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1. ASKING FOR HELP

*NOTE Untuk meminta perolongan (Asking For Help) kita bisa menggunakan ungkapan-ungkapan sebagai berikut:

Would

Could

Can

Will

You do Me a favor?

Untuk menjawabnya

Jika Bersedia Jika Tidak Bersedia

Sure

of Course

With my pleasure

I’d Love to

Alright

I’m Sorry . I can’t

No. I Can’t/Couldn’t/Wouldn’t/Won’t.

No. Thank you. I have another business.

I am Sorry. I am busy now.

2. ASKING AND GIVING THINGS

*NOTE Ungkapan untuk meminta sesuatu kepada orang lain.

For Example:

Anang, may I have one of your breads, please?. I am very hungry

Selain ungkapan tersebut adapula

Can

Shall

Could

I drink your coffee?

Sementara itu untuk mempersilahkan orang lain atau memberikan sesuatu kepada orang lain kita bisa menggunakan :

Sure, here you are.

Of Course. Here it is.

Don’t worry. You may have it. Here.

Sure. Please do so.

3. ASKING FOR AND GIVING INFORMATIONS. Asking for and Giving Informations is a competence related with how to ask and give certain information about someone or something. These are some ways to asking for and giving information.

Asking for Information Giving For Information

Where are you from?

Which house do you live in?

How long have you been studying here?

Who is you doctor?

Whose family do you belong to?

What kind of music do you play?

When were you born?

Have you heard anything about?

Did you know anything about?

What do you want to know?

What would you like to know?

I am from….

I am a…..

People/they say…

Most people tell/say….

Everybody says/tells

I hear…

4. NOUN PHARSE (UNGKAPAN)

*NOTE Perhatikan ungkapan berikut:

She is a beautiful women

They are not in a lagre clean room Ungkapan yang dicetak miring adalah sebuah NOUN PHRASE yaitu suatu benda (noun) yang dijelaskan dengan beberapa kata sifat (Adjective) sehingga membentuk sebuah kata sifat baru yang lebih spesifik. Berikut adalah urutan kata sifat dalam pembentukan NOUN PHRASE:

Quantifier + Adjective + Noun (a/an/the/some/etc) (Good) (Book)

For Example :

A good book.

Several good books.

Article + Adjective + Noun

For Example :

Mr. Andre is Wearing a white shirt.

Mr. Andre has Short black hair.

5. LIKES AND DISLIKES. *NOTE

Untuk menunjukan sikap atau perasaan akan sesuatu atau seseorang. Kita bisa menggunakan ungkapan-ungkapan sebagai berikut:

LIKE DISLIKES

Yes. I Like……

Yes. I Love……

No. I don’t really like…….

No. I don’t Love…….

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She is very beautiful

He is very amazing

They are wonderful

She is exciting

Her hair is not so beautiful

He doesn’t have a big body

I can’t stand here

She is boring

6. ASKING FOR AND GIVING OPINION

*NOTE Digunakan untuk menanyakan opini seseorang terhadap sesuatu. Berikut adalah ungkapan-ungkapan yang bisa kita gunakan untuk meminta opini seseorang:

What is your opinion about…..?

What do you say about…..?

What is your comment on……?

How do you think of…..?

How do you comment on……?

What do you think about……?

How do you feel about……?

Sementara untuk memberikan pendapat/opini tentang sesuatu, berikut ungkapan-ungkapan yang bisa digunakan:

I think…….

In my opinion……

For me…….

I must say…..

For my point of view

I’m convinced that ….

I reckon ….

I consider that ....

According to the expert, I ….

In my opinion, .…

I'd just like to say ….

From my point of view, ….

As far as I'm concerned ….

Well, I must say ….

I believe ….

I feel …. 7. INSTRUCTING (MEMBERI PERINTAH)

*NOTE Untuk memberikan instruksi atau memberi perintah kita bisa menggunakan COMMAND SENTENCE, yaitu dengan menempatkan kata kerja betuk pertama pada awal kalimat.

For Example :

Press the unlock key to unlock this camera phone.

Focus on the thing you want to take.

Select OPTION menu.

Unlock this camera phone by pressing the unlock key.

• Open page 10 of this book. • Give me that story book.

• Read this paragraph loudly. • Write your own story.

8. ASKING FOR SOMEONE’S HELPS (MEMINTA

PERTOLONGAN) To ask for someone’s help we can use these expressions

Can you help me…..?

Please, help me.

Can you do me a favour, please?

Would you be so kind as to……? 9. GIVING HELP TO SOMEONE (MEMBERI

PERTOLONGAN) To give to someone we can use these expressions

Let me give you a hand.

Here. I’ll di it for you.

May I help you with…… sir/mam/dad/etc?

10. REJECTING SOMEONE’S HELP

To reject someone’s help we can use these expressions

No. it’s not necessary

Thank you for offering, but….. 11. ASKING FOR THINGS OR ITEMS

To ask for things or items we can use these expressions

Can I have…..?

Would you be so kind to give me…..?

Can you give me……?

May I have……? 12. OFFERING FOR ITEMS

To offer things we can use these expressions

Will you have……?

Do you like…..?

Could you like……?

Would you like……? 13. GIVING FOR THINGS OR ITEMS

To give for things or items or something to someone we can use these expressions

Take this…..

Let me give you…..

Here you are.

This is for you.

I’d like to give you….

Please accept….

14. REJECTING FOR THINGS OR SOMETHING OR ITEMS To reject things or something or items we can use these expressions

No. thank you.

That’s very kind. But I won’t thank you.

Not for me. Thanks.

Not this time. Thanks.

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15. ADMIT A FACT (MENGAKUI FAKTA)

To admit a fact we can use these expressions

Yes. I admit it.

Yes. I did….

Yes. It’s true. 16. DENY A FACT (MENYANGKAL FAKTA)

To deny a fact we can use these expressions

I’m not lying. Dad (actually you lie)

No. I didn’t say that. (actually you said it)

The flower smells good. (actually the flower smells bad)

17. INVITING SOMEONE (MENGUNDANG SESEORANG)

To invite someone we can use these expressions

Shall we…..?

Can you come to……..?

Would you like to come?

I’d very much like you to come. 18. ACCEPTING AN INVITATION

To accept an invitation we can use these expression.

Yes. Certainly I will come.

Absolutely. Count me in.

I would. Very much.

Yes. I’d like nothing better.

19. DECLINING AN INVITATION To decline an invitation we can use these expressions

I’m terrible sorry. I don’t think I can.

I’m very sorry, I can’t.

Thank you very much, but…..

20. SAYING AGREEMENT To say that you agree you can use these expressions

Yes. I agree.

That’s true.

I agree with what you said

Well, if you say so.

I think so.

I am with you. 21. SAYING DISAGREEMENT

To say that you disagree you can use these expression

I don’t agree.

No. I don’t think…...

Yes, but don't you think ...?

Yes, I see but ....

I don' think so.

I quite disagree ....

Sorry, I have to say "No".

22. COMPLIMENT TO SOMEONE (PUJIAN) To compliment to someone we can use these expressions

That’s a nice……. (appearance)

You’re looking good.(appearance)

Wow. You’re very clever.

What a beautiful dress.

May I say how elegant you look.

I f I may so, you are quite charming.

My compliments on your beautiful.

I really must express my admiration for your party.

You are looking good.

What a charming dress!

That's a very nice coat!

You look nice.

I like your hair style!

You're terrific/fantastic. 23. CONGRATULATE TO SOMEONE

To congratulate someone we can use these expressions

Congratulations.

Well done.

Fantastic. 24. HESTITATION (KERAGUAN)

A. Untuk menunjunkan keraguan, kita bisa gunakan ungkapan-ungkapan.

I am not too sure……

I couldn’t say……

I couldn’t really be sure about…..

There’s some doubt in my mind that/about…..

I am afraid I can’t be certain about…….

I am not convinced about……

There is surely some doubt about…..

B. Untuk merespon keraguan, kita bisa menggunakan ungkapan berikut.

I am a hundred certain..

You can be sure about…..

I have no doubt about…..

…….absolutely positive/certain.

It’s quite certain.

I’m quite convinced that…….

I don’t think there can be any doubt….

I’m fairly sure…..

There can be any doubt….. 24. SURPRISE (KEHERANAN/MENGAGETKAN)

To show surprise we can use these expressions

Do you Realize that………..

Surprisingly………..

Believe it is not…….

You may not believe it but…….. 25. CERTAINLY (KEPASTIAN)

A. To show certainly we can use these expressions

I am sure (that) …..

I am certainly (that) …..

I believe (that) ….

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B. To show uncertainly we can use these expressions

I am not sure….

I am not certain….

I can not say for a certain….

I can not decide…….

I doubt that ….. 26. INTRODUCE OURSELF AND OTHERS.

Introduction consist of introduce ourself and others informal or formal situations.

A. These are some ways to introduce ourself.

Let me introduce myself. I am…

Allow me to introduce myself. My name is…

I’d like to introduce myself. My name is….

B. These are some ways to introduce

Someone/others.

Let me introduce to you……

I’d like to introduce to you…..

I’d like you to meet….

This is…. 27. APOLOGY (PERMINTAAN MAAF)

Apology is a statement saying that one is sorry for having done wrong, hurt, somebody’s feel. These ara some ways to express apology.

Offering Accepting

I am sorry

Excuse me.

I (do) apologize

Please forgive me

Accept my apology

Forgive me for ….ing

I’d like to apologize for ….ing

I’m sorry i…

I’m really/very/awfully sorry

I feel terrible/bad.

It’s all right

That’s all right

Don’t worry about it.

These things will/do happen.

No problem. Not to worry

28. GREETING

Greeting is something that you say or to greet somebody. Greeting used to say hello to someone when meeting. These are some greetinh and how to respond.

Greeting Responding

Good Morning (00.00 – 11.00)

Good Day (12.00 – 14.00)

Good Afternoon (13.00 – 18.00)

Good Evening (18.00 – 24.00)

Good Night (used to say goodbye at night)

Hi.

Hello.

How do you do?

How are you?

How are you doing?

How is everything?

How are things?

I’m glad/pleased/happy to meet you.

It’s nice/good/great to meet/meeting you.

Good Morning

Good Day

Good Afternoon

Good Evening

Good Night

Hi.

Hello.

How do you do?

Fine. Thak you/not good.

Okay. Thank you.

Not bad. Thanks.

Allright. Thanks.

Me too.

It’s nice/ good/ great to meet/ meeting you too.

29. GRATITUDE (TERIMAKASIH)

Gratitude is an expression to explain thankful. These are some expression to express gratitude and the respond.

Expressing Gratitude Responding to gratitude

Thanks (very much)

Thank you (very much)

I am grateful (to….)

I want to thank…

I want to express my gratitude to….

I keep forgetting to thank you for….

You are (very) welcome.

Don’t mention it.

Not at all.

It was nothing at all.

No. problem.

Glad to be of help.

I am glad I could help/do it/be of help.

It was very my pleasure.

30. ADMIRATION (KEKAGUMAN) To exprresion admiration we can use these expression.

How + Adj/Adv + S + To Be.

What + Article + Adj. + N + S + To Be.

What + Article + N. For Example :

Expression Response

How Beautiful the flower is. Oh. Thank you.

What a beautiful flower. That’s very kind of you.

What a flower. It’s very kind of you to say it.

How nice the spectacles are. Do you really think so?

What nice spectacles Thanks I needed that.

What spectacles You have made my deny

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31. ATTENTION (PERHATIAN) To attention we can use some expression these.

Oh. I see.

Well,….

Tell me more.

Really?

Has it/doesn’t it?

32. REPETITION (PENGULANGAN) To ask someone to say something again we can use these expression.

Pardon?

Sorry?

I am sorry.

Sorry, what did you say?

I beg your pardon.

I’m sorry, would you mind repeating it again?

33. ELLIPTICAL A. Either dan neither digunakan dalam kalimat

negatif ( - ) Subject + to be not + either. Neither + to be + Subject.

For Example :

Wildan doesn’t sing well and Ali doesn’t either.

Wildan doesn’t sung well amd neither does Ali.

B. Too dan so digunakan dalam kalimat positif (+) Subject + to be + too. So + to be + subject.

For Example :

I like cooking very much and my sister does too.

I like cooking and so does my sister.

34. SO…., THAT…. We can use the word so and that to relate cause and effect.

For Example : The box is very heavy. I can’t lift it.

→ This box is so heavy that I can’t lift it.

35. BOTH … AND; NOT ONLY… BUT ALSO. A. BOTH … AND

Iwan like both fishing and camping.

Mother bought both a shirt and skirt.

B. NOT ONLY… BUT ALSO

We not only write but also draw.

Dinda isn’t only smart but also creative.

36. SHOWING HAPPINES

It's really great. I'm so happy.

I'm delighted to hear that.

It gives me a great pleasure.

Nice news! Or good News! It makes me happy.

Hooray!

It's lovely.

37. SHOWING AFFECTION (GIVING ATTENTION)

What should I do to cheer you up?

I really care about you?

Don't you worry. I'm with you.

What's wrong with you?

Hope you will be fine.

Are you OK?

38. SHOWING SYMPHATY

You have my deepest sympathy.

What a terrible situation for you.

I do sympathise (I assure you).

I'm extremely sorry to hear that.

I know how it feels

Oh what a shame ....

Oh that's awful.

Oh dear, sorry to hear that. 39. APPOINTMENT (JANJI/KESEPAKATAN)

MAKING ACCEPTION CANCELLING

How about Tomorrow morning?

Let's meet at ... o'clock.

I'll come I promise.

I'll be there.

Sorry, I don't think I can make it.

I'm so sorry I can't make it.

40. SURPRISE AND AMAZEMENT

I must say that ... surprises me.

I find it astonishing/extraordinary.

I find that very surprising.

How very surprising/amazing.

Well, that's very surprising.

Really?

My goodness!

Are you serious?

You're kidding!

That's amazing/extraordinary. 41. SATISFACTION AND DISATISFACTION

SATISFACTION DISATISFACTION

I’m satisfi ed with ….

I’m satisfi ed at ….

I’m glad with what you’ve done.

It’s really satisfying.

Everything was satisfying.

I’m not satisfi ed with

It isn’t very nice.

It’s really not good enough.

I’m dissatisfi ed by ….

It’s dissatisfying.

Oh No.

42. GIVING ADVICE

I suggest that you ....

She advises me to do the best.

You should be patient.

Everyone should not ....

Why don’t you ...?

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43. GIVING WARNING

You must not break the rules.

Please, don’t ....

I warn you not to ....

Don’t do that.

Don’t ....

44. RELIEF (KERINGANAN)

It’s a relief to know that ....

Thank God for ....

I’m glad it was done.

Thank goodness!

45. PAIN (KESAKITAN)

I am suffering from a relapse.

I have toothache.

I feel sick./I feel ill.

I’m sick.

Ouch!

46. PLEASURE (KESENANGNAN)

It is really delightful./I am delighted.

It’s really a great pleasure.

I am pleased.

That’s great.

That’s wonderful.

47. OPENING

Good afternoon. My name is ....

Good evening, Ladies and Gentlemen.

Good evening, the distinguished guest, Ladies and Gentlemen.

48. INTRODUCING THE EVENT

Welcome to this event.

I want to welcome you to ....

It is greatest pleasure to welcome you ...

49. INTRODUCING THE SPEAKER

Our speaker for this day is ....

It's our pleasure to have ... here with us.

Mr/Mrs ... will talk about ....

50. CLOSING

We have had a fascinating talk ....

Thank you for your participation.

Ladies and gentlemen, it's the end of this reception.

Thank You

51. EXPRESSING OF LOVE

I love you/I like you.

My dear/my love/ my baby/ my honey/ my darling.

I’m interested in ... 52. EXPRESSING OF SADNESS

Please leave me alone.

I’m really sad.

How sorrowful it is.

It is tragic ....

53. ANGER (MARAH)

Oh, dear!

Oh, bother!

What a nuisance!

Oh no, what’s next?

That’s the last straw!

54. ANNOYANCE (MENGGANGGU)

I’m very annoyed.

It is extremely irritating.

What a nuisance!

Oh no!

It makes me mad.

55. EMBARRASSMENT (MEMALUKAN)

I’m so embarrassed.

I’m ashamed, sorry.

I’m shy to say so.

It’s embarrassing.

I‘m bashful to ....

56. REQUEST a) Giving Request

Would you mind ...,please?

Can/Could you ...?

Will/Would you ...?

Please .... b) Accepting Request

Sure, I’d be glad/happy to ....

Of course/Certainly.

No problem.

Sure. Just a moment. c) Refusing Request

I'd loved to,but ...

It sounds great, but ...

I’m/sorry,but .... Sorry to say that ....

57. SUGGESTION a) Giving Suggestion

You could (might) ....

I suggest/recommend that you ...

You really should/ought to ....

I strongly advise/urge you to ....

You’d better....

b) Accepting Suggestion

That’s a good/ nice/ wonderful,idea/ suggestion.

Thank you/Thanks. I‘ll do/try that.

Why didn’t I think of that? I think you’re right.

c) Rejecting Suggestion

I tried that, but ...

Thanks, but that won’t work/help because ..

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I don’t want to/can’t do that because ...

That’s a good idea, but ....

58. BLAMING AND AC0USING (MENUDUH/MENYALAHKAN)

You are the one to blame.

I think you're the only person who could have done it.

It's your fault.

It's your fault for (doing something).

59. ADMITTING SOMETHING DOING WRONG (MENGAKUI KESALAHAN)

I admit to (doing something).

I admit that I ….

I confess to (something).

60. MAKING A PROMISE (JANJI)

I promise/swear that I ….

I promise you that ….

I swear (to do something).

61. SAYING YOU ARE CURIOUS (INGIN TAHU)

What I’d really like to find out is ....

I’d be very interested to know ....

I’ve been meaning to ask you.

I’d like to know ....

I wish I knew ....

I’d love to know ....

What’s on your mind?

I wonder ...?

62. DISCUSSING POSSIBILITIES (MEMBICARAKAN KEMUNGKINAN)

Would there be any possibility of …?

Do you think we are capable of …?

Would it be possible for (somebody) to …?

I think that would be possible ....

Is it possible to …?

Yes, there is a possibility ....

63. PERSUADING (MEMBUJUK)

Would it be possible for you to …?

Won't you …, please?

Why don't you …?

Please!

Not even for me/for my sake?

Just this once!

You're not going to let me down, are you?

How I can persuade you to …?

Could you/Couldn't you be persuaded …?

64. ENCOURAGING (MEMBESARKAN HATI)

Come on ….

Don't give up.

Go on!

Keep at it!

Keep it up!

You can do it!

Stick to it!

Don't worry, I'm sure you'll do better this time.

65. ADVISING SOMEONE NOT TO DO SOMETHING

(DETERRING) (MENGHALANGI/MENCEGAH)

I wouldn't do that if I were you.

If I were in your position, I wouldn't ….

I wouldn't … if I were in your shoes.

You would be well advised to/not to ….

If I were you I wouldn't ….

The way I see it, you should/shouldn't ‘….

I wouldn't recommend ….

I wouldn't advise ….

I don't think you ought to ….

I don't think you should ….

68. EXPRESSING REGRET (PENYESALAN)

If I had (hadn’t) …, I would (wouldn’t) have …

I regret doing ….

I regret ….

I wish ….

69. EXPRESSING PLANS, INTENTION, AND PURPOSES (TUJUAN ATAU RENCANA)

Do you have any plans …?

What do we want to achieve?

What's the plan?

Is that what you want? 70. PREDICTING AND SPECULATING (PREDIKSI DAN

SPEKULASI)

We can speculate that ….

I would say ….

I predict that …. 71. MAKING A JUDGEMENT (PENILAIAN)

It's … (, amazing, awesome etc).

It's … (boring, unexciting, poorly written etc).

It's a/an … (touching story, inspiring book etc).

GRAMMAR REVIEW

1. Using Prepositions of Time

It is important to use correct prepositions to show

time relationship. Study the prepositions of time and the

example.

Use at with specific times:

at 5:00/at 7:30/at noon/at midnight

Use from and to with a span of time: from 6:00 to 9:00/from 1941 to 1945

Use in with other parts of the day: in the afternoon/in the morning/in the evening (exception: at night)

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Use in with months: in August/in June

Use in with years: in 19999/in 2001

Use in with seasons: in the spring/in the summer/in the winter

2. Simple Past Tense

Affirmative 1. Rosaura ate her meal quickly. 2. Her father looked away in disappointment. Negative 1. Rosaura did not eat her meal quickly. 2. Her father did not look away in disappointment. Question 1. Did Rosaura eat her meal quickly? 2. Did her father look away in disappointment? In affirmative sentence we use verb in past form whereas in negative and question sentences we use infinitive. This tense is commonly used in story telling and when we tell others about past events.

3. Imperatives

1. a. You press the stop button.

b. Dian told Andi, "Press the stop button."

2. a. You plug the power cord into a wall outlet. b. "Plug the power cord into a wall outlet,"

said mother. 3. a. You make sure the car is in neutral.

b. "Make sure the car is in neutral," said David.

Imperatives or imperative sentences are used to give command or to make a request. e.g. "Stand up," said the teacher. (command) "Help me," asked the mother. (request)

Imperative sentences can be used in negative form. It functions as prohibition. e.g. "Don't hurry," said father. "Don't be noisy," the teacher told the pupils. We use "don't" or "do not" before verbs to state a prohibition.

In imperative sentences we can use the word "do" before verbs. The word "do" could be persuasive, but could also express irritation. e.g. “Do come on time”. “Do be quiet”.

4. Passive Voice

1. Fewer foods should be chosen from the meat and dairy groups in the middle.

2. Even fewer foods should be chosen from the fats,oils, and sweets at the top of the pyramid.

3. The pipe was replaced by the plumber.

4. Vitamins must be supplied in a person's daily diet.

5. The play was written by Shakespeare.

The sentences above use passive voice. Passive voice is used when it is not important to know exactly who performs an action. In passive voice, the object of an active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb. If the subject of an active sentence is someone or the people, we do not have to put them in the object of passive sentence. Some of the verbs cannot be changed into passive form such as happen, come, sleep, etc. The form of passive is: be + past participle.

5. Preposition

“At” is used with times and also with places: at Niagara Falls, at midnight, at lunch, at Jln. Soka no.11.

“In” is used with periods of time and also with places: in October, in 2005, in the Middle Ages, in the United States, in Canada, in the park.

“On” is used with dates and days and also with places: on Niagara River, on June 18, on Monday, on the wall.

“Of” is used with nouns and also with -ing forms: legs of the table, glance of eye, of making.

“Off” is used with verbs: get off, take off, put off.

“After/before” is used with period of times, with pronouns and also with -ing forms: before winter, before June, after summer, after lunch time, after me, before him, after reading, before asking. “For” is used with a period of time: for one hour, for a week, for ages. For is also intended to be given to or belong to a particular person: The Great Sphinx was probably built for Khafre.

“During” is used with a period of time: during our holiday, during the night.

“While” is used with subject + verb: while you went out, while she was at the bank.

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Some prepositions with more than one word are in front of, for the sake of, at the corner of. Example: • I stand in front of the class. • For the sake of God. • He has to stand at the corner of the classroom.

6. Reported Speech and Direct Speech

1. The truck driver said he did not see the car approaching.

2. The truck driver said, "I do not see the car approaching."

Sentence number 1 is a reported speech and sentence number 2 is a direct speech. Reported speech is used when we want to report what someone said. The word order is the same as direct speech but we don't use certain punctuation as indirect speech. The tenses in reported speech normally change. Look at Direct Speech 1. He said, "I buy a newspaper every day." 2. He said, "I am buying a newspaper." 3. He said, "I have bought a newspaper." 4. He said, "I bought a newspaper." 5. He said, "I will buy a newspaper." 6. He said, "I can buy a newspaper." 7. He said, "I may buy a newspaper." 8. He said, "I must buy a newspaper." 9. He said, "I have to buy a newspaper." 10. He said, "Buy a newspaper."

Reported Speech 1. He said (that) he bought a newspaper every day. 2. He said he was buying a newspaper. 3. He said he had bought a newspaper. 4. He said he had bought a newspaper. 5. He said he would buy a newspaper. 6. He said he could buy a newspaper. 7. He said he might buy a newspaper. 8. He said he had to buy a newspaper. 9. He said he had to buy a newspaper. 10. He told me to buy a newspaper.

Other changes in adverbial of time and place.

Direct Speech Reported Speech

here there

This that

Now then

today that day

tonight that night

tomorrow the following day/the next day

next week the following week

yesterday the day before/the previous day

last week the week before/the previous week

two days go two days before

7. Simple Present Tense

a. Lightning occurs in hot, wet storms.

b. Whales are sea-living mammals.

c. Kangaroos eat grass and plants.

d. An iceberg is an enormous piece of ice floating in

the sea.

e. A tiger is a wild animal. The tiger eats meat.

The tense that are used in a report text is the simple present

tense. The simple present tense is used to give general truths

and habitual actions. The sentences above tell you about the

general truth: Everyone knows that a tiger is a wild animal.

And everyone also knows that whales are sea-living

mammals. Besides, everyone also knows that kangaroos eat

grass and plants. That the tiger eats meat, but the tiger does

not eat grass and plants. Verbs that are used in the simple

present tense are: to be (is, am, are) and verb (eat, occurs, etc.)

or the verbs are usually named as infi nitive verbs. The form

of simple present tense:

Subject + Verb + O → Kangaroos eat grass and plants.

Subject + Verb + (–s) + O → The tiger eats meat.

The use of simple present tense in a report text is to define

something.

8. Present Perfect Tense

a) The overuse of rainforests for tourist activities has led

governments to pass laws restricting activities in these

forests.

b) The Daintree region in northern Queensland is

one area where the government has passed laws

regulating rainforests activities.

c) Unfortunately, the widespread destruction of many of

the world's rainforests has caused a signifi cant decline

in the number of plant and animal species on Earth.

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The present perfect tense consists of have/has before the

past participle form of a verb.

Affirmative Statements

a) He has worked here for a long time.

b) She has been a doctor for two years.

*)Note. Here are some participles: worked (work),

been (be),written (write).

Negative Statements

a) I haven′t written anything for an hour.

*)Note. Here are contractions with not:

have + not = haven′t;

has + not = hasn′t.

Interrogative Statements

a) Have you finished your reading?

9. Will and Shall

a. You can use shall or will with I and we.

Example:

We shall begin with a talk by our honourable speaker.

b. In spoken English, the short forms I'll and we'll are

normally used.

Example:

You'll be free to exchange ideas with the professor.

c. The negative of shall is shan't (or shall not).

Example:

I shan't (or I won't) be here tomorrow.

d. Do not use shall with he/she/it/you/they.

e) Note that we use shall (not will) in the questions.

Shall I ...? and shall we ...? (for offers, suggestions

etc.):

Shall I attend the reception? (Do you want me to

attend the reception?)

Where shall we go this evening?

10. Conjunctions

a) Because my husband, John, tends to snore, I rarely

get more than a couple of hours sleep each night.

b) When he awakens refreshed in the morning, he's

always astonished to fi nd that he has been the cause

of another sleepless night for me.

c) John had severe allergy symptoms, so he took some

medication before he went to bed.

d) The drugs have worn off, and I can't sleep.

e) When Mrs Green retired from her job in a big city,

she went to an attractive village out in the country,

and began to go into the nearest town every Saturday

to buy food.

f) After she had visited the store several times, the

cashier began to recognise her ...

.

g) "He goes to bed immediately after dinner every

night?"

h) He had never seen them before, so he began to

introduce himself.

i) I'm even harder than stone, so do what I tell you.

j) He went to each soldier one after the other and

asked him his name.

k) When I ask a question, answer it!

l) He asked the last soldier after asking the others.

The words in italics are conjunctions.

And and so are connecting words for sentences of equal

importance. There is usually a comma before them.

And means "in addition". It connects similar ideas or

adds information.

So means "as a result". It connects an effect to a

reason.

Because and the time words before, after, and when connect

two clauses of unequal importance. There is no comma before

these words.

Because gives a reason

Before: sequence of events. Took some medication

is the fi rst action, went to bed is the second action.

After: sequence of events. Asking the others is the fi

rst action, asked the last soldier is the second one.

When means "at that time".

11. Conjunctives

1. However, no matter what school a parent chooses to

send his or her children to, care needs to be taken to

access the type and the quality of education that is

being offered.

2. As a result, Dino is now a very busy student.

3. Consequently, children cannot digest the materials

properly.

The words in italics are adverbs ( conjunctives). Those

conjunctives join ideas within the sentences or with ideas in

other sentences or paragraphs. Other adverbs ( conjunctives):

• also • in addition to

• as well • nevertheless

• besides • too

• therefore • subsequently

• furthermore

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12. Pronoun

Pronouns are used to replace a noun already referred to, that

is, we use them instead of repeating the noun:

e.g. The Duck decided to go to the river. She took a lot of food

with her.

... the frog had a huge pile of food. He picked it all up ... This

house will go to the children. It will be theirs after my death.

The pronoun it is used in some impersonal expressions.

e.g. It was a beautiful summer's day. It is raining.

We distinguish three persons to which pronouns refer

The persons speaking: I and we (first person)

The persons speaking to: you (second person) The persons spoken about: he/she and they (third person)

The things spoken about: it and they (third person)

13. Before and After Before and after are used if we want to express an order of events. We can use the following form.

1. Before + clause 1 (S, V ,O) + clause 2 (S, V, O) After + Subordinate clause + Main clause

For example:

Before she attended the class, she would prepare everything.

After hearing the news she felt relieved. 2. Before + noun phrase (V+ing) + clause 2

(SVO) After + Subordinate clause + Main clause

For example:

Before watching the movie, we must buy the tickets.

After losing his job, the man became extremely depressed.

14. Passive Voice

In a passive clause, we usually use a phrase beginning with by if we want to mention the agent–the person or thing that does the action, or that causes what happens.

Water is also released into the atmosphere by plants through photosynthesis.

Passive Verb Form

We normally make passive forms of a verb by using tenses of the auxiliary be followed by the past participle (=pp) of the verb. Here is a list of all the passive forms of an ordinary English verb, with their names.

Tenses Patterns

Simple present am/are/is + pp

Present continuous am/are/is being + pp

Simple past was/were+ pp

Past continuous was/were being + pp

Present perfect have/has been+ pp

Past perfect had been + pp

Will future will be + pp

Future perfect will have been + pp

Going to future am/are/is going to be + pp

Modal auxiliaries (will, can, should, ought to, must, have to, may, and might) are often used in the passive.

15. Even though, Although, and Though 1. Even though birth control has gained in

acceptance, opposition to the practice continues.

2. Although birth control has gained in acceptance, opposition to the practice continues.

3. Though birth control has gained in acceptance, opposition to the practice continues.

All of the sentences above have the same meaning. We use conjunctions even though, although, though to show opposition or an unexpected result. They could have a good conversation.

Black, tired, good, unknown, and whole are adjectives.

An adjective can be placed after an article or before a noun. An adjective can modify nouns

as Subjects or Objects.

The adjectives placed after to be are Predicate.

Form: modal + be + past participle

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16. Noun Phrases Study the following phrases. They are taken from the text you have read in the previous activity. • an old grandmother • a gold snail • the eldest daughter • the fence hole • an awful beggar • a handsome man • delicious food on the table These phrases are called noun phrases. A phrase is a noun and its modifiers. Noun can be modified by adjectives, articles, determiners, participles and infinitives. The word that is modified is often called the head word. Words that come before the head word are called premodifiers. Words that come after it are called postmodifiers.

17. Adjectives Ending in -ing and -ed

Study these sentences. Pay attention to the word in Bold face.

To Kill a Mockingbird is filled with interesting

characters like Dill, and Scout makes them all seem just as real as the people in your own hometown.

Dill and Boo and Jem are all fascinating, but the most important character in the book is Scout’s father, Atticus Finch.

If something or someone is -ing, it makes you -ed. Or someone is -ed if something (or someone) is -ing. So:

I am interested in characters in To Kill a Mockingbird.

I am fascinated by Dill and Boo and Jem. There are many pairs of adjective ending -ing and -ed. For examples:

Fascinating fascinated Exciting excited Amusing amused Amazing amazed Astonishing astonished Shocking shocked Disgusting disgusted horrifying horrified terrifying terrified frightening frightened depressing depressed worrying worried annoying annoyed exhausting exhausted

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