid Regions – A Sustainable Urban Engineering Complexity

Jay S. Golden.Environmental Sciences 2003/2004, Vol. 1, No. 4, pp. 321–349

ABSTRACT

As recently as 1950, 30% of the world’s population lived in urban areas. By the year 2030, 60% of the world’s population will live in cities, according to the United Nations (2001) World Population

Prospects Revision Report. Urbanization is quickly transitioning communities from the natural rural vegetation to man-made urban engineered infrastructure.

The anthropogenic induced change has manifested itself in microscale and mesoscale increases in temperatures in comparison to adjacent rural regions which is known as the urban heat island (UHI) effect and results in potentially adverse consequences for local and global communities. One of the great challenges facing our current generation of scientists and engineers is how to support the growth of the new and existing arid urban centers in a sustainable manner. This is

even more pronounced in arid regions, which will sustain the greatest rate of urbanization. This paper is focused on understanding the interdependency of the infrastructure used to support the growth of urban regions and their environmental, social and economic consequences with an

emphasis on the rapidly urbanizing arid region of Phoenix, Arizona..

Sumber: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/15693430412331291698 ….. Diunduh 22/3/2012

UHIThe temperature of urban areas can be markedly higher than that of the surrounding

countryside. This fact is known as the "Urban Heat Island" effect. The interactions that account for this effect are many and they work together in a complex manner. Yet once we are able to recognize what these forces are and how they operate, it

becomes possible to modify them in a way that reduces the temperature of the urban environment. These forces include:

1.albedo—changes the short-wave portion of the radiation balance by the presence of higher energy absorbing surfaces, structures with high thermal capacity and buildings of complex three dimensional geometry,2.anthropogenic heat –production of heat by industry, transportation and building temperature control, 3.urban surface roughness—reduces sensible heat loss due to the obstruction of airflow by buildings and other large structures,4.latent heat reduction—reduces heat loss through lowered evaporation and evapotranspiration due to water impermeable surfaces, increased rapid runoff of precipitation, lower urban wind speeds, and loss of trees and other green areas.5.atmospheric pollution--changes the long-wave portion of the radiation balance by trapping heat in the atmosphere.

(Sumber: http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~sass/UHI.html)

The Built Environment Induced Urban Heat Island Effect in Rapidly Urbanizing Arid Regions – A Sustainable Urban

Engineering ComplexityJay S. Golden.

Environmental Sciences 2003/2004, Vol. 1, No. 4, pp. 321–349

SUSTAINABLE IMPERATIVES AND THE UHIRoseland (1997) argued that sustainable cities represent an ethical goal and direction for a community but that planners who use the sustainable development trilogy (environmental,

economic and social imperatives) have found much inspiration but little guidance. Policy makers need a hierarchical mitigation scheme or set of indicators to address the UHI effect within a

sustainable development context. Researchers from Arizona State University and the Cambridge-MIT Institute (CMI) sponsored Engineering for Sustainable Development Programme at the

University of Cambridge have undertaken a joint multi-disciplinary effort to further understand the dynamics of urban climate and the UHI effect as well as to examine mitigation strategy alternatives

that can be deployed by policy makers in rapidly urbanizing regions globally.A first step in this process is to understand the initial impacts, both positive and negative, in

regards to the pronounced UHI effect in the Phoenix region. Secondly, researchers will volumetrically and spatially identify the various man-made and natural geologic/vegetative

materials that comprise the urban fabric of the Phoenix region via remote sensing and on-site documentation. Thirdly, the research will identify which existing surface materials independently and by their 3-D arrangement induce the most retained heat and therefore experience the most

hysteresis lag effect of heat storage over a 24 h period – hence explaining the UHI. Fourth, researchers will undertake an extensive evaluation of existing and emerging materials and

technologies that can potentially mitigate the hysteresis lag effect. Those results will be modeled in step 6 from the micro-scale to the local scale and eventually on a mesoscale interaction model. Finally, working with community stake-holders on an international basis, a hierarchical mitigation

structure will be developed based on environmental, economic and social considerations. This will take the form similar to a Life Cycle Management guidebook. During initial evaluations of Phoenix,

researchers have identified multiple impediments to achieving a sustainable balance between rapid urbanization and quality of life.

Phoenix is: 1.Moving into the seventh consecutive year of drought in an already arid region of less than 7 inches of rain per year; 2.A federal non-attainment area for ground-level ozone; 3.Seeing increased costs of electricity and fuel; and 4.Experiencing increasing levels of childhood and adult obesity – potentially worsened by the influence of high temperatures throughout the diurnal cycle which limit the ability to be outdoors.

Understanding these regional imperatives allow researchers to undertake the development of strategies to mitigate the UHI in respect to the sustainable imperatives of environment, economics

and social well being.





The potential impacts associated with UHI (source: Golden, 2004).





Water ResourcesApproximately 70% of Phoenix’s municipal water (from surface and

groundwater supplies) is used for landscape irrigation at a per capita waterconsumption of 880 l per day, among the highest in the world (Baker et al.,

2004). Preliminary research of residential water usage has indicated that thehysteresis lag effect does influence the amount of water consumed. This takes

into consideration the evaporation rate of water from residential pools andirrigation as well as potable water usage in households (Figure 10). The city of

Tempe was selected as a study area since it is a mature and landlockedcommunity with minimal household census growth. Further research is

seeking to quantify the water use impacts of the UHI hysteresis lag effect as afunction of urbanization.


A linear trend analysis of residential water usage and minimum temperature (source: Golden, 2004).




EnergyThe hysteresis lag effect as a function of the UHI promotes the use of

additional power consumption for mechanical cooling in buildings. Where historically, Phoenix residents were able to reduce the demand for night-time

mechanical cooling as temperature decreased, they now must rely on mechanical cooling through a greater portion of the diurnal cycle as a result of

the hysteresis lag. The first consequence is that the residential and commercial sector accounts for about one-third of carbon emissions from fossil-fuel

combustion.


Peak electricity demand and the impact of temperatures to cooling degree days.




DISCUSSIONPolicy makers in urbanized and urbanizing regions can create opportunities to reduce the coupled impacts associated with rapid urbanization and changing urban climates as exemplified by the UHI effect. These opportunities can be based upon sound science and engineering and with a strong economic foundation. However, for policy makes on an international basis to garner multi-party

consensus within the construct of their geo-political boundaries, understanding UHI causation and mitigation strategies should be presented in an integrative and interdependent manner. Potential

UHI impacts based on the geographic and economic complexities are presented.The influence of the engineered environment and urbanization (adopted from

Meadows, 1992).



…………INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACHES

.

Metode Penelitian pendukung:…………..

INTERDISIPLIN RISET

Disiplin ilmu pendukung:

…………………….


Problem solving

Interdisciplinary Environmental Studies

bahan kajian kompendium idr dalam kajian lingkungan dikoleksi oleh: prof dr ir soemarno pslp...

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