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ENVIRONMENTALLY ENVIRONMENTALLY TRIGGERED ILLNESS TRIGGERED ILLNESS Oleh: Oleh: dr. Agung S. Dwi Laksana, dr. Agung S. Dwi Laksana, M.Sc.PH M.Sc.PH

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K22 - ETI

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Page 1: K22 - ETI

ENVIRONMENTALLY ENVIRONMENTALLY TRIGGERED ILLNESSTRIGGERED ILLNESS

Oleh:Oleh:

dr. Agung S. Dwi Laksana, M.Sc.PHdr. Agung S. Dwi Laksana, M.Sc.PH

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PENDAHULUANPENDAHULUAN

AAEM (200%): AAEM (200%): kedokteran lingkungan kedokteran lingkungan adalah pelayanan kesehatan adalah pelayanan kesehatan komprehensif, proaktif dan dengan strategi komprehensif, proaktif dan dengan strategi pendekatan preventif yang ditujukan untuk pendekatan preventif yang ditujukan untuk evaluasi, manajemen dan pencegahan evaluasi, manajemen dan pencegahan akibat buruk yang timbul dari penyakit akibat buruk yang timbul dari penyakit yang dipicu oleh lingkungan yang dipicu oleh lingkungan ((Environmentally Trigerred IllnessEnvironmentally Trigerred Illness). ).

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Environmentally Trigerred Illness (ETI) adalah konsekuensi buruk yang terjadi bila interaksi hemodinamik fungsi-fungsi biologik terganggu oleh stresor internal maupun eksternal.

Stresor dapat bervariasi, mulai eksposure akut dan berat terhadap stresor tunggal sampai akumulasi eksposure derajat rendah terhadap banyak stresor pada periode waktu yang lama.

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MASA KANAK-KANAKMASA KANAK-KANAK

Masa kanak-kanak merupakan Masa kanak-kanak merupakan masa tumbuh kembang yang masa tumbuh kembang yang cepatcepatPerubahan fungsi sistem organPerubahan fungsi sistem organPerubahan kemampuan Perubahan kemampuan

metabolikmetabolikPerubahan ukuran fisikPerubahan ukuran fisikPerubahan perilakuPerubahan perilaku

Potensi penyakit akibat paparan bahan toksik

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FAKTOR-FAKTOR YANG MEMPENGARUHI FAKTOR-FAKTOR YANG MEMPENGARUHI PAPARAN PADA BAYI DAN ANAK-ANAKPAPARAN PADA BAYI DAN ANAK-ANAK

Dibandingkan dengan orang dewasa, bayi Dibandingkan dengan orang dewasa, bayi dan anak:dan anak:1.1. Menghirup lebih banyak udaraMenghirup lebih banyak udara

2.2. Minum lebih banyak air Minum lebih banyak air

3.3. Makan lebih banyak makananMakan lebih banyak makananPermeabilitas kulit tinggiPermeabilitas kulit tinggi

Penetrasi bahan toksik lebih mudahPenetrasi bahan toksik lebih mudah

misal: lindane dan hexachlorophene (neurotoksik)misal: lindane dan hexachlorophene (neurotoksik)

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AGE DEPENDENT TOXICOKINETIC AGE DEPENDENT TOXICOKINETIC CHANGESCHANGES

Perubahan fisiologis dan komposisi tubuh pada Perubahan fisiologis dan komposisi tubuh pada anak-anak mempengaruhi absorpsi, distribusi, anak-anak mempengaruhi absorpsi, distribusi, penimbunan dan metabolisme serta ekskresi penimbunan dan metabolisme serta ekskresi bahan-bahan kimiabahan-bahan kimia Fungsi sistem organ berubah Fungsi sistem organ berubah Massa otot dan tulang meningkat Massa otot dan tulang meningkat organ dalam menjadi bagian kecil tubuhorgan dalam menjadi bagian kecil tubuh dosis berubahdosis berubah kinetika dan toksisitas bahan kimia berubahkinetika dan toksisitas bahan kimia berubahContoh: Contoh:

Methemoglobinemia karena paparan nitrate lebih mudah Methemoglobinemia karena paparan nitrate lebih mudah terjadi pada bayi usia 0-4 bulan karena rendahnya terjadi pada bayi usia 0-4 bulan karena rendahnya konsentrasi NADH methemoglobin reduktasekonsentrasi NADH methemoglobin reduktase

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Metabolisme xenobiotik seiring perubahan umur Metabolisme xenobiotik seiring perubahan umur tidak dapat digeneralisasi dengan mudah karena:tidak dapat digeneralisasi dengan mudah karena:1.1. Metabolisme bahan kimia yang efisien tidak berarti Metabolisme bahan kimia yang efisien tidak berarti

menurunkan toksisitasnyamenurunkan toksisitasnya– Metabolic by-product dapat lebih toksik daripada susunan Metabolic by-product dapat lebih toksik daripada susunan

kimia asalkimia asal– Contoh: methyl parathion dimetabolisir menjadi by-product Contoh: methyl parathion dimetabolisir menjadi by-product

yg lebih toksik yg lebih toksik kerusakan pada organ kerusakan pada organ

2.2. Jalur enzymatik tidak matang (mature) secara Jalur enzymatik tidak matang (mature) secara bersamaanbersamaan

– T1/2 kafein pada neonatus 4 hari, pada dewasa 4 jam. Usia T1/2 kafein pada neonatus 4 hari, pada dewasa 4 jam. Usia 7-9 bulan, T1/2 kafein = dewasa.7-9 bulan, T1/2 kafein = dewasa.

– Metabolisme Teofilin melalui sistem sitokrom P-450 berjalan Metabolisme Teofilin melalui sistem sitokrom P-450 berjalan lambat pada BBL, meningkat melebihi dewasa pada masa lambat pada BBL, meningkat melebihi dewasa pada masa anak-anak dan menurun secara perlahan pada masa remaja anak-anak dan menurun secara perlahan pada masa remaja akhirakhir

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3.3. Pada usia yang berbeda, ada kemungkinan Pada usia yang berbeda, ada kemungkinan berbeda pula jalur enzymatik yang digunakan berbeda pula jalur enzymatik yang digunakan untuk metabolisme bahan kimia tertentuuntuk metabolisme bahan kimia tertentu

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VARIASI SUSCEPTIBILITAS PADAVARIASI SUSCEPTIBILITAS PADATIAP TAHAP PERKEMBANGANTIAP TAHAP PERKEMBANGAN

MALE FECUNDITY FEMALE FECUNDITY

CONCEPTION

IMPLANTATION ANDPRECLINICAL GESTATION

CLINICAL PREGNANCY ANDFETAL DEVELOPMENT

BIRTH

POSTNATAL DEVELOPMENT

Gangguan fekunditas

Gangguan fertilitas

Subclinical spontaneous abortion

-Spontaneous abortion-Fetal death-Fetal growth retardationPrematurityCongenital malformation

-Developmental disorders-Childhood cancer

Processes of normal reproduction and development

Adverse outcome

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PRAKONSEPSIPRAKONSEPSI

Male and Female InfertilityMale and Female Infertility Male FecundityMale Fecundity

HazardHazard EffectEffectMetalsMetals: Lead: Lead HPG AxisHPG AxisPesticidesPesticides::-DBCP DBCP (dibromochloropropane)(dibromochloropropane)-EDB (Ethylenedibromide)EDB (Ethylenedibromide)

Toksik terhadap spermatogonia Toksik terhadap spermatogonia azoospermiaazoospermiaKelenjar seks Kelenjar seks Mempengaruhi kualitas Mempengaruhi kualitas semensemen

SolventsSolvents::-Ethylene glicol ethersEthylene glicol ethers-2-bromopropene2-bromopropene

Toksik terhadap spermatidToksik terhadap spermatidToksik terhadap spermatogonia Toksik terhadap spermatogonia azoospermiaazoospermia

PharmaceuticalsPharmaceuticals::EstrogenEstrogen Menekan aksis HPGMenekan aksis HPGPhysical agentsPhysical agents::Ionizing radiationIonizing radiationHeatHeat

Efek terhadap SpermatogenesisEfek terhadap Spermatogenesis

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Female FecundityFemale Fecundity

HazardHazard EffectEffectSolvents:Solvents:-TolueneToluene-2-bromopropane2-bromopropane

Menekan sekresi LH dan FSHMenekan sekresi LH dan FSHAmenorrhea, low estradiol and high Amenorrhea, low estradiol and high FSH and LH levelFSH and LH level

LeadLead Menekan aksis HPO dan toksik Menekan aksis HPO dan toksik terhadap ovarium dan oocyteterhadap ovarium dan oocyte

Physical agents:Physical agents: - Ionizing radiation- Ionizing radiation Menghancurkan oocyteMenghancurkan oocyte

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FETUSFETUS

Fetus tidak bisa menghindar dari paparan Fetus tidak bisa menghindar dari paparan bahan toksik melalui placentabahan toksik melalui placenta

Placenta merupakan membran semipermiabel Placenta merupakan membran semipermiabel yang memungkinkan transport senyawa dengan yang memungkinkan transport senyawa dengan berat molekul rendahberat molekul rendah (misal CO) dan (misal CO) dan larut larut lemaklemak (PAH dan ethanol) dengan mudah (PAH dan ethanol) dengan mudah

Kemampuan placenta untuk detoksifikasi Kemampuan placenta untuk detoksifikasi sangat rendahsangat rendah

Kontaminan makanan sebelum dan sesudah Kontaminan makanan sebelum dan sesudah hamil dapat membahayakan fetushamil dapat membahayakan fetus

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Perubahan fisiologi selama hamil memobilisasi Perubahan fisiologi selama hamil memobilisasi bahan toksik dalam tubuhbahan toksik dalam tubuh

Misal:Misal: Mobilisasi lead dari tulangMobilisasi lead dari tulang Mobilisasi PCBs dari sel lemakMobilisasi PCBs dari sel lemak

Alkohol Alkohol fetal alcohol syndrome fetal alcohol syndrome Merokok Merokok HbCO fetus meningkat HbCO fetus meningkat risiko risiko

kematian janin dan penurunan fungsi paru serta kematian janin dan penurunan fungsi paru serta berat badan rendah berat badan rendah

FETUS (Cont.)FETUS (Cont.)

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CO HbCO

Hipoksia

Aktivasi sphingomyelinase

Gangguan proses seluler:• diferensiasi sel• proliferasi sel• transport protein• apoptosis

Akumulasi sphingosine

Sphingomyelin Sphingosine

CO gangguan sistem saraf tepi

FETUS (cont.)FETUS (cont.)

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1.1. Aborsi spontanAborsi spontan Berbagai jenis bahan kimia dan pekerjaan Berbagai jenis bahan kimia dan pekerjaan

dihubungkan dengan terjadinya aborsi dihubungkan dengan terjadinya aborsi spontanspontan

Mekanisme belum diketahui dengan pastiMekanisme belum diketahui dengan pasti

FETUS (cont.)FETUS (cont.)

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BAHAN TOKSIKBAHAN TOKSIK RISIKORISIKOMedical hazards:Medical hazards: - Antineoplatik drug- Antineoplatik drug - Anesthetic gases- Anesthetic gases - Nitrous oxide- Nitrous oxide - Ethylene oxide- Ethylene oxide

Perawat Perawat Personel ruang operasiPersonel ruang operasiAsisten dokter gigiAsisten dokter gigiOperator sterilisasiOperator sterilisasi

Metals: LeadMetals: Lead

Solvents:Solvents: - Ethylene glycol ethers- Ethylene glycol ethers Manufaktur semikonduktorManufaktur semikonduktorAromatic solventsAromatic solvents Pemakaian di tempat kerjaPemakaian di tempat kerjaMixed organic solventsMixed organic solvents Pemakaian di tempat kerjaPemakaian di tempat kerjaOther chemicals:Other chemicals: - PCB- PCB - Pesticides- Pesticides

Kontaminasi makananKontaminasi makananKeracunanKeracunan

Physical agents:Physical agents: - Heavy labor- Heavy labor - Shift work- Shift work

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2.2. CacatCacat Periode organogenesis Periode organogenesis otak paling rentan karena otak paling rentan karena

blood brain barrier blood brain barrier dan kemampuan detoksifikasidan kemampuan detoksifikasi masih masih kurangkurang

Keracunan lead Keracunan lead kerusakan sistem syaraf kerusakan sistem syaraf Keracunan ethanol Keracunan ethanol migrasi sel terganggu migrasi sel terganggu

malformasi otakmalformasi otak Keracunan methyl mercury Keracunan methyl mercury cerebral palsy dan cerebral palsy dan

retardasi mentalretardasi mental CO CO penurunan kognitif permanen dan fungsi penurunan kognitif permanen dan fungsi

motorikmotorik Pembelahan sel yg cepat pada fetus Pembelahan sel yg cepat pada fetus sensitif sensitif

terhadap karsinogenterhadap karsinogen Diethylstilbestrol (DES) via placenta dan radiasi Diethylstilbestrol (DES) via placenta dan radiasi

kanker kanker

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3.3. Fetal growth retardation dan prematuritasFetal growth retardation dan prematuritas

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BBL (0-2 BULAN), BAYI (2-12 BLN), DAN BBL (0-2 BULAN), BAYI (2-12 BLN), DAN TODDLER (1-2 TAHUN)TODDLER (1-2 TAHUN)

Pertumbuhan bayi pada beberapa bulan Pertumbuhan bayi pada beberapa bulan pertama merupakan yang tercepat sepanjang pertama merupakan yang tercepat sepanjang hiduphidup

Jaringan dengan pembelahan sel yang cepat, Jaringan dengan pembelahan sel yang cepat, termasuk sel hematopoietic, jaringan paru dan termasuk sel hematopoietic, jaringan paru dan epitel, rentan terhadap kasinogenepitel, rentan terhadap kasinogen

Kecepatan pertumbuhan bayi melambat ketika Kecepatan pertumbuhan bayi melambat ketika berusia 9 bulanberusia 9 bulan

Radiasi Radiasi proliferasi sel proliferasi sel Ethanol Ethanol migrasi sel migrasi sel Hypothyroidisme Hypothyroidisme diferensiasi sel diferensiasi sel

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Exposure melalui ingestiExposure melalui ingestiBreastfeedingBreastfeeding (ASI): menyusui (ASI): menyusui

mobilisasi toksikan yg larut dalam lemak mobilisasi toksikan yg larut dalam lemak kontaminasi ASI.kontaminasi ASI.

Formula feedingFormula feeding: : Bayi mengkonsumsi air dalam jumlah besar Bayi mengkonsumsi air dalam jumlah besar

(10%-15% dari berat badannya)(10%-15% dari berat badannya)Konsumsi air dari pemberian makanan formula Konsumsi air dari pemberian makanan formula

bayi bayi 180 ml/kgBB/hari 180 ml/kgBB/hari setara 35 kaleng setara 35 kaleng (360 ml) softdrink pada orang dewasa(360 ml) softdrink pada orang dewasa

Paparan logam berat, nitrate, mikroba dan Paparan logam berat, nitrate, mikroba dan bahan kimia organikbahan kimia organik

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PicaPica memasukkan benda bukan makanan memasukkan benda bukan makanan ke mulut. ke mulut. Soil-picaSoil-pica dapat terjadi ingesti dapat terjadi ingesti bahan toksik: debu, cat mengandung lead, bahan toksik: debu, cat mengandung lead, mercury, produk pembersih lantai, dll.mercury, produk pembersih lantai, dll.

Solid FoodSolid Food (Makanan Padat): makanan anak (Makanan Padat): makanan anak < < 2 tahun kaya buah, sayur dan padi-padian 2 tahun kaya buah, sayur dan padi-padian exposure residu pestisidaexposure residu pestisida

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Exposure melalui kulit (Dermal Exposure melalui kulit (Dermal exposure)exposure)Rasio permukaan kulit bayi terhadap berat Rasio permukaan kulit bayi terhadap berat

badan 3x lebih besar dari orang dewasabadan 3x lebih besar dari orang dewasaDosis bahan yg diabsorbsi lebih besarDosis bahan yg diabsorbsi lebih besarKulit bayi lebih mudah mengabsorbsi bahan Kulit bayi lebih mudah mengabsorbsi bahan

kimia karena lapisan keratin tebal pada kulit kimia karena lapisan keratin tebal pada kulit bayi baru lahir belum terbentuk bayi baru lahir belum terbentuk

Lapisan keratin baru mulai dibentuk pada hari Lapisan keratin baru mulai dibentuk pada hari ke 3-5 setelah lahirke 3-5 setelah lahir

Hexachlorophene Hexachlorophene pembersih kulit pembersih kulit merusak dinding sel dan presipitasi protein merusak dinding sel dan presipitasi protein seluler seluler vakuolisasi CNS vakuolisasi CNS

Betadine Betadine hypothyroidisme pada bayi hypothyroidisme pada bayiAnilin Anilin methemoglobinemia methemoglobinemia

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Exposure melalui Inhalasi: PernapasanExposure melalui Inhalasi: PernapasanBayi dan anak frekuensi pernafasannya lebih Bayi dan anak frekuensi pernafasannya lebih

cepatcepatRisiko paparan terhadap polutan udara lebih Risiko paparan terhadap polutan udara lebih

besarbesarPaparan terhadap polutan udara meningkatkan Paparan terhadap polutan udara meningkatkan

insidensi dan beratnya serangan asthmainsidensi dan beratnya serangan asthma

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ANAK-ANAK USIA 2-6 TAHUNANAK-ANAK USIA 2-6 TAHUN

Aktivitas anak mulai meningkat: lari, Aktivitas anak mulai meningkat: lari, memanjat, mengendarai sepeda roda tiga memanjat, mengendarai sepeda roda tiga dan aktivitas laindan aktivitas lain

lingkungan anak lebih luaslingkungan anak lebih luasBila diet kurang besi atau kalsium Bila diet kurang besi atau kalsium

absorbsi lead lebih tinggiabsorbsi lead lebih tinggiRisiko Risiko soil-picasoil-pica juga masih tinggi juga masih tinggi

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ANAK USIA SEKOLAH (6-12 TAHUN)ANAK USIA SEKOLAH (6-12 TAHUN)

Kegiatan di luar rumah lebih banyak dari Kegiatan di luar rumah lebih banyak dari sebelumnyasebelumnya

Paparan terhadap polutan udara Paparan terhadap polutan udara meningkatmeningkat

Selama bermain anak-anak dapat Selama bermain anak-anak dapat terpapar arsen, merkuri dan bahan toksik terpapar arsen, merkuri dan bahan toksik lain melalui ingesti atau inhalasilain melalui ingesti atau inhalasi

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REMAJA (12-18 TAHUN)REMAJA (12-18 TAHUN)

Risk-taking behaviorRisk-taking behavior paparan terhadap alkohol, paparan terhadap alkohol, penyalahgunaan obat-obatan, merokok, dsb.penyalahgunaan obat-obatan, merokok, dsb.

Aktivitas sekolah dan hobby seperti melukis dan Aktivitas sekolah dan hobby seperti melukis dan kerajinan kerajinan paparan bahan kimia paparan bahan kimia

Kecepatan metabolisme xenobiotic menurun Kecepatan metabolisme xenobiotic menurun karena peningkatan sekresi hormon pertumbuhan karena peningkatan sekresi hormon pertumbuhan dan steroiddan steroid

Perubahan pada masa pubertas Perubahan pada masa pubertas pertumbuhan, pertumbuhan, pembelahan dan diferensiasi sel yang cepat pembelahan dan diferensiasi sel yang cepat kerentanan, terutama gangguan pada kerentanan, terutama gangguan pada perkembangan sistem reproduksiperkembangan sistem reproduksi

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AGENT LINGKUNGAN AGENT LINGKUNGAN PENYEBAB GANGGUAN PENYEBAB GANGGUAN

KARDIOVASKULERKARDIOVASKULER

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KLASIFIKASIKLASIFIKASI

Gangguan kardiovaskuler karena agent Gangguan kardiovaskuler karena agent lingkungan dapat diklasifikasikan:lingkungan dapat diklasifikasikan:1.1. Coronary artery diseaseCoronary artery disease2.2. DysrhythmiasDysrhythmias3.3. HypertensionHypertension4.4. CardiomyopathyCardiomyopathy5.5. Peripheral vascular diseasePeripheral vascular disease6.6. ECG AbnormalitiesECG Abnormalities7.7. Cor pulmonaleCor pulmonale

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CORONARY ARTERY DISEASECORONARY ARTERY DISEASE

Acute cardiac ischemia: Acute cardiac ischemia: Kerja berat pada udara yg panas dan lembabKerja berat pada udara yg panas dan lembab peningkatan kebutuhan oksigen otot peningkatan kebutuhan oksigen otot

jantungjantungChronic cardiac ischemia:Chronic cardiac ischemia:

Berperan dalam CADBerperan dalam CADPenyebab CAD dan acute cardiac Penyebab CAD dan acute cardiac

ischemia: CSischemia: CS22, CO, methylene chloride, , CO, methylene chloride, nitrate esters, dan physical inactivitynitrate esters, dan physical inactivity

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CSCS22

Solvent dan chemical intermediate pada produksi Solvent dan chemical intermediate pada produksi rayonrayon

Ambang batas: 10 ppm atau 31 mg/MAmbang batas: 10 ppm atau 31 mg/M33

Mekanisme kerja CSMekanisme kerja CS22 belum diketahui, diduga akibat belum diketahui, diduga akibat

perubahan pada:perubahan pada: Lipid darahLipid darah Heart rate Heart rate Diastolic blood pressureDiastolic blood pressure Carotid artery distensibilityCarotid artery distensibility

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Nitrate estersNitrate esters:: Terutama: nitrogliserinTerutama: nitrogliserin Digunakan sbg pengobatan dan bahan peledakDigunakan sbg pengobatan dan bahan peledak Nitrat Nitrat methemoglobinemia methemoglobinemia Nitrat Nitrat vasodilatasi arteri vasodilatasi arteri headache dan headache dan

confusionconfusion Mekanisme cadiac ischemia karena nitrate tidak Mekanisme cadiac ischemia karena nitrate tidak

diketahui, tetapi diduga karena efek vasospasme diketahui, tetapi diduga karena efek vasospasme arteri coronariaarteri coronaria

Spasme a. coronaria Spasme a. coronaria iskemia dan nekrosis miokard iskemia dan nekrosis miokard dan disritmiadan disritmia

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COCOSelain terikat pada Hb, CO juga terikat pada Selain terikat pada Hb, CO juga terikat pada

sistem sitokrom oksidase pada mitokondria sistem sitokrom oksidase pada mitokondria otot jantung otot jantung kontraktilitas otot jantung kontraktilitas otot jantung menurunmenurun

Efek: iskemia atau infark miokard, disritmiaEfek: iskemia atau infark miokard, disritmia

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HYPERTENSIONHYPERTENSION

Penyebab: Penyebab: Stress psikososial: stimulasi sistem syaraf simpatis, Stress psikososial: stimulasi sistem syaraf simpatis,

sistem hipothalamus-hipofise-adrenal dan sistem sistem hipothalamus-hipofise-adrenal dan sistem renin-angiotensinrenin-angiotensin

Agent fisik: kebisingan >90 dB Agent fisik: kebisingan >90 dB kenaikan tekanan kenaikan tekanan darahdarah

Agent kimia: Agent kimia: Pb Pb aksi pada otot arteri dan aksis renin-angiotensin aksi pada otot arteri dan aksis renin-angiotensin CSCS2 2

COCO

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COR PULMONALECOR PULMONALE

Penyakit jantung karena gangguan pada Penyakit jantung karena gangguan pada paru akibat paparan berbagai agentparu akibat paparan berbagai agent

Misal:Misal:SilikosisSilikosisCOPD (PPOM) karena paparan asbestosCOPD (PPOM) karena paparan asbestos

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ENVIRONMENTAL ENVIRONMENTAL DISEASE OF THE LUNGDISEASE OF THE LUNG

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GENERAL PRINCIPLES IN THE PATHOGENESIS GENERAL PRINCIPLES IN THE PATHOGENESIS OF LUNG DAMAGE CAUSED BY CHEMICALSOF LUNG DAMAGE CAUSED BY CHEMICALS

Oxidative Burden (Beban oksidatif)Oxidative Burden (Beban oksidatif)Often mediated by free radicalsOften mediated by free radicalsOzone, NOOzone, NO22, tobacco smoke, tobacco smoke In animal studies In animal studies the activity of free radical- the activity of free radical-

scavenging enzymesscavenging enzymesReduction of OReduction of O2 2 to active Oto active O2 2 metabolites metabolites

normally occurs as a by-product of cellular normally occurs as a by-product of cellular metabolism during both microsomal and metabolism during both microsomal and mitochondrial electron transfer reactionmitochondrial electron transfer reaction

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Toxic inhalants, gasesToxic inhalants, gasesThe sites of deposition of gases in the respiratory The sites of deposition of gases in the respiratory

tract define the pattern of toxicity of those gases tract define the pattern of toxicity of those gases Water solubility is the critical factorWater solubility is the critical factorHighly soluble gasesHighly soluble gases do not penetrates into the do not penetrates into the

lunglungEx: SOEx: SO22

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Relatively insoluble gases Relatively insoluble gases penetrates deeply penetrates deeply into the lung and reach the smallest airways into the lung and reach the smallest airways and alveoli and alveoli Ex: NOEx: NO22

Very insoluble gases Very insoluble gases efficiently pass through efficiently pass through the respiratory tract and are taken up by the the respiratory tract and are taken up by the pulmonary blood supply to be distributed pulmonary blood supply to be distributed throughout the bodythroughout the bodyEx: CO and HEx: CO and H22SS

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Particle deposition and clearanceParticle deposition and clearanceParticle sizeParticle size: the larger the number and : the larger the number and

mass of particles capable of penetrating mass of particles capable of penetrating the lung, the greater the probability of a the lung, the greater the probability of a toxic effecttoxic effect

Deposition mechanismDeposition mechanismInterception: an edge of the particle Interception: an edge of the particle

contacts the airway surface. contacts the airway surface. Dependent on fiber length Dependent on fiber length ex: fiberex: fiber

ImpactionImpactionDependent on fiber diameterDependent on fiber diameter

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SedimentationSedimentationIn the smaller bronchi, the bronchioles In the smaller bronchi, the bronchioles

and the alveolar spaces, where the and the alveolar spaces, where the airways are small and the velocity of airways are small and the velocity of airflow is lowairflow is low

Dependent on fiber diameterDependent on fiber diameterDiffusion: an important factor in the Diffusion: an important factor in the

deposition of sub micrometer particles deposition of sub micrometer particles

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1. OCCUPATIONAL ASTHMA1. OCCUPATIONAL ASTHMA

Definisi: Definisi: a disease characterised by variable airflow a disease characterised by variable airflow

obstruction and/or airway airway obstruction and/or airway airway hyperresponsiveness due to causes and hyperresponsiveness due to causes and conditions attributable to a particular working conditions attributable to a particular working environment and not to stimuli encountered environment and not to stimuli encountered outside the workplaceoutside the workplace

Epidemiology:Epidemiology:The most common occupational lung disease The most common occupational lung disease affect 5-10% of the population worldwide affect 5-10% of the population worldwide

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Penyebab:Penyebab:1.1. Sensitizer-induced OA (Immunologically Sensitizer-induced OA (Immunologically

mediated)mediated)

2.2. Irritant-induced OA (non-immunologically Irritant-induced OA (non-immunologically mediated)mediated)

3.3. Workplace aggravation of asthmaWorkplace aggravation of asthma

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PatofisiologiPatofisiologi1.1. Sensitizer-induced OASensitizer-induced OA

Interaction of both environmental and genetic Interaction of both environmental and genetic factorsfactors

High molecular weight compounds (>5 kDa) High molecular weight compounds (>5 kDa) induced specific IgE antibodies that mediate induced specific IgE antibodies that mediate asthmatic responseasthmatic response

Low molecular weight agents act as haptens + Low molecular weight agents act as haptens + amino group on protein amino group on protein antigen antigen

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High molecular weight agentHigh molecular weight agent Low molecular weight agentLow molecular weight agent

Animal-derived material::-Excreta Excreta -SecretionSecretion-SerumSerum-DanderDander

Spray paints:-Toluene diisocyanateToluene diisocyanate-Hexamethylene diisocyanateHexamethylene diisocyanate

Plant-derived material:-Flour - wood dustFlour - wood dust-Grain - latexGrain - latex-Coffee beanCoffee bean

Wood dust

Enzymes-αα-amylase-amylase-Papain-Alcalase

Acid anhydride biocides::-FormaldehydeFormaldehyde-GlutaraldehydeGlutaraldehyde-Chloramin TChloramin T

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2. Irritant-induced asthma Causes: single exposure to high dose of irritant The mechanism is not known Postulate:

Neurogenic inflamation Low dose RADS: smoker and allergic rhinitis

Irritant agents: chlorine, acetic acid

3. Workplace aggravation of asthma Airway hyper-responsiveness Low level of respiratory irritant bronchoconstriction

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2. COPD AND CHRONIC BRONCHITIS2. COPD AND CHRONIC BRONCHITIS

EpidemiologyEpidemiology: : COPD is predicted to be one of the major causes COPD is predicted to be one of the major causes

of deaths in Indonesia in 2020of deaths in Indonesia in 2020 Its prevalence increases with age and varies with Its prevalence increases with age and varies with

the distribution of risk factors in the populationthe distribution of risk factors in the populationSpecific occupational risk factors:Specific occupational risk factors:

Grain handlerGrain handlerAsbestos insulatorAsbestos insulatorAluminium smelterAluminium smelterWood workersWood workers

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3. ACUTE INHALATION INJURY3. ACUTE INHALATION INJURY

Properties of irritant:Properties of irritant: Physical properties:Physical properties:

Gases, vapor, fumes, aerosols and smokeGases, vapor, fumes, aerosols and smoke Water soluble substance: upper airway injuryWater soluble substance: upper airway injury The size of inhaled particle The size of inhaled particle diameter diameter << 5 5 µm µm

terminal bronchioles and alveoliterminal bronchioles and alveoli Ex: Zinc chloride (hexite) Ex: Zinc chloride (hexite) diameter diameter << 0,1 µm 0,1 µm

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Irritant gasIrritant gas Water solubilityWater solubility Mechanism of Mechanism of injuryinjury

AmmoniaAmmonia HighHigh Alkali burnsAlkali burns

ChlorineChlorine IntermediateIntermediate Acid burns, Acid burns, reactive oxygen reactive oxygen speciesspecies

Hydrogen chlorideHydrogen chloride HighHigh Acid burnsAcid burns

Oxides of nitrogenOxides of nitrogen LowLow Acid burns, Acid burns, reactive oxygen reactive oxygen speciesspecies

OzoneOzone LowLow Reactive oxygen Reactive oxygen speciesspecies

PhosgenePhosgene LowLow Acid burnsAcid burns

Sulfur dioxideSulfur dioxide HighHigh Acid burnsAcid burns

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PATHOGENESIS AND CLINICAL PATHOGENESIS AND CLINICAL PRESENTATIONPRESENTATIONAcute: 1-2 days of exposureAcute: 1-2 days of exposure

Laryngeal edemaLaryngeal edemaAirflow ostruction – asthma and bronchitisAirflow ostruction – asthma and bronchitisPneumonitis, pulmonary edemaPneumonitis, pulmonary edemaARDSARDS

Chronic: weeks to months after the exposureChronic: weeks to months after the exposureCOPDCOPDReactive airways dysfunction syndrome (RADS)Reactive airways dysfunction syndrome (RADS)BronchitisBronchitisBronchiolitis obliteransBronchiolitis obliteransBronchiolitis obliterans organizing PneumoniaBronchiolitis obliterans organizing Pneumonia

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Upper airway acute injuryUpper airway acute injury

IRRITANT

ACIDIC SUBSTANCES

SKIN AND MUCOUSMEMBRANE

ALCALOTIC SUBSTANCE

LIQUEFACTION OFTHE SURFACE MUCOSA

COAGULATE TISSUE DEEPER TISSUE

REACTIVE OXYGEN

LIPID PEROXIDATION

CELLULAR AND TISSUEDISRUPTION

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Pulmonary parenchymaPulmonary parenchymaLow water solubilities: ozone and NOLow water solubilities: ozone and NO2 2

exposure are not result in upper airway exposure are not result in upper airway irritationirritation

continued exposure to the toxic gasescontinued exposure to the toxic gases particle deposition in alveoliparticle deposition in alveoli bronchiolar inflammation and pulmonary bronchiolar inflammation and pulmonary

edema (alveolar filling)edema (alveolar filling)

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4. Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis4. Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis

Definition:Definition: A condition of granulomatous, interstitial, bronchiolar A condition of granulomatous, interstitial, bronchiolar

and alveolar-filling lung disease caused by repeated and alveolar-filling lung disease caused by repeated exposure and subsequent sensitization to a variety exposure and subsequent sensitization to a variety organic and chemical antigensorganic and chemical antigens

EtiologyEtiology Microbial agent: various bacteria and fungiMicrobial agent: various bacteria and fungi Animal protein: avian antigen, rat proteins and dust Animal protein: avian antigen, rat proteins and dust

from mollusk shellsfrom mollusk shells Low molecular weight chemicals: adhesives and Low molecular weight chemicals: adhesives and

paintspaints

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Pathogenesis:Pathogenesis:HP is characterized by the presence of HP is characterized by the presence of

activated T lymphocytes activated T lymphocytes Host susceptibility: smokingHost susceptibility: smokingExposure factors: Ag concentration, duration Exposure factors: Ag concentration, duration

of exposure, frequency of exposure, particle of exposure, frequency of exposure, particle size, solubility and potency, variability in size, solubility and potency, variability in workplace, seasonworkplace, season

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5. ASBESTOSIS5. ASBESTOSIS Pathogenesis:Pathogenesis:

Asbestos fibers are inhaled deep into the respiratory Asbestos fibers are inhaled deep into the respiratory tract tract uptake by alveolar epithelial cells uptake by alveolar epithelial cells pulmonary interstitium pulmonary interstitium accumulation macrophages accumulation macrophages inflamation response inflamation response alveolitis and alveolitis and peribronchiolitisperibronchiolitis

Asbestos fibers are retained in the pulmonary Asbestos fibers are retained in the pulmonary interstitium or migrate to the pleurainterstitium or migrate to the pleura

Asbestos fibers generate reactive oxygen Asbestos fibers generate reactive oxygen intermediates intermediates cytotoxicity cytotoxicity lipid peroxidation and lipid peroxidation and injury to intracellular macromoleculinjury to intracellular macromolecul

Activated macrophages produce tumor necrosis Activated macrophages produce tumor necrosis factor, in addition to the production of cytokines, factor, in addition to the production of cytokines, interleukins and other mediators interleukins and other mediators

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FAKTOR LINGKUNGAN FAKTOR LINGKUNGAN PENYAKIT KULITPENYAKIT KULIT

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CAUSE OF SKIN DISEASECAUSE OF SKIN DISEASE

ChemicalMechanicalPhysicalBiologicalBotanical

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CHEMICAL HAZARDSCHEMICAL HAZARDS

Chemical agents can be divided into two main groups:

1. Primary irritants and

2. Sensitizers.

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Ad.1. Primary IrritantsAd.1. Primary Irritants

Irritant: a substance that produces an irritating effect when it contacts skin, eyes, nose, or respiratory system.

Iritan primer mengubah kimia kulit dan Iritan primer mengubah kimia kulit dan merusak kemampuan proteksinyamerusak kemampuan proteksinya

kerusakan jaringankerusakan jaringanKerusakan permukaan kulit Kerusakan permukaan kulit Dermatitis Dermatitis

Kontak Iritan (DKI)Kontak Iritan (DKI)

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Ad.1. Primary IrritantsAd.1. Primary Irritants

Kebanyakan bahan kimia iritan larut dalam air Kebanyakan bahan kimia iritan larut dalam air (water soluble) (water soluble) bereaksi dengan unsur lipid bereaksi dengan unsur lipid pada kulitpada kulit Contoh: solventContoh: solvent

Primary irritants act directly on the skin in one of the following ways: Chemically reacting with it, Dissolving or abstracting from it some of its essential

components, Denaturing the proteins of the skin, or Disturbing the skin’s membrane and its ability to retain

moisture.

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Ad.1. Primary IrritantsAd.1. Primary Irritants

Yang termasuk iritan primer:1. Keratin Solvents: melunakkan sel keratin kulit

dan kehilangan cairan kulit kulit kering dan pecah-pecah

Contoh: Sabun, alkalis dan solvent organik

2. Fat and Oil Solvents: mengelupas lapisan lipid kulit dan menurunkan kemampuan kulit meretensi air

Contoh: detergent

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3. Protein Precipitants: bahan kimia yg bereaksi dengan sel-sel protein kulit

Contoh: alkohol, formaldehid, fenol dan garam-garam logam berat

4. Dehydrators: menguapkan air dari kulit dan menghasilkan panas

Contoh: asam inorganik, alkalis (calcium oxide)

5. Oxidizers: bereaksi dengan hidrogen dan melepaskan oksigen dari kulit

Contoh: Nitrat, chlorine, amonia dan hidrogen peroksida

Ad.1. Primary IrritantsAd.1. Primary Irritants

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6. Reducers: bereaksi dengan air pada kulit untuk melepaskan hidrogen dan melemahkan bagian luar kulit

Contoh: Tar, karbon aromatik dan alifatik, asam oksalat

7. Keratin Stimulants: menstimulasi pertumbuhan abnormal kulit, menyebabkan tumor atau kanker

Contoh: produk petroleum, PAH, arsen

Ad.1. Primary IrritantsAd.1. Primary Irritants

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Two Major Classes of Primary Irritants1. Absolute Primary Irritants are corrosive

substances that injure the skin immediately following first contact.

Contoh: asam kuat dan basa kuat

2. Relative Primary Irritants are less toxic substances that require either repeated or prolonged contact to produce inflammation.

Contoh: sabun, deterjen dan solvent organik

Ad.1. Primary IrritantsAd.1. Primary Irritants

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Ad.2. Sensitizer (Alergen)Ad.2. Sensitizer (Alergen)

Sensitizer : a material that can cause an allergic reaction of the skin or respiratory system.

Sensitizers do not cause visible skin changes following first contact, but produce a specific acquired alteration in the capacity of the skin to react, brought about by an antibody-like mechanism.

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Chemicals that cause skin sensitization are far fewer than those that cause primary irritation.

Contoh: poison ivy, epoxy, formaldehyde, ammonia, germicidal agents, nickel compounds, mercury compounds, cobalt compounds, and coal tars.

Some compounds, such as turpentine and chromic acid, cause both primary irritation and sensitization.

Ad.2. SensitizerAd.2. Sensitizer

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Workers can also become sensitized by latex in rubber gloves

Photosensitizers Certain chemicals are capable of reacting with specific wave lengths of natural and artificial light to cause phototoxic or photoallergic dermatitis. The best known industrial chemicals with this capacity are derivatives of coal tar (anthracene, phenanthrene, and creosote) and certain dyes.

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Examples of occupational risk for contact allergyExamples of occupational risk for contact allergy

Industry Possible sensitizing agents

Textile Dyes, Formaldehyde, resin

Panting Epoxy, acrylates

Printing Acrylates, epoxy, resins

Agriculture Pesticides, plants, rubber

Food preparation Flavoring and preservatives

Medical/dental/veterinary Rubber, acrylates, medications

Hairdresser Nickel, rubber, glyceryl monothioglucolate

Metal workers Metals, biocides in cutting fluid

Rubber manufacture Carbamates, mercaptobenzothiazole

Leather tanning Hromate, formaldehyde

Plastics manufacture Formaldehyde, phenolic resins, epoxy resins

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The Development of Allergic Contact Dermatitis proceeds in the following steps:

1. The refractory period is the time during which contact with a potential allergen occurs without the development of sensitivity.

2. The latent or incubation period is the time during which development of sensitization occurs. Once this process stops, five to several weeks are required for full sensitization to occur.

3. The reaction period occurs when fully sensitized skin is reexposed to the allergen, resulting in an inflammatory response at the site of contact. This reaction usually begins within 12 hours, peaks at 24 to 48 hours, and then slowly subsides.

4. The period of persistence of sensitivity is the time during which no further contact with the allergen occurs, and the level of sensitivity gradually declines. The rate of decline is variable: some sensitivities remain for many years, other disappear rapidly.

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PENYAKIT KULIT LAIN KARENA CHEMICAL HAZARDSPENYAKIT KULIT LAIN KARENA CHEMICAL HAZARDS

1)1) Acne dan folliculitisAcne dan folliculitis

2)2) Disorders of pigmentationDisorders of pigmentation

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Ad.1). Acne dan folliculitisAd.1). Acne dan folliculitis

a)a) FolliculitisFolliculitis

b)b) Acne vulgarisAcne vulgaris

c)c) ChloracneChloracne

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Ad.a). Oil acne (Folliculitis)Ad.a). Oil acne (Folliculitis) CausalCausal: :

petroleum distillate, spt tir, minyak, aspalpetroleum distillate, spt tir, minyak, aspal PathogenesisPathogenesis::

Folikel rambut rentan thd iritasi oleh lipid Folikel rambut rentan thd iritasi oleh lipid keratinisasi dinding folikel keratinisasi dinding folikel penyumbatan folikel penyumbatan folikel (comedo formation) atau menginduksi reaksi (comedo formation) atau menginduksi reaksi peradangan melalui ruptur dinding folikel peradangan melalui ruptur dinding folikel (folliculitis)(folliculitis)

Clinical courseClinical courseLesi acneiform (follicular) pada daerah yg terpapar, Lesi acneiform (follicular) pada daerah yg terpapar,

umumnya pada dorsal tangan dan lenganumumnya pada dorsal tangan dan lengan

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Ad.b). Acne vulgarisAd.b). Acne vulgaris

Pathogenesis Dapat dipicu atu dieksaserbasi oleh stimulus

lingkungan seperti panas, dan keringat, disamping minyak

Clinical course Biasanya terdapat di wajah, leher, bagian atas dada

dan punggung Prevention

Menghindari kontak dengan bahan penyebab dan higiene

Treatment and prognosis Sama dengan oil acne

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Ad.c). ChloracneAd.c). Chloracne

Penyebab: polyaromatic hydrocarbonsPenyebab: polyaromatic hydrocarbons Pathogenesis:Pathogenesis:

Agent Agent diskeratosis folikel epidermis diskeratosis folikel epidermis terbentuk terbentuk keratin pada folikel, mirip komedo keratin pada folikel, mirip komedo straw-colored straw-colored cystic lesioncystic lesion

Clinical course:Clinical course: Lesi utama: komedo dan straw-colored cystic lesionLesi utama: komedo dan straw-colored cystic lesion Predileksi: lipatan belakang telinga, dagu dan genitalPredileksi: lipatan belakang telinga, dagu dan genital Tanda dan gejala lain: hepatomegali Tanda dan gejala lain: hepatomegali

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Chloracne-producing chemicalsChloracne-producing chemicals

Polyhalogenated naphthalenesPolyhalogenated naphthalenes PolychloronaphthalenePolychloronaphthalene PolybromonaphthalenePolybromonaphthalene

Polyhalogenated biphenylPolyhalogenated biphenyl Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) Polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs)Polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs)

Polyhalogenated dibenzofuransPolyhalogenated dibenzofurans Contaminants of polychlorophenol compounds, Contaminants of polychlorophenol compounds,

especially herbicides (2,4,5-T and especially herbicides (2,4,5-T and pentachlorophenol) and herbicide intermediate pentachlorophenol) and herbicide intermediate (2,3,5 trichlorophenol)(2,3,5 trichlorophenol)

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PERBEDAAN GAMBARAN ACNEPERBEDAAN GAMBARAN ACNE

UMUR DISTRIBUSI GAMBARAN KLINIK

KONDISI LAIN

Oil acne Any age Exposed site Komedo, pustula None

Acne vulgaris

Peak incidence, age 11 to 20

Face, neck, chest

Comedo, papula, pustula, scar, cyst

None

Chloracne Any age Wajah, terutama telinga dan dagu, aksila, hidung

Comedo, straw-colored cyst

Xerosis, conjungtivitis, peripheral neuritis, liver abnormalitis

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GANGGUAN PIGMENTASIGANGGUAN PIGMENTASI

1.1. HiperpigmentasiHiperpigmentasi Penyebab: logam berat dan senyawa nitrogen Penyebab: logam berat dan senyawa nitrogen

organik dan bahan penceluporganik dan bahan pencelup Pathogenesis: Pathogenesis:

(1) deposisi pigmen eksogen (cairan pencelup, (1) deposisi pigmen eksogen (cairan pencelup, tato); tato);

(2) deposisi di kulit secara sistematik (logam (2) deposisi di kulit secara sistematik (logam berat); berat);

(3) photoeruptions (sinar matahari) ; (3) photoeruptions (sinar matahari) ; (4) hiperpigmentasi pascainflamasi (deposisi (4) hiperpigmentasi pascainflamasi (deposisi melanin dan hemosiderin)melanin dan hemosiderin)

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METALS THAT MAY BE SYSTEMICALLY OR LOCALLY DEPOSITED IN SKIN

Substance Color Location

Arsenic Bronze Difuse, especially trunk and proximal extremities

Chromium Blue-gray Diffuse

Copper Greenish Hair

Gold Blue-gray Sun-exposed areas, especially preorbital

Iron Brown Tattoo

Lead Pallor and vividity

Generalized, gingival leadline

Mercury Slate gray Skin folds

Silver Slate gray Sun-exposed area

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2.2. HipopigmentasiHipopigmentasi Chemical leukoderma: kontak dengan Chemical leukoderma: kontak dengan

hidroquinon, derivat elkil phenol dan catecholhidroquinon, derivat elkil phenol dan catechol Hipopigmentasi pascainflamasi: inflamasi Hipopigmentasi pascainflamasi: inflamasi

atau trauma menyebabkan hilangnya pigmen atau trauma menyebabkan hilangnya pigmen kulit lokalkulit lokal

Gangguan pigmentasiGangguan pigmentasi

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Compounds known to produce leucodermaCompounds known to produce leucoderma

HydroquinoneHydroquinoneMonobenzyl ether of HydroquinoneMonobenzyl ether of HydroquinoneMonoethyl ether of HydroquinoneMonoethyl ether of HydroquinoneP-isopropylcatecholP-isopropylcatecholP-methylcatecholP-methylcatecholP-tert-butylphenolP-tert-butylphenolP-tert-butylcatecholP-tert-butylcatecholMercaptoaminesMercaptoamines

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PREDISPOSING FACTORSPREDISPOSING FACTORS Usia orang tua lebih mudah mengalami iritasi kulit

kronis karena kulitnya lebih kering Skin types Heavily pigmented skin appears to resist

the harmful effects of external irritants more effectively than light skin. Workers with naturally dry skin are less able to tolerate the action of solvents and detergents. Those with oily skin are predisposed to developing acne-like lesions.

Sweating Increased sweating can irritate the skin and increase the risk for developing dermatitis. Sweating softens the skin and opens it up for the development of secondary fungal and bacterial infection. Sweating can also be beneficial in diluting concentrations of toxic substances on the skin.

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Gender Women usually report fewer occurrences of dermatitis than men; this could be because of better hygiene practices and less exposures to toxic substances. However, women are usually more easily sensitized.

Seasons and Humidity dermatitis is generally more common during warm weather. During warmer weather wear less clothing more likely to have skin exposed to external irritants. When hot less likely to wear personal protective equipment (PPE). Climates with low humidity dry out the skin making it easier for toxic agents to attack it.

Personal Hygiene a major factor in the cause of occupational dermatitis. Unwashed skin and unchanged clothes can cause prolonged contact to chemicals. Adequate facilities for maintaining personal cleanliness should be provided at the workplace.

Preexisting Skin Disease Preexisting skin diseases can be easily aggravated at the workplace by exposure to chemicals.

Predisposing factorsPredisposing factors

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