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Human Digestive

The human digestive system is a complex series of organs and glands that processes food

k order to use the food we eat, our body has to break the food down into smaller

molecules that it can process; it also has to excrete waste.

Most of the digestive organs (like the stomach and intestines) are tube-like and contain

the food as it makes its way through the body.

The digestive system is essentially a long. twisting tube that runs from the

mouth to the anus, plus a few other organs (like the liver and pancreas) that produce or

store digestive chemicals.

The Digestive Process:

MouthEsophagusStomachSmall intestineLarge intestine (colon )

RectumAnus

The start of the process - the mouth. The digestive process begins in the mouth. Food is

partly broken did be the process of going and be the chemical action of saliva enzymes

(these enzymes are produced be the salivary glands and break Doc starches into smaller

molecules).

On thetas to the stomach the esophagus - After being Chevy and swallows, the food

enters the esophagus. The esophagi is a long tube that runs from the mouth to the

stomach. It uses rhythmic, wave-like muscle movements (called peristalsis) to force

food from the throat into the stomach. This muscle movement gives us the ability to eat

Or drink even when were upside-down.

In be stomach - The stomach is a large, Sack-like organ (Nat churns the food and bathes

it in a very strong acid (gastric acid). Food in tie stomach that is partly digested and

Meredith stomach acids is called chime

In the small intestine - After being in tie stomach, food enters the duodenum, the first

part of the small intestine. It then enters the jejunum and then the ileum (the final part

of the small intestine). In the small intestine, bile (produced in the liver arid Stored in the

gall bladder), pancreatic enzymes and cotter divisive enzymes produced be the inner will

of the smart intestine help in the breakdown of food


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In the large Intestine - after passing through the small intestine food passes into the

large intestine. In the large intestine some of the water and electrolytes (chemicals like

sodium) are removed.

from the food Many microbes (bacteria like bacteroides lactobacillus acidophitus

eschericha coil and Klebsiella ) in the large intestine help in the digestion process.The

first part of the large intestine is called the cecum (the appendix is connected to the

cecum). Food then travels upward In the ascending colon. The food travels across the

abdomen in the transverse colon goes back down the other side of the body in the

descending colon, and then through the sigmoid colon.

the end of tie process - solid waste is then stored in the rectum until it is excreted via the

anus.

Why is digestion Important?

When you eat foods-such as bread. meat. and vegetables -they are not in a form that the

bodice use as nourishment. Food and drink must be changed Into Smaller molecules of

nutrients before they can be absorbed into the blood and carried to cells throughout the

body. Digestion is the process been food and drink are broken go into their smallest parts

so the bogs tan use them to build and nourish cells and to provide energy.

Has is food digested ?

Digestion invokes mixing food with digestive Juices, moving It through the digestive

tract, and breaking do large molecules of food into smaller molecules. Digestion begins

in the mouth. - when you chew and swallow and is completed in the small intestine.

Several factors affect emptying of the stomach including the kind of food and the

degree of muscle action of the emptying stomach and the small intestine. Carbohydrates

for example. spend the least amount of time In the stomach protein stags in the stomach

longer, and fats the logest. As the food dissolves into the juices from the pancreas, liver

and intestine, the contents of the Intestine are mixed and pushed forward to allow furher

digestion.

Absorption and Transport of Nutrients

Carbohydrates The dietary Guidelines fot Americans 2005 recommend that 45 to 65


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percent of total daily calories be from carbohydrates. Foods rich in carbohydrates

include bread. potatoes, dried peas and beans, rice. pasta. fruits suits, and vegetables.

Many of these foods contain both starch and fiber

Fiber is Indigestible and moves through the digestive tract without being broken down by

enzymes. Many foods contain both soluble and insoluble fiber. soluble fiber dissolves

easily in water and takes on a soft, gel-like texture in the intestines. Insoluble fiber, on

the other hand, passes essentially unchanged through the intestines.

Protein.Foods such as meat, eggs, and beans consist of giant molecules of protein that

must be digested by enzymes before they can be used to build and repair body tissues.

an enzyme in the juice of the stomach starts the digestion of Swaltowed protein. then In

the small intestine several enzymes from the pancreatic juice and the lining of the

intestine complete the breakdown of huge protein molecules into small molecules called

amino acids. these small molecules can be absorbed through the small intestine Into the

blood and then be carried to all parts of the body to build the walls and other parts of

cells

Fats. Fat molecules are a rich source of energy for the body the first step in digestion of a

fat such as butter Is to dissolve it into the watery content of the intestine. the bile acids

produced by liver dissolve fat into tiny droplets and allow pancreatic and intestinal

enzymes to break the large fat molecules Into smaller ones. some of these small

molecules are fatty adds and cholesterol. The bile acids combine with the fatty acids and

cholesterol and help these molecules move Into the cells of the mucosa. In these cells the

small molecules are formed back into large ones, most of which pass into vessels called

lymphatics near the intestine. These small vessels carry the reformed fat to the viens of

the chest, and the blood carries the fat to storage depots in different parts of the body

Vitamins. Another vital part of food that is absorbed through the small intestine are

vitamins. The two types of vitamins are classified by the fluid in which they can be

dissolved: water-soluble vitamins (all the B vitamins and vitamin C) and fat-soluble

vitamins (vitamins A, D. E, and K). Fat-soluble vitamins are stored in the liver and fatty

tissue of the body, whereas water-soluble vitamins are not easily stored and excess

amounts are flushed out in the urine.


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Water and salt. Most of the material absorbed through the small intestine is water in

which salt is dissolved. The salt and water come from the food and liquid you swallow

and the juices secreted by the many digestive glands.

Digestive System Glossary:

abdomen - the part of the body that contains the digestive organs. in human beings, this

is between the diaphragm and the pelvis

alimentary canalthe passage through which food passes, including the mouth,

esophagus, stomach. intestines, and anus.

anus ~ the opening at the end of the digestive system from which feces (waste) exits the

body.

appendix - a small sac located on the cecum.

ascending colon - the part of the large intestine that run upwards: it is located after the

cecum.

bile - a digestive chemical that is produced in_the liver, stored in the gall bladder. and

secreted into the

small intestine.

cecumthe first part of the large intestine; the appendix is connected to the cecum.

chyme - food in the stomach that is partly digested and mixed with stomach acids. thyme

goes on to the small intestine for further digestion.

descending colon - the part of the large intestine that run dovlmerards after the transverse

colon and before the sigmoid colon.

digestive system - (also called the gastrointestinal tract or Gl tract) the system of the

body that processes food and gets rid of waste.

duodenum - the first part of the small intestine: it is C-shaped and runs from the stomach

to the jejunum.

esophagus - the long tube between the mouth and the stomach. It uses rhythmic muscle

movements (called peristalsis) to force food from the throat into the stomach.

gall bladder - a small. saclike organ located by the duodenum. lt stores and releases

bile (a digestive chemical which is produced in the liver) into the small intestine.

gastrointestinal tract(also called the Gl tract or digestive system) the system of the

body that processes food and gets rid of waste.

ileum - the last part of the small intestine before the large intestine begins.


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intestines - the part of the alimentary canal located between the stomach and the anus.

jejunum - the long. coiled midsection of the small intestine: it is between the

duodenum and the ileum.

livera large organ located above and in front of the stomach. lt filters toxins from the

blood. and makes

bile (which breaks down fats) and some blood proteins.

mouththe first part of the digestive system. where food enters the body. Chewing and

salivary enzymes in themouth are the beginning of the digestive process (breaking dorm

the food).

pancreas - an enzyme-producing gland located below the stomach and above the

intestines. Enzymes from the pancreas help in the digestion of carbohydrates. fats and

proteins in the small intestine.

peristalsis - rhythmic muscle movements that force food in the esophagus from the throat

into the stomach. Peristalsis is involuntaryyou cannot control it. it is also whet allows

you to eat and drink while upside-down.

rectumthe lower part of the large intestine. where feces are stored before they are

excreted.

salivary glands - glands located in the mouth that produce saliva. Saliva contains

enzymes that break down carbohydrates (starch) into smaller molecules.

sigmoid colon - the part of the large intestine between the descending colon and the

rectum.

stomacha sack-like. muscular organ that is attached to the esophagus. chemical and

mechanical digestion takes place in the stomach. when food enters the stomach, it is

churned in a bath of acids and enzymes.

transverse colon - the part of the large intestine that runs horizontally across the

abdomen.

Digestive Homeostasis Disorders

ULCERS - erosion of the surface of the alimentary canal generally associatedwith some kind of irritant


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CONST|PATlONa condition in which the large intestine is emptied withdifficulty.

Too much water is reabsorbed

and the solid waste hardens


DlARRHEA -a gastrointestinal disturbance characterized by decreased waterabsorption and increased peristaltic activity of the large intestine.

This results in increased, multiple, watery feces.

This condition may result in severe dehydration, especially in infants


APPENDlClTlSan inflammation ofthe appendix due to infection Common treatment is removal of the appendix via surgery


GALLSTONESan accumulation of hardened cholesterol and/or calciumdeposits in the gallbladder

Can either be passed (OUCHH) or surgically removed


ANOREXIA NERVOSA - a psychological condition where an individual thinksthey appear oven/veight and refuses to eat.

Weighs 85% or less than what is developmentally expected for age and height Young glrls do not begin to menstruate at, the appropriate age.


HEART BURN - ACID from the stomach backs up into the esophagus.

Human Musculoskeletal System


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The musculoskeletal system consists of the skeletal system and joints (union of two or

more bones) -- and the skeletal inuscle system (voluntary or striated muscles). These two

systems work together to provide basic functions that are essential to life, including:

Protection: protects the brain and internal organs Support: maintains upright posture Blood cell formation: hemotopoieticMineral homeostasis Storage: stores fat and minerals. Leveragchlever is a simple machine that magnifies speed of movement or force.

The levers are mainly the long bones of the body and the axes are the joints

where the bones meet.

A musculoskeletal system (also knoum as the locomotor system) is an organ system that

gives animals (and humans) the ability to move using the muscular and skeletal systems.

The musculoskeletal system provides form. support, stability, and movement to the body.

lt is made up of the body's bones (the skeleton), muscles. cartilage, tendons. ligaments,

joints, and other connective tissue that supports and binds tissues and organs together.

The musculoskeletal system's primary functions include supporting the body, allowing

motion, and protecting vital organs. The skeletal portion of the system serves as the main

storage system for calcium and phosphorus and contains critical components of the

hematopoietic system.

This system describes how bones are connected to other bones and muscle fibers via

connective tissue such as tendons and ligaments. The bones provide the stability to a

body in analogy to iron rods in concrete construction. Muscles keep bones in place and

also play a sole in movement of the bones. To allow motion. different bones are

connected by joints. Cartilage prevents the bone ends from rubbing directly on to each

other. Muscles contract (bunch up) to move the bone attached at the joint.

Muscular system


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The muscular system is the biological system of humans that produces movement.

Muscle is contractile tissue and is derived from the mesoderm layer of embryonic germ

cells. Its function is to produce force and cause motion. either locomotion or movement

within internal organs. Much of muscle contraction occurs without conscious thought

and is necessary for survival, like the contraction of the heart orpefistafsii which pushes

fond thfough the digestive system. Voluntary muscle contraction is used to move the

body and can be finely controlled, such as movemen s o he finger or gross movements

that of the biceps and triceps.

Muscle structure

Muscle is composed of muscle cells (sometimes known as "muscle fibers"). Within the

cells are myofibrils: myofibrils contain sarcorneres which are

composed of actin and myosin. individual muscle cells are lined with endomysium.

Muscle cells are bound together by perimysiurn into bundles called fascicles. These

bundles are then grouped together to form muscle, and is lined by epimysium. Muscle

spindles are distributed throughout the muscles, and provide sensory feedback in

formation to the central nervous System. Skeletal muscle, which involves muscles from

the skeletal tissue. is arranged in discrete groups. An example is the biceps brachii. It is

connected by tendons to processes of the skeleton. ln contrast. smooth muscle occurs at

various scales in almost every organ. from the skin (in which it controls erection of body

hair) to the blood vessels and digestive tract (in which it controls the caliber of a lumen

and peristalsis.respectively).

There are approximately 640 skeletal muscles in the human body .Contrary to popular

belief. the number of muscle fibers cannot he increased through exercise; instead the

muscle cells simply get bigger. It is however believed that myofibrils have a limited

capacity for growth through hypertrophy and will split if subject to increased demand.

There are three basic types of muscles in the body (smooth, cardiac, and skeletal). While

they differ in many regards, they all use actin sliding against myosin to create muscle

contraction and relaxation. in skeletal muscle, contraction is stimulated at each cell by

nervous impulses that release acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction, creating


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action potentials along the cell membrane. All skeletal muscle and many smooth muscle

contractions are stimulated by the

binding of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Muscular activity accounts for most of the

body's energy consumption. Muscles store energy for their own use in the form of

glycogen, which represents about 1% of their mass. Glycogen can be rapidly converted

to glucose when more energy

Muscle Cell Types

There are three types of musclescardiac, skeletal, and smooth. Smooth muscles are

used to control the flow of substances within the lumens of hollow organs, and are not

consciously controlled. Skeletal and cardiac muscleshave striations that are visible under

a microscope due to the components within their cells. Only skeletal and smooth muscles

are part of the musculoskeletal system and only the skeletal muscles can move the body.

Cardiac muscles are found in the heart and are used only to circulate blood; like the

smooth muscles, these muscles are not under conscious control. Skeletal muscles are

attached to bones and arranged in opposing groups around jointsm Muscles are

innervated, to communicate nervous energy to, by nerves, which conduct electrical

currents from the central nervous system and cause the muscles to contract.

Muscles by Function

Each muscle has its own special name. Muscles, however, are also described by their

function. Muscles that bend a limb are flexors, those which straighten a limb are

extensors (e.g- elbow flexors and elbow extensors.) Muscles which move a limb to the

side, away from the body, are abductors those which move a limb sideways toward the

body are adductors (e.g. hip abductors and hip adductors.) Other functional groups are

elevators, depressors, rotators, dariflexors, planarflexors. and palmar flexors.

There are three categories of muscles in the musculoskeletal system - voluntary,

involuntary and cardiac. Voluntary muscles are fibers that allow for conscious movement

of body parts; when a person walks, voluntary muscles are at work. Involuntary muscles

are located within

certain internal organs such as the esophagus, the tube that leads to the stomach, in which

muscles contract to help move food downward. Cardiac muscles are found lndthin the

heart, an organ whose movement is a constant pumping action


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Skeietal system

The Skeletal System serves many important functions; it provides the shape and form for

our bodies in addition to supporting, protecting. allowing bodily movement, producing

blood for the body. And storing minerais. The number of bones in the human skeletal

system is a controversial topic Humans are born with about 300 to 350 bones; however,

many bones fuse together between birth and maturity. As a result an average adult

skeleton consists of 206 bones. The number of bones varies according to the method use-

i to derive the count. while some consider certain structures to be a single bone with

multiple parts. others may see it as a single part with multiple bones. There are five

general classifications of bones. These are Long bones. Short bones. Flat bones. irregular

bones. and Sesamoid bones. The human skeleton is composed of both fused and

individuai bones supported by ligaments.

tendons, rnuscies and cartiiage. lt is a complex structure with two distinct divisions.

These are the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton.

Bones

There are 206 bones in the adult body. The bones of the body perform five main

functions.

Provide support for the bodyThe skeletal system provides structural supportfor the entire body. individual bones or groups of bones provide a framework for

the attachment of soft tissues and organs. .

Store minerals and lipidsCalcium is the most abundant mineral in the body.(Ninety-nine percent of the body's calcium is found in the skeleton.) The calcium

salts of bone are a vaiuabie rnlnerai that maintains normal concentrations of

calcium and phosphate ions in body fluids. The bones of the skeleton also store

energy reserves as lipids in areas filled vnth yellow marrow.

Produce blood cellsRed blood cells. white blood cells, and other bloodelements are produced in the red marrow. which fills the internal cavities of many

bones.

Protect body organs ~ Many soft tissues and organs are surrounded by skeletalelements. For example. the rib cage protects the heart and lungs, the skull


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protects the brain. the vertebrae protect the spinal cord. and the peivis protects the

delicate reproductive organs.

Provide leverage and movementMany bones function as levers that canchange the magnitude and direction of the forces generated by muscles.

Function

The Skeletal System serves as a framework for tissues and organs to attach themselves

to. This system acts as a protective structure for vital organs. Another function of bones

is the storage of certain rninerais. Calcium and phosphorus are among the main minerals

being stored. The importance ofthis storage device helps to regulate minera! balance

in the bloodstream. When the fluctuation of minerals is h%!\. these minerals are stored

in bone; when it is low it will be withdrawn from the bone.

Other elements of the rnusculoskeletal system

JointsThese are where two bones interconnect. Each joint reflects a compromise

between

stability and range of motion. For example. the bones of the skull are very stable but

immobile, whereas the shoulder joint allows for a full range of motion but is a relatively

unstable joint.

- TendonsThese attach muscle to bone. Tendons can stretch substantially. allowing

them to function as springs during locomotion. thereby saving energy.

Ligaments - A ligament is a smali band of dense. white. fibrous elastic tissue. Ligaments

connect the ends of bones together in order to form a joint. Most ligaments limit

dislocation.

or prevent certain movements that may cause breaks. Since they are only elastic they

increasingly lengthen when under pressure. When this occurs the ligament may be

susceptible to break resulting in an unstable joint.

~ Skeletal muscles - These muscles contract te pull on tendons and move the bones of the

skeleton. In addition to producing skeletal movement. muscles also maintain posture and

body position. support soft tissues. guard entrances and exits to the digestive and urinary

tracts. and maintain body temperature.

NervesNerves control the contraction of skeletal muscles, interprets sensory

information.

and coordinates the activities of the body's organ systems.


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~ CartilageThis is a type of connective tissue. it is a firm gel-like substance. The

body

contains three major types of cartilage: hyaiine cartilage. elastic cartilage, and fibro

cartilage.

Diseases and Disorders

Because many other body systems. including the vascular, nervous, and integumentary

systems. Are interrelated. disorders of one of these systems may also affect the

musculoskeletal system and complicate the diagnosis of the disorders origin. Diseases

of the musculoskeletal system mostly encompass functional disorders or motion

discrepancies: the level of impairment depends specifically on the probler.. and its

severity. Articular (of or pertaining to the }o-ints) disorders are the most common.

However, also among the diagnoses are: primary muscular diseases. neuroiogic (related

to the medical science that deals with the nervous system and disorders affecting it)

deficits. toxins. Endocrine abnormalities. metabolic disorders. infectious diseases. blood

and vascular disorders. And nutritional imbalances. Disorders of muscies from another

body system can bring about irregularities such as: impairment of ocular motion and

controi. respiratory dysfunction, and bladder malfunction.

Muscle Disorders

Dermatomyositis and Polymyositls

Dermatomyositis and polyrnyositis cause inflammation of the muscles. They are rare

disorders. affecting only about one in 196.006 people per year. The affected muscles are

close to the trunk (as opposed to in the wrists or feet). involving for example the hip.

shoulder, or neck muscles. Muscles on both sides of the body are equally affected. in

some cases. muscies are sore or tender. Some patients have involvement of the muscles

of the pharynx (throat) or the esophagus (the tube leading from the throat to the

stomach), causing problems with svirallowing. In some cases. this leads to food being

misdirected from the esophagus to the lungs. causing severe pneumonia.

Other problems sometimes associated with these diseases include fever. weight loss.

arthritis, cold-induced color changes in the fingers or toes (Raynaud phenomenon). and

heart or lung problems.

Muscular Dystrophy


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Muscular dystrophy (MD) is a group of rare inherited muscle diseases in which muscle

fibers are unusually susceptible to damage. Muscles. primariiy voluntary muscles.

become progressively weaker. in the late stages of muscular dystrophy. muscle fibers are

often replaced by fat and connective tissue. In some types of muscular dystrophy. heart

muscles, other involuntary muscles and other organs are affected.

The most common types of rnuscuiar dystrophy appear to be due to a genetic deficiency

of

the muscle protein dystrophin. Theres.no cure for muscular dystroehy. but medications

and therapy can slow the course of the disease.

Medical Myster ies

Sleep Twi tches

The twitching phenomenon that happens in the earlg stage of sleep is called a

hgpnagogic massive jerk. or sirnplg a hgpnic jerk. it has also been referred to as a sleep

start. There has been little research on this topic. but there have been some theories put

forth. when the bodg drifts off into sleep. it undergoes physiological changes related to

bodg temperature. breathing rate and muscular tone. Hgpnic jerks may be the result of

muscle changes. Another thearg saggests that the transition from the waking to the

sleeping state signals the body to relax. But the brain mag interpret the relaxation as a

sign of falling and then signal the arms and legs to wake up. Electroencephalogram

studies have shown sleep starts affect almost 10 percent of the population regularlg. 88

percent occasionally. and another I0 percent rarely.

Microbiology

Clostri dium tetani

Tetanus

Normally a nerve impulse initiates contraction of a muscle At the same time, an

opposing

muscle receives the signal to relax so as not to oppose the contraction. Tetanus toxin

blocks


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the relaxation. so both sets of muscle contract. The usual cause of tetang is lack of

calcium.

but excess of phosphate (high phosphate-i:o-calcium ratio) can also trigger the spasms.

Clostridium botulinum

Infant botulism (floppy baby sgndrorne) the most common form of botulisrn in the U.S.

of the four forms of botulism. if ingested, the toxin is absorbed in the intestine, goes to

the blood. and on to the nervous sgstem. it acts on the peripherai nervous sgstem by

blocking the impulse that is normailg passes along to the nervous sgstem. Bg clocking

the impulse that is normallg passed along to motor end plates so the muscle contraction

can be reieasee.

resulting in paralysis.

Skeletal Disorders

lnjurg. degenerative wear and tear. and inflammatory disorders affect joints. Sprains are

common injuries that cause ligaments to rip of separate from the bone. Tendinitis (such

as tennis elbow) and bursitis are inflammations of the tendon sheaths.

Osteoarthritis is a degenerative condition associated with the wearing away of the

protective caps ofcartilage covering the bone-ends- Bong growths or spurs develop as the

cartilage degenerates. Causing restriction of movement and pain. The cause is not known

and mag just be wearand-tear associated with aging.

Rheumatoid arthritis is a severelg damaging arthritis that begins with inflammation and

thickening of the synovial membrane followed by bone degeneration and disfigurement.

More women than men are affected, There may he a genetir; predisposition to

rheumatoid arthritis. Joint replacement mag in some cases restore function.

Kyphosis also called hunchback is a forward bending of the spine. Kgphosis is caused

ang; condition that deforms the bones of the upper part of the spine so that the person is

bent forward. Diseases that cause irgphosis include tubercoiosis, sgohms, and

rheumatoid arthritis.

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