a course in english phonetics and -...

i

A Course in English Phonetics and

Phonology for Indonesian Students

Rima Andriani Sari

Ni Luh Putu Sri Adnyani

Putu Eka Dambayana Suputra

I Wayan Pastika

I Nyoman Suparwa

JAUDAR PRESS

2017

ii

Rima Andriani Sari

Ni Luh Putu Sri Adnyani

Putu Eka Dambayana Suputra

I Wayan Pastika

I Nyoman Suparwa

A Course in English Phonetics and Phonology for Indonesian Students

Surabaya: JAUDAR PRESS, 2017 Vii+100 hlm ISBN 978-602-6691-187

Hakcipta pada pengarang

Dilarang mengutip sebagian atau seluruh isi buku ini dengan cara apapun, termasuk dengan cara penggunaan mesin fotokopi, tanpa seizin dari penerbit

Cetakan Pertama, 2017

Hak penerbitan pada JAUDAR PRESS, Surabaya Desain cover : Putu Eka Dambayana Suputra Layouter : M. Fikri Amrullah, S.Pd

iii

Preface

A Course in English Phonetics and Phonology for Indonesian Students is a

course book, the objectives of which are 1) to improve Indonesian students’

knowledge related to the sounds of English, and 2) to introduce the students

to English phonetic and phonological analysis.

Chapter One presents an overview of the fields of phonetics and phonology,

distinguishing between both fields and their position within linguistics, as

well as introducing the terms and symbols used in phonetics and phonology.

Chapter Two introduces the organs of speech, while Chapter 3 distinguishes

between voiced and voiceless sounds, describing place and manner of

articulation. Chapter 4 introduces the English vowels, while Chapters 5, 6, 7,

and 8 explain the consonants that occur in English. Suprasegmental sounds

are discussed in Chapter 9. At the end of every chapter, there is a set of

performance exercises.

This book has been designed as a result of collaborative teamwork between

Universitas Pendidikan Ganesha and Universitas Udayana. Each member

incorporated ideas and contributed materials to each chapter.

We would like to thank the DPRM Ministry of Research, Technology, and

Higher Education of Indonesia for granting the research: Grant No.

104/UN48.15/LT/2016 and Grant No. 221/UN48.15/LT/2017.

iv

Course Syllabus

No. Topic Learning Experience/Activities

1 Introduction to Phonetics and

Phonology

1. become acquainted with the technical terms to be

used in the fields of phonetics and phonology

2. distinguish between phonetics and phonology and

their position within linguistics

3. know the symbols used in phonetics and

phonology

2 The Speech Organs 1. know the different organs of speech

2. know the function of each organ in the production

of speech sounds

3. know the different production of sounds

3 Manner of Articulation, Place

of Articulation and Voicing

1. know the manner of articulation

2. know the place of articulation

3. distinguish between voiced and voiceless sounds

4 The English Vowels

4.1 English Short Vowels 1. learn the production of English short vowels

2. listen to examples of words containing short

vowels

3. practice pronouncing words containing short

vowels

4. provide words containing short vowels in all

positions and transcribe them

4.2 English Long Vowels 1. learn the production of English long vowels

2. listen to examples of words containing long vowels

3. practice pronouncing words containing long

vowels

4. provide words containing long vowels in all


5 English Plosives 1. learn the production of English plosives

2. listen to examples of words containing English

plosives

v

3. practice pronouncing words containing English

plosives

4. provide words containing English plosives in all


6 English Fricatives 1. learn the production of English fricatives


fricatives


fricatives

4. provide words containing English fricatives in all


7 English Affricates and English

Nasals

7.1 English Affricates 1. learn the production of English affricates


affricates


affricates

4. provide words containing English affricates in all


7.2 English Nasals 1. learn the production of English nasals


nasals


nasals

4. provide words containing English nasals in all


8 English Approximants 1. learn the production of English approximants


approximants


approximants

4. provide words containing English approximants in

vi

all positions and transcribe them

9 Suprasegmental sounds; Stress

and Intonation

11.1 Stress 1. practice different stress patterns

2. provide examples of stress patterns in simple and

complex sentences

11.2 Intonation 1. distinguish the different intonation patterns of

English

2. provide examples of the different intonations in

English

vii

Table of Contents

Cover .......................................................................................................... i

Preface ......................................................................................................... iii

Course Syllabus ........................................................................................... iv

Chaper-1

Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology ................................................ 1

A. Phonetics .......................................................................................... 1

B. Phonology ........................................................................................ 5

C. Transcription.................................................................................... 9

Chapter-2

The Speech Organs ..................................................................................... 13

A. The Speech Organs .......................................................................... 13

B. The Production of Sounds ................................................................ 21

Chapter-3

Voicing, Place of Articulation, and Manner of Articulation .................... 23

A. Voicing ............................................................................................. 23

B. Place of Articulation ........................................................................ 24

C. Manner of Articulation .................................................................... 27

Chapter-4

The English Vowels .................................................................................... 35

A. English Short Vowels ....................................................................... 38

B. English Long Vowels ...................................................................... 40

Chapter-5

English Plosives .......................................................................................... 43

A. The English Bilabial Plosives [p] and [b] ...................................... 43

B. The English Plosives [t] and [d] ...................................................... 47

C. The English Plosives [k] and [g] ..................................................... 51

Chapter-6

English Fricatives ....................................................................................... 57

A. The English Fricatives /f/ and /v/ .................................................... 57

B. The English Fricatives /θ/ and /ð/ ................................................... 60

C. The English Fricatives /s/ and /z/ .................................................... 63

D. The English Fricatives /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ .................................................... 65

E. The English Fricatives /h/ ............................................................... 68

viii

Chapter-7

English Affricates and English Nasals ...................................................... 73

A. The English Affricates /ʧ/ and /ʤ/ ................................................... 73

B. The English Nasals /m/, /n/ and /ŋ/ ................................................. 76

Chapter-8

English Approximants& Lateral ................................................................ 83

A. The English Approximants /r/, /w/, and /y/ ..................................... 83

B. The English Lateral /l/ ..................................................................... 87

Chapter-9

Suprasegmental sounds; Stress and Intonation ........................................ 91

A. Stress ............................................................................................... 92

B. Sentence and Phrase Stress ............................................................. 95

C. Intonation ......................................................................................... 96

References ................................................................................................... 99

A Course in English Phonetics and Phonology for Indonesian Students | 1

CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION TO PHONETICS

AND PHONOLOGY

Course Objectives:

After learning the topic, the students are expected to be able to:

1) understand the technical terms used in the fields of phonetics and

phonology

2) distinguish between phonetics and phonology and their position within

linguistics

3) know the symbols used in phonetics and phonology

A. Phonetics

Phonetics is the study of the inventory of all speech sounds that humans are

capable of producing (Katamba, 1989). In other words, phonetics is the study

of the actual sounds of a language produced by humans, or the sounds that

come from our mouths. In more detail, phonetics is the science concerned

with all aspects of human speech. In this sense, in phonetics, human speech

is described and investigated. In addition, how our speech organs produce

sounds is also explored and explained. In the case of phonetics, not all

sounds produced by humans are considered speech, for example, whistling,

burping, laughing, and spitting. Phonetics also deals with the properties of

speech sounds as they travel in the air or are transferred from the speaker's

mouth to the listener‟s ears. Phonetics is also concerned with how we

perceive and interpret speech and how we recognise its structural elements as

2 | Rima Andriani Sari; Ni Luh Putu Sri Adnyani; Putu Eka Dambayana Suputra;

I Wayan Pastika; I Nyoman Suparwa

certain linguistic symbols or signs. Phonetic transcriptions are written using

the square brackets symbol [ ].

There are three major branches of phonetics:

1) Articulatory phonetics: The study of how sounds are produced.

2) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the acoustic characteristics of speech,

which looks at the physical properties of speech sounds, such as

frequency, duration, and intensity. The study of acoustic phonetics

requires laboratory instruments or, nowadays, computer software. One

example of software which can be used is ELAN, where we can see the

frequency and time intervals of the sounds produced.

Figure 1.1 Analysing sounds using ELAN

3) Auditory phonetics: The study of speech perception, or the way sounds

are heard and interpreted.

Why do we need to study phonetics? First of all, speech is the most

important means of communication. Second, when we learn a foreign

language, for example, as Indonesians learn English, we may face some

problems. These problems may be, for example, difficulties in pronouncing


certain sounds and in hearing words or utterances. When we mispronounce

words, it may lead to misunderstanding. Furthermore, as learning a foreign

language is also part of intercultural communication, mispronunciation may

also cause awkward situations. Let‟s look at the following situations:

a) Two people met during their holiday. One day, they had dinner together

in a fancy restaurant:

Philip : What would you like to eat?

Hu : I‟d like to eat some soap.

Philip : Excuse me?



b) At the playground:

Sara : How old is Sofia?

Maria : She is sick.

Sara : What happened to her?

Maria : I don‟t understand.

Sara : You said she is sick.

Maria : Oh, sorry, I mean she is six years old, not sick.

c) Two friends met each other at the parking lot:

John : Hi, where have you been?

Pedro : I went to the doctor.

John : What did he say?

Pedro : I have to go to the hospital.


John : Why?

Pedro : They have to taste my blood.

John : No! What do you mean?

Pedro : They have to find out if I suffer from anaemia.

John : Oh, you mean test!

So, in order to avoid mispronunciation, which is also a way to avoid

misunderstanding, phonetics will teach us how to correctly produce sounds.

In this sense, how to properly pronounce words or how words are supposed

to be pronounced is the task of phonetics. Besides, as learners of a foreign

language, we can also correct our own pronunciation mistakes.

B. Phonology

Phonology deals with the sound systems of a language or the patterns of

sounds, particularly the different patterns of sounds in different languages.

Phonology is also concerned with patterns of sounds within a language.

Every language has different sound systems. Indonesians, from birth, are



exposed to Indonesian phonological systems and learn to produce the

distinctive sounds which exist in the Indonesian language. When we were

small, our parents did not teach us, for example, what we had to do with our

lips or our tongue, or how we should treat the air that comes out of the lungs

in order to produce a „p‟ or an „l‟. In short, they did not say: “Well, Baby, I

will now tell you how to produce an „l‟. Bring the tip of your tongue to the

alveolar ridge and then let the air go through the sides of the tongue.” No,

they did not teach us how to produce sounds in that way. In learning our

native language, we did not have to think about how to pronounce certain

sounds. We naturally adapt, or our speech organs naturally adapt themselves,

to our native language.

“ Baby...bring the tip of the tounge between your

lower teeth and upper teeth. Like this!”


When we learn English as a foreign language, there are some speech

sounds which do not exist in Indonesian phonological systems.

Consequently, we may have some difficulties in pronouncing certain sounds

or in understanding the meaning of words. For this reason, we often replace

certain sounds that we find hard to pronounce. Our difficulties in producing

certain English sounds are due to the different phonological systems in

English and Indonesian.

Phonology is concerned with which sounds mark differences within a

language or which sounds mark a difference in meaning between two words.

The sounds that can mark differences within a language are called phonemes.

In this sense, a phoneme is a phonic segment which can differentiate

meaning. Phonemic transcriptions are indicated by using a slash / /. In order

to check whether a phonic segment is a phoneme, we need to look at

minimal pairs. A minimal pair is a pair of words where there is only a single

phonological difference between both words. Take, for example, the

following set of words in English:

park-bark

pig-big

push-bush

tin-din

town-down

tip-dip

sip-zip

sap-zap

sink-zinc



From the set of words, we can see that /p/ and /b/ are two different

phonemes, since the two phonic segments are the only different elements

within the set of words, and they can therefore differentiate meaning. A

similar situation can be observed in the case of /t/ and /d/, while different

meanings are also highlighted by the difference between /s/ and /z/.

Phonology also deals with sounds that do not mark any difference in a

language, in the way that they do not result in any difference in meaning.

Sounds that do not mark any difference in meaning are called allophones.

Examples of allophones are also found in English. For example, phonic

segments „p‟, „t‟, and „k‟ are aspirated when they are placed in the initial

syllable of a word. On the other hand, they are unaspirated after /s/. Let‟s

take a look at the following examples:

[ph] as in pot

put

pen

[th ] as in top

tap

test

[kh ] as in kick

can

could

[p] as in spot

spit

split


[t] as in stop

stink

station

[k] as in scan

scramble

skew

C. Transcription

When we deal with phonetics and phonology, we need to familiarise

ourselves with phonetic transcription. In English, the spelling of words is not

always the same as how the words are pronounced. Let‟s take a look at the

following words:

breath peak

/ɛ/ /i/

has speak

/z/ /s/

Even though the words „breath‟ and „peak‟ both contain „ea‟, the „ea‟ in

„breath‟ and in „peak‟ have different sounds. The sound of „ea‟ in „breath‟ is

/ɛ/ and in „peak‟ it is /i/. A similar situation can be seen in the words „has‟

and „speak‟. In both words, there is an „s‟. Yet, the „s‟ in the word „has‟ is

pronounced /z/, while in „speak‟ the sound is /s/. Therefore, with phonetic

transcription, we can distinguish the sounds of vowels and consonants.

What we have to keep in mind is that phonetic symbols are unique and

they are consistent across languages. For instance, the sound /ɛ/ in every

language is the same. In order words, if you learn a new language, and you

10 | Rima Andriani Sari; Ni Luh Putu Sri Adnyani; Putu Eka Dambayana

Suputra; I Wayan Pastika; I Nyoman Suparwa

can read phonetic symbols or the phonetic alphabet, then you will know how

the words in that language are pronounced.

The following is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), taken from

International Phonetic Association (2015).


Not all consonants and vowels available in the chart exist in English.

What we see in the chart are consonants and vowels that are found across

languages. There are two different types of transcriptions. The first is

phonemic transcription, using the slash / / as a sign. Phonemic transcription

is more general and is usually used in dictionaries. It shows how words are

pronounced in general. The second is phonetic transcription. Phonetic

transcription is more specific. It shows how individual speakers pronounce

words, using [ ] as a sign.

Exercise

1. What is phonetics concerned with?

2. What differentiates phonology from phonetics?

3. How do you check whether or not a phonic sound can differentiate

meaning?

4. Give three sets of words that only differ in one phonological element.

5. Give two sets of words that have different sounds but do not differentiate

meaning.

6. How important is transcription in phonetics and phonology?

7. Give examples of words that have the same spelling but different sounds.


CHAPTER-2 THE SPEECH ORGANS

Course Objectives:


1. know the different organs of speech

2. know the function of each organ in the production of speech sounds

3. know the different production of sounds

A. The Speech Organs

Now that we have learned about the study of sounds, let‟s learn about

how we produce speech sounds. In producing speech sounds, we use the

speech organs. They are also known as vocal organs. The speech organs

include three parts of the human body: the lungs, the vocal folds, and, most

importantly, the articulators (Harmer, 2001, p. 28). The explanation below

is based on the order of where we start producing sounds.

1. The Lungs

The lungs are the primary organs of respiration in humans and many

animals. The lungs pump the air in and out of the body through the mouth or

the nostrils. The airflow is the most important requirement for producing

speech sounds. As you can see in Figure 2.1, the lungs have two parts: right

and left. The air is pushed out by the lungs through the trachea (or the

windpipe) to the larynx. Inside the larynx, we find the vocal folds.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respiratory_system



Figure 2.1: The lungs

2. The Vocal Folds

Everyone has two vocal folds in their larynx. The vocal folds (also called the

vocal cords) are like a pair of lips placed horizontally from front to back

(Roach, 2009, p. 28). They are joined in the front, but can be separated at the

back. The opening between them is called the glottis. The glottis is

considered to be in an open state when the folds are apart, and when the folds

are pressed together, the glottis is considered to be in a closed state.

Larynx

Trachea

Left lung Right lung

Diaphragm


Figure 2.2: The vocal folds

The opening of the vocal folds takes two different basic positions (Yule,

2006, p. 46):

1. When the vocal folds are spread apart, they do not vibrate. The air

from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Sounds produced in

such a position are called voiceless sounds. In English, some

consonants are voiceless.

2. When the vocal folds are drawn together, they touch each other or

nearly touch. The pressure of the air coming from the lungs makes

them vibrate. Sounds produced in such a way are called voiced

sounds. In English, all the vowel sounds and some consonants are

voiced.

front

back

Glottis

Vocal folds

Arytenoid

cartilages



Figure 2.3: Vocal cords in open and closed positions

It has been said by many experts that voiced and voiceless sounds can

be felt physically if you place your fingertip on the top of your Adam‟s apple

and then produce sounds, such as Z-Z-Z-Z or G-G-G-G. These are voiced

sounds since you can feel some vibration. Now, if you make the sounds S-S-

S-S or K-K-K-K, these are voiceless sounds, meaning there is no vibration.

Wide apart Narrow glottis

Nearly touching Tighly closed


3. The Articulators

Figure 2.4: Human Speech Organs

a. Lips

b. Teeth

c. Alveolar ridge

d. Hard palate

e. Soft palate

f. Oral cavity

g. Epiglottis

h. Vocal folds

i. Pharynx

j. Nasal cavity

k. Tongue tip

a

b

c

d e

f

g

h

i

j

k

l m



l. Tongue blade

m. Tongue back

Seven of the articulators shown above are the main ones used in speech

(Roach, 2009, pp. 9-10). They are:

1. The pharynx, which is a tube just above the larynx. Women and men

have different pharynx lengths. Women have a length of about 7 cm,

while it is about 8 cm for men. At its top end, the pharynx is divided into

two: one part is the back of the oral cavity and the other is the beginning

of the way through to the nasal cavity. You can see the back of the

pharynx if you look in your mirror with your mouth open.

2. The velum or soft palate is at the back of your mouth. It allows air to

pass sometimes through the nose and sometimes through the mouth. In

speech, it is often raised so that the air cannot escape through the nose.

The other important thing about the velum is that it is one of the

articulators that can be touched by the tongue.

3. The hard palate can be found at the top of the mouth, which is why it is

often called the „roof of the mouth‟. It has a smooth curved surface.

4. The alveolar ridge is between the top front teeth and the hard palate. Its

surface is rough and it is covered with little ridges. You can feel this with

your tongue.

5. The tongue is a very important articulator. It can be moved into many

different position and different shapes. Experts usually divide the tongue

into five different parts: tip, blade, front, back, and root.


Figure 2.5: Sub-divisions of the tongue

The shape and the position of the tongue are especially important for the

production of vowel sounds, which we will discuss in Chapter 4.

6. The teeth are divided into two: the upper and lower teeth. They are

located immediately behind the lips. When the tongue is in contact with

the upper side teeth, many speech sounds are produced.

7. The lips are also divided into two: the upper and lower lips. They are

important in speech. The upper and the lower lips can be pressed together

to produce the sounds [p] and [b]. The lips are brought into contact with

the teeth when we produce sounds [f] and [v], or we can make the lips

rounded to produce vowels like [u] or [o]. The lips can take different

shapes and positions. Therefore, lip-rounding is considered as a major

tip

front blade

root

back



criterion for describing vowel sounds. The lips may have the following

positions (Roach, 2009, p. 15):

a. Rounded: When we pronounce certain vowels, our lips may be

rounded, a position where the corners of the lips are brought towards

each other and the lips are pushed forwards. The resulting vowel from

this position is a rounded vowel, for example, [ʊ].

b. Spread: The lips can be spread. In this position, the corners of the lips

are moved away from each other (e.g. when we smile). The vowel that

we articulate from this position is an unrounded or spread one, for

example, [i].

c. Neutral: The lips are said to be in a neutral position when the lips are

not rounded or spread. For example, in English [ɑ:] (as in when we

say “e” in hesitation) is a vowel with neutral lips.

Figure 2.6: vowel lip postures

rounded

spread

neutral


B. The Production of Sounds

When we produce sounds, the air goes out of the lungs, through the

trachea, and then through the mouth or nose. The position of the vocal cords

can be open or closed. When we articulate certain sounds, there are three

major questions that need to be considered. First, what is the position of the

vocal cords? Are they closed or open? If the vocal cords are closed, the air

coming out of the lungs will push the closed vocal cords, causing them to

vibrate. The sounds then produced are called voiced sounds. However, when

the vocal cords are open, the air comes out of the lungs, and moves freely

through the vocal folds. In this case, the vocal cords will not vibrate. The

sounds then produced are called voiceless sounds.

Second, what is the position of the velum? Is it closing off the entrance

to the nose or leaving it open? When the velum is securely attached to the

back of the throat, letting no air out through the nose, then the air will pass

through the mouth or the oral cavity. In such a case, the sounds produced are

called oral sounds. On the other hand, when the velum does not connect to

the back of the throat and lets the air pass through the nose, then the sounds

produced are called nasal sounds.

Third, is there any obstruction of the air which comes from the lungs by

any of the articulators? If the sounds produced are not obstructed by any of

the articulators, and the air comes out freely through the mouth, then the

sounds produced are called vowels. On the contrary, the case may be that the

air flowing from the lungs is obstructed by parts of the articulators, for

instance, the obstruction is caused by contact with certain parts of the mouth

with another part. For example, in producing the sounds [p] and [b], the air

which comes out from the lungs is obstructed by the two lips being in tight

contact with each other. Therefore, the air does not come out freely from the

mouth. The airstream is then released when the mouth is open.



Exercises

1. Draw the human speech organs and name the articulators. Don‟t look

at the book when you do this.

2. How can you differentiate between voiced and voiceless consonants?

What are some examples of the sounds?

3. Which articulators are important in producing vowels, and which

articulators are important in producing consonants?

4. State the three positions of the lips in producing different sounds.

5. Which of the following words normally end with voiceless sounds

and which end with voiced sounds? Put a tick on the space:

map ___ cab ___ make ___

sun ___ staff ___ drive ___

bush ___ mud ___ cloth ___

6. What is the position of the lips when we say the sounds [u] and [i]?


CHAPTER-3 VOICING, PLACE OF

ARTICULATION, AND MANNER OF ARTICULATION

Course Objectives:


1) distinguish between voiced and voiceless sounds

2) know places of articulation

3) know manner of articulation

When we talk about consonant sounds, there are different methods of

categorising them: voicing, place of articulation, and manner of articulation.

The sounds are named based on this particular order: first, whether the sound

is voiced or voiceless, second, its place of articulation, and third, its manner

of articulation.

A. Voicing

As we have seen in Chapter 2 regarding the human speech organs, the

vocal folds play an important role in making voiced and voiceless sounds.

The opening of the vocal folds takes two different basic positions (Yule,

2006, p. 46).



B. Places of articulation

In the production of speech sounds, the organs in the upper mouth

can be described as places of articulation (also points of articulation), and

those in the lower part of the mouth are the articulators. The term „places of

articulation‟ is also used to name the location inside the mouth at which the

constriction takes place.

Consonant sounds are categorised based on places of articulation,

manner of articulation, and voicing. To describe the places of articulation of

most consonant sounds, we can start at the front of the mouth and work back.

Below are the seven places of articulation (Yule, 2010, pp. 28-30), based on

the order from the front part of the mouth.

Bilabials

Bilabials or bilabial sounds are produced by pressing the upper and

the lower lips together. These sounds are [p], [b], [m], and [w], as in

the initial sounds of the words put, back, mother, and woman.


Labiodentals

Labiodentals are produced by pressing the upper teeth and the lower

lip together. The sounds produced are [f] and [v], as in the initial

sounds of the words photo and very.

Dentals

Dentals are produced by placing the tongue tip behind the upper front

teeth. The sounds corresponding to this are [ð] and [Ɵ], which can be

found in the initial sounds of the words thick and they.

Alveolars

An alveolar sound is produced by putting the front part of the tongue

on the alveolar ridge. The sounds produced are [t], [d], [tʃ], [dʒ], [n],

[l], [s], and [z]. These sounds are found in the initial sounds of the

words time, die, champ, judge, now, lamp, say, and zip.



Palatals

If you feel the roof of your mouth, just behind the alveolar ridge, it

feels hard. This is called the hard palate or the palate. Sounds

produced with the tongue and the palate are called palatals (also

alveo-palatals). The sounds are [ʃ], [ʧ], [ʒ], [ʤ], and [j]. Examples of

[ʃ] and [ʧ] are the initial sounds in the words shave and chips. The

sound represented by the symbol [ʒ] is not very common in

English, but it can be found as the middle sound in words like

treasure and pleasure. The palatal [ʤ] can be found in the initial

sound in words like jam and gem, even though they have a

different spelling of “j” and “g”. One other voiced palatal is the [j]

sound, used at the beginning of words like you and yet.

Velars

The production of velar sounds is made by placing the back of the

tongue against the velum. The velum is the soft part beyond the hard

palate, which is why it is also called the soft palate. Velar sounds are

represented by the symbols [k], [ɡ], and [ŋ]. The sound [k] occurs in

the initial sounds of kid and car. The sound [ɡ] appears in the initial

sound of get and give. The last velar, represented by the symbol [ŋ],

is normally spelled as the two letters “ng.” This sound is only found

in the middle or final position in words such as sing and tongue.


Glottal

This sound is produced without any movement of the tongue or other

parts of the mouth. This sound is produced in the glottis, which is the

space between the vocal cords and the larynx. It is the sound [h]

which occurs at the beginning of have and house.

C. Manner of Articulation

Consonants may also be grouped according to how the sounds are

produced. This is called the manner of articulation. English has six groups of

consonant sounds: stops, fricatives, affricates, nasals, liquids, and glides

(Crane, 1981; Yule, 2010, pp. 31-33).

Stops or plosives

The manner of articulation of stop or plosive sounds is produced by

the complete „stopping‟ of the airstream and then abruptly letting it

go. Air pressure from the lungs builds up and is suddenly released in

a sharp burst of sound. Of all the sounds we have learned, the sounds



[p], [b], [t], [d], [k], and [ɡ] are all produced by some form of

„stopping‟ the air stream (very briefly) and then abruptly letting it go.

Fricatives

The manner of articulation used in producing the set of sounds [f],

[v], [θ], [ð], [s], [z], [ʃ], and [ʒ] involves almost blocking the air

stream and having the air push through the very narrow opening. As

the air is pushed through, a type of friction is produced, and the

resulting sounds are called fricatives. If, for example, you put your

palm in front of your mouth when producing fricative sounds, you

will feel the stream of air being pushed out. The usual pronunciation

of the word flash begins and ends with the fricatives [f] and [ʃ].

Affricates

The manner of articulation of affricate sounds is produced by

combining a stop and a fricative. Therefore, there is a brief stopping,

followed by an obstructed release, which results in some friction.

There are two affricate sounds in English: the sounds [ʧ] and [ʤ]. For

example, these sounds occur at the beginning of the words champ and

joy.

Nasals

The manner of articulation of nasal sounds is produced by lowering

the velum and allowing the airstream to flow out through the nose to

produce nasal sounds. Most sounds are produced in the oral cavity or

mouth, with the velum raised, preventing the airflow from entering

the nasal cavity. However, sounds may also be produced in the nasal


cavity or nose. The velum is lowered, and the air stream is allowed to

flow out through the nose, with the resulting sounds described as

nasals. The sounds are [m], [n], and [ŋ]. The words man, knocking,

and name begin and end with nasals.

Liquids

Liquids are formed by letting the air stream flow around the sides of

the tongue as the tip of the tongue makes contact with the middle of

the alveolar ridge. The initial sounds in lamp and run are described as

liquids. In this sense, [l] and [r] are categorised in these sounds. An

[l] sound is produced by touching the tip of the tongue to the alveolar

ridge and allowing air to escape over each side of the tongue. The [r]

sound is formed by curling the tip of the tongue up behind the

alveolar ridge and flipping it forward and backward without actually

touching the alveolar ridge.

Glides

The sounds [w] and [j] are described as glides. They occur at the

beginning of wet, why, young, and yes. These sounds are produced

with the tongue in motion (or „gliding‟) to or from the position of a

vowel, and they are sometimes called semi-vowels. In some

approaches, the liquids [l] and [r] and glides [w] and [j] are combined

into one category called “approximants.”

Glottal stops

The glottal stop, represented by the symbol [ʔ], occurs when the

space between the vocal folds (the glottis) is closed completely (very

briefly) and then released, e.g. when we say oh oh! Between the first



oh and the second oh, we typically produce a glottal stop. You can

also produce a glottal stop if you try to say the words butter or bottle

without pronouncing the “tt” part in the middle.

Having described the details of voicing, the places, and the manner of

articulation of English consonant sounds, we can summarise the basic

information in Table 3.1. Along the top of the chart are the different labels

for places of articulation and under each one are the labels –V (=voiceless)

and +V (=voiced). Also included in the table, on the left-hand side, is a set of

terms used to describe the manner of articulation.

Table 3.1: The English Consonants

Bilabial Labiodental Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal

-v +v -v +v

-

v +v -v +v

-

v +v -v +v -v +v

Stops p b T d k g

Fricatives

f v θ ð S z ʃ ʒ

h

Affricates

ʧ ʤ

Nasals

m

n

ŋ

Liquids

l r

Glides

w

j

From the chart, we can then name sound [p], for example, as a voiceless

bilabial stop, sound [ʒ] as a voiced palatal fricative, and sound [l] as a voiced

alveolar liquid.


Exercises

1. Try to pronounce the initial sounds of the following words and

identify the place of articulation of each one (e.g. bilabial, alveolar,

etc.):

(a) cool ________

(b) cherry _______

(c) phonetic _______

(d) goal ________

(e) help _______

(f) know _______

(g) morning _______

(h) page ________

(i) trip _________

(j) shapeless ________

(k) street ________

(l) thumb________

2. Identify the manner of articulation of the initial sounds in the

following words (e.g. stop, fricative, etc.):

(a) chain ______

(b) face ______

(c) male _______

(d) cranberry ______

(e) jumper ______

(f) sit ________

(g) dozen ______

(h) lost ______

(i) windy _______



3. Which of the following words normally end with voiceless (−V)

sounds, and which end with voiced (+V) sounds?

(a) song ______

(b) buzz______

(c) bright ______

(d) push ______

(e) crap______

(f) read ______

(g) dine ______

(h) smock ______

(i) seem ______

4. How can you differentiate between voiced and voiceless sounds?

5. Draw the English consonant chart and compare it to the consonant

chart of Bahasa Indonesia.

6. Name the following sounds based on their order:

(a) [g]

______________________________________________

(b) [f]

______________________________________________

(c) [Ɵ]

______________________________________________

(d) [r]

______________________________________________

(e) [d]

_____________________________________________

(f) [s]

_____________________________________________


(g) [ð]

_____________________________________________

(h) [ʃ]

_____________________________________________

(i) [n]

_____________________________________________


CHAPTER-4 THE ENGLISH VOWELS

Course Objectives:


1) learn the production of English short vowels

2) listen to examples of words containing short vowels

3) practice pronouncing words containing short vowels

4) provide words containing short vowels in all positions and transcribe

them

5) learn the production of English long vowels

6) listen to examples of words containing long vowels

7) practice pronouncing words containing long vowels

8) provide words containing long vowels in all positions and transcribe

them

While the consonant sounds are mostly articulated via closure or

obstruction in the vocal tract, vowel sounds are produced with a relatively

free flow of air. They are all typically voiced. To describe vowel sounds, we

consider the way in which the tongue influences the shape through which the

airflow must pass. To talk about a place of articulation, we think of the space

inside the mouth as having a front versus a back and a high versus a low

area. Thus, in the pronunciation of heat and hit, we talk about „high front‟

vowels because the sound is made with the front part of the tongue in a

raised position.



In contrast, the vowel sound in hat is produced with the tongue in a

lower position, and the sound in hot can be described as a „low back‟ vowel.

The next time you are facing the bathroom mirror, try saying the words heat,

hit, hat, and hot. For the first two, your mouth will stay fairly closed, but for

the last two, your tongue will move lower and cause your mouth to open

wider. (The sounds of relaxation and pleasure typically contain lower

vowels). See how to pronounce vowels [i], [u], and [a] in Figure 4.1. Pay

attention to the tongue position.

Figure 4.1: Tongue position in producing vowels [i], [u], and [a]

The terminology for describing vowel sounds in English (e.g. „high

front‟) is usually based on their position in a chart, like the one shown in

i

u

a


Figure 4.2 (based on Ladefoged, 2006), which provides a means of

classifying the most common vowel sounds. Following the chart, Table 4.1

contains a list of the major vowels, with examples of familiar words in order

to illustrate some of the variations in spelling possible for each sound.

Figure 4. 2: The primary cardinal vowels

Table 4.1: List of the major vowels

Front vowels Central vowels Back vowels

[i:] bead, beef, key, me

[ɪ] bid, myth, women

[e] bed, dead, said

[æ] bad, laugh, wrap

[ə] above, oven, support

[ʌ] butt, blood, dove,

tough

[u:] boo, move, two,

you

[ʊ] book, could, put

[ɔ] born, caught, fall,

raw

[ɑ] Bob, cot, swan

o

3

i

4 5

6

7

8

Front Central Back

ɛ

e

a

Close

Close-mid

Open-mid

Open

1

2

u

ɔ

ɑ



It has become traditional to locate cardinal vowels on a four-sided

figure (a quadrilateral of the shape seen in Figure 4.2). The design used here

is the one recommended by the International Phonetic Association. The

vowels in Figure 4.2 are called primary cardinal vowels, which are the most

familiar vowels to speakers of most European languages; there are other

cardinal vowels (secondary cardinal vowels) that sound less familiar.

Cardinal vowels are printed within square brackets [ ] in order to distinguish

them clearly from English vowel sounds. As you can see from Table 4.1,

vowels can be categorised into short and long vowels, which we will discuss

in separate subchapters.

English Short Vowels

English has a large number of vowel sounds, and the first ones to be

examined are the short vowels. The symbols for the short vowels are: [i], [e],

[æ], [ʌ], [ɒ], and [u]. Short vowels are only relatively short; as we shall see

later, vowels can have quite different lengths in different contexts. Each

vowel is described in relation to the cardinal vowels (Roach, 2009).

Figure 4.3: English short vowels

ɪ ʊ

æ

ʌ

ɒ

e


The lax high front vowel [ɪ] that occurs in bit, pin, and fish is produced in the

closed front area of the mouth. When compared with the cardinal vowel [i],

the vowel [ɪ] is more open and nearer to the centre. The lips are slightly

spread.

The mid front vowel [e], which is found in bet, men, and yes, is a front vowel

between cardinal vowel no. 2 [e] and no. 3 [ε]. The lips are slightly spread.

The low front vowel [æ] that occurs in bat, man, and gas is a front vowel.

However, it is not quite as open as cardinal vowel no. 4 [a]. The lips are

slightly spread.

The open-mid back vowel [ʌ] which exists in cut, come, and rush is a central

vowel. In Figure 4.3, we can see that it is more open than the open-mid

tongue height. The position of the lips is neutral.

The low back vowel [ɒ] which can be found in pot, gone, and cross is not

quite fully back. It is between open-mid and open in tongue height. The lips

are slightly rounded.

The lax high back vowel [ʊ] which is, for examples, found in put, pull, and

push is the nearest vowel to the cardinal vowel [u]. However, it can be seen

that [ʊ] is more open and nearer to the centre. The lips are rounded.

The last short vowel is the schwa [ə]. It is a central vowel that is a very

familiar sound in English. It can be found in the first syllable of the words

about, oppose, and perhaps.



When you are familiar with these vowels, you have learned a way of

describing, classifying, and comparing vowels. For example, we can say that

the English vowel [æ], as in cat, is not as open as cardinal vowel no. 7 [a].

We have now looked at how we can classify vowels according to their

tongue height and their frontness or backness. There is another important

variable of vowel quality, which is the lip-position. Although the lips can

have many different shapes and positions, we will, at this stage, consider

only three possibilities. These are:

i) Rounded, where the corners of the lips are brought towards each other and

the lips are pushed forward. This is most clearly seen in cardinal vowel

no. 8 [u].

ii) Spread, with the corners of the lips moved away from each other, as for a

smile. This is most clearly seen in cardinal vowel no. 1 [i].

iii) Neutral, where the lips are not noticeably rounded or spread. The noise

most English people make when they are hesitating (written 'er') has a

neutral lip position.

English Long Vowels

There are five long vowels in English. These are the vowels which

tend to be longer than the short vowels in similar contexts. It is necessary to

say "in similar contexts" because, as we shall see later, the length of all

English vowel sounds varies significantly according to their context (such as

the type of sound that follows them) and the presence or absence of stress.

To remind you that these vowels tend to be long, the symbols consist of one

vowel symbol plus a length mark made of two dots [:]. Thus, we have [ i:],


[ɜ:], [a:], [ɔ:], and [u:]. We will now look at each of these long vowels

individually.

Figure 4.4: Long English vowels

The five long vowels are different from the six short vowels

described previously, not only in length but also in quality. If we compare

some similar pairs of long and short vowels, for example [i] with [i:], or [u]

with [u:], or [æ] with [ɔ:], we can see distinct differences in quality (resulting

from differences in tongue shape and position, as well as lip position) and

length. For this reason, all the long vowels have symbols which are different

from the short vowels. You can see that the long and short vowel symbols

would still all be different from each other even if we omitted the length

mark, so it is important to remember that the length mark is used not because

it is essential, but because it helps learners to remember the length

difference.

i:

ɜ:

ɔ:

ɑ:

u:



Exercises

1. Using the descriptive labels introduced for vowel classification, say what

the following cardinal vowels are:

a) [u] b) [e] c) [a] d) [i] e) [o]

2. Draw a vowel quadrilateral and indicate the correct places for the

following English vowels:

a) [ʌ] b) [æ] c) [i] d) [e]

3. Write the symbols for the vowels in the following words:

a) bread b) rough c) foot d) hymn

e) pull f) cough g) mat h) friend

4. Write the symbols for the long vowels in the following words:

a) broad d) learn g) err

b) ward e) cool h) seal

c) calf f) team i) curl

5. Write the symbols for the diphthongs in the following words:

a) tone d) way g) hair

b) style e) beer h) why

c) out f) coil i) prey


CHAPTER-5 ENGLISH PLOSIVES

Course Objectives:


1. understand the production of English plosives

2. listen to examples of words containing English plosives

3. practice pronouncing words containing English plosives

4. provide words containing English plosives in all positions and transcribe

them

English plosives are the types of consonants produced by forming a

complete obstruction to the flow of air out of the mouth, increasing the air

pressure in the mouth, and then suddenly releasing the pressure. Plosives are

also called stops because the air coming out of the mouth is stopped or

blocked briefly by the articulators. There are three types of English plosives:

the bilabial plosives [p] and [b], the alveolar plosives [t] and [d], and the

velar plosives [k] and [g].

A. The English Bilabial Plosives [p] and [b]

When producing the sound [p], the flow of air coming out of the lungs is

stopped or restricted by the two lips. The channel to the nasal cavity is closed

by the velum. Then, the pressure of air in the mouth is abruptly released. The

[p] sound is produced when the vocal folds do not vibrate. Thus, the sound

[p] is called a voiceless-bilabial-plosive/stop. The term „voiceless‟ refers to

the state of the vocal folds, „bilabial‟ indicates the point of articulation, and



„plosive/stop‟ shows the manner of articulation. The production of [p] is

shown in Figure 5.1.

In English, the voiceless-bilabial-stop [p] is distributed in all word

positions. It can be found in initial, middle, and final positions. The

following examples show us the distribution of sound [p] in words or

syllables:

pick captain stop

put option lamp

pull spilt keep

paint spell map

pack space nap

Figure 5.1: The production of [p]


In English, the phoneme /p/ can be pronounced differently depending on

the distribution of the sound. Let‟s take a look at the following diagram.

/p/

[ph] [p]

The voiceless-bilabial-plosive is aspirated in the initial position of a syllable

or when it is in the stressed position. Aspiration is defined as an interval of

air heard between the end of the voiceless plosive and the following vowel.

The symbol used to show that there is an aspiration is [ h]. Aspirated [p

h] can

be found, for instance, in the words pick, put, pull, pack, and pen: [phɪk],

[phʊt], [p

hʊl], [p

hæk], and [p

hɛn]. However, when /p/ does not occur at the

beginning of a syllable or is found in an unstressed syllable, then /p/ is

unaspirated. The unaspirated [p] can be found in space, option, spill, spell,

lamp, and keep: [speɪs], [ɒpʃən], [spɪl], [spɛl], [læmp], and [ki:p]. So, we can

say that the relationship between [ph] and [p] is an allophonic relationship.

The next bilabial plosive is [b]. In order to produce [b], the two lips

form a complete obstruction to the flow of air. The air pressure increases in

the mouth, and then the air is abruptly let out. It is almost the same as the

production of [p]. The only difference is the state of the vocal folds. When

producing [p], the vocal folds do not vibrate, whereas the production of [b]

requires the vocal folds to vibrate. Therefore, sound [b] is called a voiced-

bilabial-plosive/stop. The production of [b] can be seen in Figure 5.2.



The voiced-bilabial-stop [b] is distributed in all word positions. It can

also be found in initial, middle, and final positions of words and syllables.

The following words show the distribution of sound [b] in words or

syllables:

bank abroad grab

break about snob

born label flab

bad abuse rib

block table garb

The phoneme /b/ is also pronounced differently. The phoneme /b/ can be

pronounced [b] as in break, born, bad, label, abuse, and abroad: [breɪk],

[bɔːn], [bɛd], [leɪbəl], [əˈbyuz], and [əˈbrɔːd]. However, it can be devoiced

Figure 5.2: The production of /b/


when it is in the final position and followed by silence, for instance, at the

end of an utterance. That is, the [b] sound loses its voiced characteristic. The

symbol used to show devoiced [b] is [ ]. The phonetic transcription for

devoicing is a small circle below the relevant symbol. The allophonic

relationship between [b] and [ ] can be seen in the following diagram:

/b/

[b] [ ]

Devoicing bilabial stop [b] can be found, for example, in phrases like the lab,

a big crab, and clerical garb: [ðə; læ ], [ə bɪg kræ ], and [klɛrɪkəl gɑr ].

B. The English Plosives [t] and [d]

The production of sound [t] involves the tip of the tongue touching the

alveolar ridge, which is the ridge just behind the upper front teeth. Thus, the

air that comes out from the lungs is completely blocked by the tip of the

tongue, which is in tight contact with the alveolar ridge. At the same time,

the velum closes the passage to the nasal cavity, stopping the air flowing

through the nose. When sound [t] is produced, the vocal folds vibrate. The

name of sound [t] is a voiceless-alveolar-plosive/stop. The production of [t]

can be seen in Figure 5.3.



The voiceless-alveolar-stop [t] in English can be found in all word

positions. It is distributed in the initial, middle, and final position of words

and syllables. The following set of words show the distribution of [t].

take potato put

taxi attack hat

tool dirty bet

ticket button thought

total disturb beat

The phoneme /t/ can also be pronounced differently, depending on its

position in the syllables. Phoneme /t/, for instance, can be pronounced as [t]

or [th]. The allophonic relationship can be shown by the following diagram:

Figure 5.3: The production of /t/


/t/

[th] [t]

Similar to /p/, phoneme /t/ will be aspirated, or pronounced [th], when it is in

the initial position of a syllable or in the stressed position. The aspiration is

found in words such as take, taxi, tool, tap, top, and potato: [theɪk], [t

hæksɪ],

[thu:l], [t

hæp], [t

hɒp], and [pəˈt

heɪtəʊ] However, when /t/ does not occur at

the beginning of a syllable or is found in an unstressed syllable, then the /t/ is

unaspirated. The unaspirated [t] can be found in party, dirty, button, and

distance: [pɑːtɪ], [dɜːtɪ], [bʌtən], [dɪstəns], and [ɛntə].

The other alveolar stop is [d]. The production of sound [d] is almost the

same as the production of sound [t]. The only difference is the state of the

vocal folds. In order to produce the [d] sound, the vocal folds need to vibrate.

Hence, sound [d] is called a voiced-alveolar-stop. The production of sound

[d] can be seen in Figure 5.4.

Figure 5.4: The production of /d/



The voiced-alveolar-stop [d] is distributed in all word positions. In

English, it can be found in the initial, middle, and final positions, as can be

seen in the following set of words:

dumb redo dead

done body bride

die educate gold

dust lady guide

dinner undo lid

Phoneme /d/ is also pronounced differently. It can be devoiced [ ] when

it is in final position and followed by silence, as in the end of an utterance.

Therefore, [d] and [ ] are said to have an allophonic relationship.

/d/

[d] [ ]

Phoneme /d/ pronounced as [d] can be found in the words dog, dark,

diagram, double, and pardon; [dɒɡ], [dɑːk], [daɪəɡræm], [ˈdʌbəl], and

[pɑrdn]. In the following phrases, /d/ is pronounced as [

so good [səʊ gʊ ]

some food [sʌm fu: ]

red blood [rɛd blʌ ]


C. The English Plosives [k] and [g]

In producing [k], the air that comes out from the lungs is completely

blocked by the back part of the tongue touching the velum. At the same time,

the velum closes the passage through to the nasal cavity, preventing the air

from flowing through the nose. Then, the air is abruptly released. When

sound [k] is produced, the vocal folds do not vibrate. Therefore, the name of

sound [k] is a voiceless-velar-plosive/stop. The production of sound [k] is

shown in Figure 5.5.

Figure 5.5: The production of /k/



The voiceless-velar-stop [k] can be found in all word positions. It may

occur in the initial, middle, and final positions. The distribution of [k] can be

seen in the following list of words:

keep locker like

kind taken click

king parking tank

key circle pick

karate calculate prank

Like /p/ and /t/, in English, phoneme /k/ can also be pronounced

differently. It becomes aspirated [kh] when it is at the beginning of a syllable

or in the stressed position.

/k/

[kh] [k]

For example, aspirated [kh] is found in keep, kind, king, key, and karate:

[khi:p], [k

haɪnd], [k

hɪŋ], [k

hi:], and [k

həˈrɑːtɪ], while unaspirated [k] can be

seen in locker, taken, parking, and circle: [lɒkə], [teɪkən], [pɑːkɪŋ], and

[sɜːkəl]. We can say that [k] and [kh] have an allophonic relationship.

The other velar stop is [g]. The production of sound [g] is the same as

the production of [k], where the back part of the tongue touches the velum

and the velum blocks the channel through the nasal cavity. However, while

in the production of [k] the vocal folds do not vibrate, in producing sound

[g], the vocal folds have to vibrate. Hence, sound [g] is called a voiced-velar-

plosive/stop. The production of [g] can be seen in Figure 5.6.


The voiced-velar-stop [g] exists in all word positions. It can be found in

the initial, middle, and final positions, as can be seen in the following

examples:

good logo flog

grab struggle slug

great degree wag

gap regular egg

guest login flag

Phoneme /g/ can also be pronounced differently when /g/ occurs in the

final position and is followed by silence. In this case, when the sound exists

at the end of an utterance, then /g/ is devoiced. Therefore /g/ can be

pronounced as [g] or [ ]. In this case, devoicing is indicated in a phonetic

transcription by a small circle above the relevant symbol:

Figure 5.6: The production of /g/



/g/

[g] [ ]

Phoneme /g/ is pronounced as [g] can be found in goat, gone and begin.

It is pronounced as [ and can be seen in the following phrases:

My dog [maɪ dɒ ]

The red bag [ðə rɛd bæ ]

A big bug [ə bɪg bʌ ]

Exercise

1) Please check the place of articulation of the consonants in the following

sets of words. You are going to circle the words which do not have a

consonant with the place of articulation for that set:

bilabial Purple Comb crack beyond lid

alveolar thumb distance turtle breath yawn

velar Grab Book leader crab walk

2) Write the phonetic symbols for the following words:

a. pan

b. pot

c. bread

d. grab

e. pancake

f. try


g. dragon

h. pick

i. dirty

j. can

3) Describe the process for the production of sounds in each

picture:

a.

b.



c.

4) Give examples of words containing the following sounds:

a. Voiceless bilabial stop

b. Voiced bilabial stop

c. Voiceless alveolar stop

d. Voiced alveolar stop

e. Voiceless velar stop

f. Voiced velar stop


CHAPTER-6 ENGLISH FRICATIVES

Course Objectives:


1. understand the production of English fricatives

2. listen to examples of words containing English fricatives

3. practice pronouncing words containing English fricatives

4. provide words containing English fricatives in all positions and

transcribe them

A. The English Fricatives /f/ and /v/

The sound [f] is produced by impeding the flow of air, where the lower

lip is elevated to touch the upper teeth so that a friction sound is produced. In

other words, we create friction by raising the lower lip when it touches the

upper teeth. At the same time, the velum closes the nasal cavity in order to

prevent the flow of air going through the nose. When the sound [f] is

produced, the vocal folds do not vibrate. So, the sound [f] is called a

voiceless-labiodental-fricative. The production of [f] can be seen in Figure

6.1.



The voiceless-labiodental-fricative can be found in all positions, such as

in the initial, middle, and final positions. Below are some examples of words

containing the fricative [f] sound:

fast refuse reef

fit prefer belief

phone reform deaf

photograph define enough

food perform rough

The voiceless-labiodental fricative has no allophones. Orthographically,

the [f] sound can be spelled in three different ways: 1) „f‟, as in the words

fast and fit, 2) „ph‟, as in the words phone and photograph, and 3) „gh‟, as in

the words enough and rough.

Next, we are going to discuss the fricative [v]. This fricative consonant

is called the voiced-labiodental-fricative. In order to produce [v], the lower

Figure 6.1: The production of /f/


lip also touches the upper lip and creates friction when the pressure of

airflow is released through the narrow space between the lower lip and the

upper teeth. It is a voiced sound because the vocal folds vibrate. The

production of [v] can be seen in Figure 6.2.

The voiced-labiodental-fricative is found in all positions, such as in

the initial, middle, and final positions, as can be observed in the following

words:

vain never receive

vague favourite love

valid lover of

verbal favour save

velar nervous grave

Figure 6.2: The production of /v/



The sound [v] can be spelled with the letter „v‟, as in vain and vas, or

sometimes with the letter „f‟, as in the word of.

B. The English Fricatives /θ/ and /ð/

In order to produce /θ/, we need to create friction between the tip of the

tongue and the upper teeth. In this sense, the friction is caused by the

pressure of the air going through the narrow space in the mouth, in this case,

between the tip of the tongue and the upper teeth. To produce the sound, you

need to stick out the tip of the tongue and placed it between the upper and the

lower teeth. It is a voiceless sound because, in producing /θ/, the vocal folds

do not vibrate. Therefore, the sound / θ / is called the voiceless-dental-

fricative. The production of / θ / can be seen in Figure 6.3.

Figure 6.3: The production of /θ/


The voiceless-dental-fricative can be found in all positions. Here are

some words were the sound can be placed in initial, middle, or final position:

thought author width

three ethyl breath

threat python birth

thirsty either with

thump wealthy bath

The sound /θ/ is usually spelled with the letters „th‟, as in the words thought,

three, and threat.

The other dental fricative sound is /ð/. This consonant is called the

voiced-dental-fricative. In order to produce /ð/, we also need to create

friction between the tongue and the upper teeth. The friction is created

through the release of the pressure of air through the narrow space between

the tip of the tongue and the upper teeth. In order to produce the sound, you

also need to stick the tip of the tongue out and place it between the upper and

lower teeth. It is a voiced sound since it requires you to vibrate the vocal

folds. The production of sound /ð/ can be seen in Figure 6.4.



The voiced-dental-fricative can be found in initial, middle, and final

positions, as shown by the following list of words:

though brother breathe

thus neither bathe

this either clothe

their leather with

the weather booth

The sound /ð/ is spelled with the letters „th‟, as in though, thus, the, booth,

with, weather, and either.

Figure 6.4: The production of / ð/


C. The English Fricatives /s/ and /z/

In order to produce the /s/ sound, we need to raise the blade of the

tongue to touch the alveolar ridge. The stream of air is impeded and let out

through the sides of the tongue. The velum closes the nasal cavity,

preventing the air coming through that channel. To produce the sound, we do

not need to vibrate the vocal folds. Therefore, the /s/ sound is voiceless. The

/s/ sound is called the voiceless-alveolar-fricative. The production of /s/ can

be seen in Figure 6.5.

Figure 6.5: The production of /s/



The voiceless-alveolar fricative can be found in initial, middle, and final

positions, as shown by the following list of words:

sand sensitive science

sold lesson boss

soon absolute relax

scene tasty sentence

section mason release

The sound /s/ is usually spelled with the letter „s‟, as in sand, sold, soon, and

section. However, sometimes, it can also be spelled using the letter „c‟, as in

cinema and city.

The other alveolar fricative is the sound /z/. The production of the /z/

sound is the same as the production of /s/, i.e. by touching the alveolar ridge

with the blade of the tongue and letting the air out through the sides of the

tongue. In order to produce /z/, we need to vibrate the vocal folds. Hence, the

/z/ sound is called the voiced-alveolar-fricative. The production of /z/ can be

seen in Figure 6.6.

Figure 6.6: The production of /z/


The voiced-alveolar-fricative can be found in all positions. It may occur

in the beginning, middle, and final positions. The following are examples of

words where the /z/ sound occurs:

zoo dazzle size

zero puzzle tease

zing teaser wise

zip deposit shoes

zest buzzer wiz

The sound /z/ is usually spelled with the letter „z‟, as in zoo, zero, zip,

buzzer, and puzzle. However, it is also sometimes spelled with the letters

„se‟, as in wise, these, and because.

D. The English Fricatives /ʃ/ and /ʒ/

In producing the /ʃ/ sound, we need to create friction by allowing the

front part of the tongue touch the alveopalatal area and letting the airstream

out through the sides of the tongue. The velum closes the nasal cavity. The

vocal folds have to vibrate. The name of sound /ʃ/ is a voiceless-alveopalatal-

fricative, the production of which can be seen in Figure 6.7.



The voiceless-alveopalatal-fricative /ʃ/ can occur in the initial, middle,

and final positions, as shown by the following list of words:

shell rashes rush

she pressure blush

shy recognition wish

shack tension wash

ship tertiary fish

The sound /ʃ/ is usually spelled with the letters „sh‟, as in shell, she, shy,

and ship. It can also be spelled with the letters „ti‟, as in nation and mention.

It is also sometimes spelled with the letters „ci‟, as in official and special.

The other alveopalatal fricative is the sound /ʒ/. The production of /ʒ/is

the same as the production of / ʃ/, i.e. by creating friction in which the

Figure 6.7: The production of /ʃ/


airstream is let out through the sides of the tongue while the front part of the

tongue touches the alveopalatal area. To produce the sound, we need to

vibrate the vocal folds. Thus, sound /ʒ/ is called a voiced-alveopalatal

fricative, the production of which can be seen in Figure 6.8.

The voiced-alveopalatal-fricative is usually found in the middle and

final positions, as shown in the following examples:

- measure beige

- eligible rouge

- vision

- visual

- closure

Figure 6.8: The production of /ʒ/



The sound /ʒ/ is usually spelled with the letters „su‟, as in the words

measure, visual, and closure. However, it can also be spelled with the letters

„si‟, as in the words vision and version.

E. The English Fricatives /h/

Sound /h/ is called the voiceless-glottal-fricative. It is produced by

letting the airstream freely pass the vocals folds to come out through the

mouth, but the vocal folds do not vibrate. The /h/ sound does not require the

mouth to have any specific shape. The production of /h/ can be seen in

Figure 6.9.

Figure 6.9: The production of /h/


The voiceless-glottal-fricative sound /h/ is usually found in the initial

and middle positions.

hall ahead

high yahoo

hot behind

hat dishearten

hard dehydrate

The sound/h/ is usually spelled with the letter „h‟, as in the words hall,

hat, hard, ahead, and behind. However, it is also spelled with the letter „wh‟,

as in who and whom.

Exercise




labiodental fan vase pencil fried behave

dental brother zoo think cloth bath

alveolar sun zombie zero then salad

alveopalatal shampoo bush brush she horse

glottal shall house ham hand half


a. happy

b. think

c. path

d. thin

e. this



f. leather

g. exposure

h. usual

i. push

j. has

3) Describe the process for the production of sounds in each picture:

a.

b.


c.

4) Name the following sounds_

a. [s]

b. [z]

c. [θ]

d. [ð]

e. [ʃ]

f. [ʒ]

g. [f]

h. [v]

i. [h]


CHAPTER-7 ENGLISH AFFRICATES AND

ENGLISH NASALS

Course Objectives:


1. understand the production of English affricates

2. listen to examples of words containing English affricates

3. practice pronouncing words containing English affricates

4. provide words containing English affricates in all positions and

transcribe them

5. understand the production of English nasals

6. listen to examples of words containing English nasals

7. practice pronouncing words containing English nasals

8. provide words containing English nasals in all positions and transcribe

them

A. The English Affricates /ʧ/ and /ʤ/

The / ʧ / sound is called the voiceless-palatoalveolar-affricate. It is a

voiceless sound because, when we are producing the sound, the vocal folds

do not vibrate. The sound is produced by allowing the blade of the tongue to

touch the soft palate. It is an affricate sound since we create friction by, at

first, blocking the airstream through using the blade of the tongue to touch

the soft palate, and then the air pressure forces the blade of the tongue down



so that the air is allowed to go through a narrow space. The production of / ʧ

/ can be seen in Figure 7.1.

The voiceless alveopalatal affricate can be found in the initial, middle,

and final positions, as shown in the following examples:

chill kitchen teach

chat etcher pitch

chain picture switch

check mature watch

chip culture speech

The sound / ʧ / is usually spelled with the letters „ch‟, as in the words chill,

chat, check, and teach. However, it can also be spelled using the letters „tu‟,

as in the words picture, expenditure, and mature.

Figure 7.1: The production of /ʧ/


The other alveopalatal affricate is the sound /ʤ/. The production of

/ʤ/ is almost the same as the production of / ʧ /, i.e. by creating friction by at

first closing the flow of the air by using the blade of the tongue to touch the

soft palate, and then, as the air pressure forces the blade of the tongue down,

the air is let go through a narrow space. The sound /ʤ/ is voiced since we

need to vibrate the vocal folds when we are producing it. Therefore, sound

/ʤ/ is called a voiced-alveopalatal-affricate, the production of which can be

seen in Figure 7.2.

The voiced alveopalatal affricate can be found in all positions. It can be

placed at the beginning, middle, or final position in words, as can be seen in

the following list of examples:

jeans surgeon large

gender bludgeon wage

giant edger lodge

Figure 7.2: The production of /ʤ/



jib urgent garbage

jam emergency age

The sound /ʤ/ is usually spelled with the letter „j‟, as in jeans, jam, and

John. However, we can also find this sound spelled with the letters „ge‟, as in

the words gender, surgeon, and urgent. Occasionally, we also find the sound

/ʤ/ with the spelling „gi‟, as in the words giant and giraffe.

B. The English nasals /m/, /n/ and /ŋ/

In producing the /m/ sound, we bring the two lips in contact with one

another and then let the air come out through the nose. The two lips are

blocking the air so that it does not come out through the mouth; it goes

through the nose instead, since the nasal cavity is open. The /m/ sound is

called the bilabial nasal. In order to be able to produce the /m/ sound, the

vocal folds need to vibrate. The production of the /m/ sound can be seen in

Figure 7.3.

Figure 7.3: The production of nasal

/m/


The bilabial nasal /m/ can be found in all positions; at the beginning,

middle, or final position. Let‟s take a look at the following words:

make moment time

mix summer name

man dummy damn

mind remove dream

money amount broom

The /m/ sound is usually spelled with the letter „m‟, as in make, month, mind,

money, and dream. It can also be spelled with the letters „mm‟, as in the

words common and summer. It is also sometimes spelled with the letters

„me‟, as in come, name, and time.

The second nasal sound found in English is the sound /n/, produced by

blocking the air with the tip of the tongue, which is in contact with the

alveolar ridge. Therefore, the air is prevented from leaving from the mouth.

At the same time, the nasal cavity is open, so the air passes through the nasal

channel and goes out through the nose. In order to produce the /n/ sound, we

also need to vibrate our vocal folds. Therefore, the /n/ sound is called an

alveolar-nasal. The production of the /n/ sound can be seen in Figure 7.4.



In English, the alveolar nasal /n/ occurs at the beginning, middle, or final

position, as can be seen in the following examples:

nothing sunny spoon

night renew then

nap phonology pen

naughty piano spin

neck phoneme soon

The /n/ sound is usually spelled with the letter „n‟, as found in need, nap,

neck, none, and into. Sometimes, it is also spelled with the letters „nn‟, as in

the words scanner, beginning, and planner.

The third nasal sound is the sound / ŋ /. In order to produce the / ŋ /

sound, we need to block the air by raising the back part of the tongue against

Figure 7.4: The production of nasal /n/


the velum so that the air does not go through the mouth. The channel to the

nasal cavity is open, so the air then goes through the nose. We need to

vibrate our vocal folds to produce the / ŋ / sound. Thus, it is called the velar-

nasal. The production of / ŋ / can be seen in Figure 7.5.

In English, the velar nasal / ŋ / can only be found in the middle or final

position. It does not occur at the beginning of words.

- singer wing

- anger sing

- linguist young

- bank bring

- angle king

Figure 7.5: The production of nasal /ŋ/



The velar nasal / ŋ / is mostly spelled with the letters „ng‟, as in singer,

bingo, and wing. However, it can also sometimes be spelled with the letter

„n‟, as in the words tank, bank, and blank.

Exercise




Bilabial gum let man moon room

alveolar rainbow green fish loan then

alveopalatal chain kitchen catch chocolate lead

Velar run king bank bring blank


a. speech

b. chalk

c. jet

d. gesture

e. women

f. pump

g. nose

h. pen

i. blink

j. ring


3) Describe the process for the production of sounds in each picture:

a.

b.



c.

4) Give examples of words which contain the following sounds

a. Bilabial nasal

b. Alveolar nasal

c. Velar nasal

d. Voiceless alveopalatal affricate

e. Voiced alveopalatal affricate


CHAPTER-8 ENGLISH APPROXIMANTS &

LATERAL

Course Objectives:


1. understand the production of English approximants

2. listen to examples of words containing English approximants

3. practice pronouncing words containing English approximants

4. provide words containing English approximants in all positions and

transcribe them

A. The English Approximants /r/, /w/, and /y/

In order to produce the /r/ sound, we need to bring the tip of our tongue

near the alveolar ridge and let the air out. We need to curl the tip of the

tongue near the alveolar ridge and let the air come out through the narrow

space between the tip of the tongue and the roof of the mouth. The tip of the

tongue does not touch the alveolar ridge. The velum closes the nasal cavity,

so the air will not come out through the nose. The /r/ sound is voiced, since

we need to vibrate the vocal folds when we produce it. The /r/ sound is called

the alveolar approximant, the production of which can be seen in Figure 8.1



The alveolar approximant /r/ can be found in the initial, middle, and

final position of words, as shown in the following examples:

rent berry deer

ran terror where

rip parent hear

round scary prefer

rub paradise pour

The /r/ sound is usually spelled with the letter „r‟, as in rent, run, round, and

rub. However, it can also be spelled with double „rr‟, as in berry and curry.

Figure 8.1: The production of approximant /r /


The second approximant is the sound /w/. It is called the bilabial

approximant. To produce /w/, we need to shape our lips in a round position,

and the tongue creates a narrow space from which the air comes out. In more

detail, we have to purse our lips and raise the back of our tongue a little, near

the roof of our mouth. The back of the tongue does not touch any of the

vocal apparatus. The nasal cavity is closed, so the air does not come out

through the nose. In order to produce the /w/ sound, the vocal folds are

required to vibrate. The production of /w/ can be seen in Figure 8.2.

The bilabial approximant /w/ can usually be found at the beginning and

in the middle positions in words. Phonetically, the sound /w/ does not occur

in the final position of words even though, orthographically, it is often found

at the end of words, as in the words cow, below, low, and slow. Let‟s take a

look at the following list of words:

Figure 8.2: The production of glide /w/



will away -

want toward -

wood power -

when lower -

win coward -

The sound /w/ is usually spelled with the letter „w‟ or „wh‟, as in the words

will, wood, win, when, and where.

The third approximant is the sound /y/. In order to produce the /y/ sound,

we need to bring the front part of the tongue towards the hard palate. The

front part of the tongue should be touching the palate from the beginning,

and then let the air out and drop away the tongue from the palate. To produce

the /y/ sound, we have to vibrate our vocal folds. The /y/ sound is called the

palatal approximant. The production of /y/ can be seen in Figure 8.3.

Figure 8.3: The production of glide /y/


The palatal approximant /y/ is usually found in the initial and middle

positions. Phonetically, it does not exist at the end of words even though,

orthographically, it can be found there.

yes beyond

you view

yak future

yowl computer

yen dew

The palatal approximant /y/ is usually spelled with the letter „y‟, as in the

words you, yes, yak, and yellow. However, it can also be spelled with the

letter „i‟, as in the word view. In addition, it can be spelled with the letter „u‟,

as in future, computer, unit, and beautiful.

B. The English Lateral /l/

In producing the /l/ sound, we need to raise the blade of the tongue so

that it touches the alveolar ridge, and then let the air out through the sides of

the tongue. In order to produce /l/, we need to vibrate the vocal folds. The /l/

sound is called the alveolar-palatal-approximant, the production of which can

be seen in Figure 8.4.



The lateral sound /l/ can be found in all positions, such is in the initial,

middle, and final positions of words.

lie filler will

love silly pull

laugh bellow mill

lip tailor full

lesson talent kill

It is usually spelled with the letter „l‟ or double „ll‟, as in the words love, like,

lesson, silly, full, and will.

Figure 8.4: The production of lateral /l/


Exercise

1) Write the phonetic symbols for the following words.

a. will

b. lower

c. below

d. yes

e. young

f. run

g. race

h. narrow

i. smell

2) Name the following sounds.

a. [w]

b. [y]

c. [r]

d. [l]

3) Describe the process for the production of sounds in each picture.

a.



b.

c.

4) Give examples of words which contains the following sounds.

a. [w]

b. [y]

c. [r]

d. [l]


CHAPTER-9 SUPRASEGMENTAL SOUNDS,

STRESS, AND INTONATION

After learning the topic, the students are expected to be able to

1) practice different stress patterns

2) provide examples of stress patterns in simple and complex sentences

3) distinguish between the different intonation patterns of English

4) provide examples of different intonations in English

From the previous lesson, we concluded that a phoneme is the

smallest unit of sound that marks a difference in meaning in a language. We

have also defined the principles of contrast. A phoneme is always a unit of

sound in a particular language. For example, we can say that English has a

/p/ phoneme and Bahasa Indonesia also has a /p/ phoneme. However, the two

phonemes may be realised differently in the either language.

Many linguists agree on categorising phonemes into segmental and

suprasegmental phonemes. The segmental phonemes are the ones we have

already talked about, i.e. the consonant and vowel segments covered in

Chapters Three and Four. Linguists also identify suprasegmental phonemes

used in a language system. They are called suprasegmental because they can

only occur with segmental phonemes. This term has tended to be

predominantly used by American writers, and much British work has

preferred to use the term „prosodic‟ instead. There has never been full

agreement about how many suprasegmental features are to be found in

speech, but pitch, loudness, tempo, rhythm, and stress are the most



commonly mentioned. In this chapter, we will discuss two of them: stress

and intonation.

Stress

In all languages, some syllables are, in some sense, stronger than

others; these are the syllables that have the potential to be described as

stressed. It is also probably true that the difference between strong and weak

syllables is of some linguistic importance in every language, since strong and

weak syllables do not occur at random. However, languages differ in the

linguistic function of such differences. In English, for example, the position

of the stress can change the meaning of a word, as in the case of „import‟

(noun) and „import‟ (verb), and so forms part of the phonological

composition of the word.

Everyone would agree that the first syllable of words like 'father',

'open', and 'camera' is stressed, while the middle syllable is stressed in

'potato', 'apartment', and 'relation'. We will mark a stressed syllable in

transcription by placing a small vertical line (') high up, just before the

syllable it relates to; the words above will thus be marked as follows:

„father po‟tato

„open a‟partment

„camera

re‟lation

As we can see, the stress on the words to the left is on the first syllable, while

on the words to the right it is on the second syllable.

Stress is defined as the degree of loudness given to some syllables in

relation to others. In terms of its linguistic function, stress is often treated

under two different headings: word stress and sentence stress.


There are two ways to characterise stressed syllables that enable us to

identify them. One is to consider what the speaker does in producing stressed

syllables, and the other is to consider what characteristics of sound make a

syllable seem stressed to a listener. In other words, we can study stress from

the points of view of production or perception (Roach, 2009, p. 85). The

production of stress is generally believed to depend on the speaker using

more muscular energy than is used for unstressed syllables. Many

experiments have been carried out on the perception of stress, and it is clear

that many different sound characteristics are important in making a syllable

recognisably stressed. From the perceptual point of view, all stressed

syllables have one characteristic in common, which is prominence. Stressed

syllables are recognised as stressed because they are more prominent than

unstressed syllables. What makes a syllable prominent? At least four

different factors are important:

i) Most people seem to feel that stressed syllables are louder than unstressed

syllables; in other words, loudness is a component of prominence.

ii) The length of syllables has an important part to play in prominence. If

one of the syllables in our "nonsense word" ba:ba:ba:ba: is made longer than

the others, there is quite a strong tendency for that syllable to be heard as

stressed.

iii) Every voiced syllable is said at some pitch; pitch in speech is closely

related to the frequency of vibration of the vocal folds and to the musical

notion of low- and high-pitched notes.

iv) A syllable will tend to be prominent if it contains a vowel that is different

in quality from neighbouring vowels. If we change one of the vowels in our

"nonsense word" (e.g. ba:bi:ba:ba:) the "odd" syllable bi: will tend to be

heard as stressed.



In many languages, including English, one or more of the syllables in

every content word (i.e., every word except for function words such as to,

the, a, and of) are stressed. A stressed syllable, which can be marked by an

acute accent (´), is perceived as more prominent than an unstressed syllable,

as shown in the following examples:

pérvert (noun) as in “My neighbour is a pervert.”

pervért (verb) as in “Don‟t pervert the idea.”

sú bject (noun) as in “Let‟s change the subject.”

subjéct (verb) as in “He‟ll subject us to criticism.”

These pairs show that stress can be contrastive in English. In these cases, the

stress distinguishes nouns from verbs.

Some words may contain more than one stressed vowel, but one of

the stressed vowels will be more prominent than the others. The vowel that

receives the primary stress is marked by an acute accent. The other stressed

vowels are indicated by a grave accent (` ) over the vowels (these vowels

receive secondary stress).

rè signá tion lì nguí stics s stəmá tic

fù ndamé ntal ì ntrodú ctory rè volú tion

Generally, speakers of a language know which syllables receive primary

stress, which ones receive secondary stress, and which ones are reduced (i.e.

unstressed). It is part of their implicit knowledge of the language. It is

usually easy to distinguish between stressed and reduced syllables because

the vowel in reduced syllables is pronounced as a schwa [ə], except at the

end of certain words, such as confetti or laboratory. However, it may be

more difficult to distinguish between primary and secondary stress. If you

are unsure about where the primary stress is in a word (and you are a native

or near-native speaker of English), try shouting the word as if talking to a


person across a busy street. Often, the difference in stress will become more

apparent.

The stress pattern of a word may differ among English-speaking

people. For example, in most varieties of American English, the word

láboratòry [lǽbərətʰɔ ri] has two stressed syllables, but, in most varieties of

British English, it only receives one stress [ləbɔ rətri]. Because English

vowels are generally reduced to the schwa or deleted when they are not

stressed, British and American vowels differ in such words. In fact, in the

British version, the fourth vowel is deleted because it is not stressed.

Sentence and Phrase Stress

When words are combined into phrases and sentences, one syllable

receives greater stress than all the others. That is, just as there is only one

primary stress in a word spoken in isolation, only one of the vowels in a

phrase (or sentence) receives a primary stress or accent. All of the other

stressed vowels are reduced to secondary stress. In English, we place

primary stress on the adjectival part of a compound noun (which may be

written as one word, two words separated by a hyphen, or two separate

words), but we place the stress on the noun when the words make up a noun

phrase consisting of an adjective followed by a noun. The differences

between the following pairs are therefore predictable:

Compound Noun: Adjective + Noun

tíghtrope (a rope for acrobatics)

tight rope (a rope drawn taut)

Rédcoat (a British soldier)

red cóat (a coat that is red)

hótdog (a frankfurter)



hot dóg (an overheated dog)

Whíte House (the President‟s house in the USA)

white hóuse (a house painted white)

Say these examples out loud, speaking naturally, and, at the same time, listen

or feel the stress pattern. If English is not your native language, listen to a

native speaker say them.

These pairs show that stress may be predictable from the morphology

and syntax. In this sense, phonology interacts with the other components of

grammar. The stress differences between the noun and verb pairs discussed

in the previous section (e.g. subject as a noun or verb) are also predictable

from the syntactic word category.

Intonation

In English, intonation may reflect syntactic or semantic differences. If we

say:

John is going

with a falling pitch at the end, it is a statement; however, if the pitch rises at

the end, it may be interpreted as a question. Similarly:

What’s in the tea, honey?

may, depending on the intonation, be a query to someone called „honey‟

regarding the contents of the tea (with falling intonation on honey) or may be

a query regarding whether the tea contains honey (with rising intonation on

honey).

A sentence that is ambiguous in writing may be unambiguous when

spoken because of differences in pitch contours, as we saw in the previous

paragraph.


Here is a somewhat subtler example. Written, sentence 1 is unclear as to

whether Tristram intended for Isolde to read and follow directions or merely

to follow him:

1. Tristram left directions for Isolde to follow.

Spoken, if Tristram wanted Isolde to follow him, the sentence would be

pronounced with a rise in pitch on the first syllable of follow, followed by a

fall in pitch, as indicated (over simplistically) in sentence 2.


In this pronunciation of the sentence, the primary stress is on the word

follow.

If the meaning is to read and follow a set of directions, the highest

pitch would come on the second syllable of directions, as illustrated (again

over simplistically) in sentence 3.


The primary stress in this pronunciation of the sentence is on the word

directions.

Exercises

1) Mark the stress on the following verbs:

a. protect

b. bellow

c. clamber

d. menace

e. festoon

f. disconnect



g. detest

h. enter

2) Mark the stress on the following nouns:

a. language

b. event

c. captain

d. jonquil

e. career

f. injury

g. paper

h. connection

3) Put stress marks on the following words (try to put secondary stress marks

on the words as well):

a. shopkeeper

b. confirmation

c. open-ended

d. eight-sided

e. Javanese

f. fruitcake

g. birthmark

h. defective

i. anti-clockwise

j. roof timber

4) Write the words in 3) using phonemic transcription, including the

stress marks.


REFERENCES

Crane, L. (1981). an introduction to llingustics. Boston: Little Brown

Company.

Fromkin, V. R. (2010). An Introduction to Language. Wadsworth: Cengage

Learning.

Harmer, J. (2001). The Practice of English Language Teaching. London:

Longman.

Roach, P. (2009). English Phonetics and Phonology, A Practical Course,

Fourth edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Yule, G. (2006). The Study of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.

a course in english phonetics and -...

Documents