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Analisis kebijakan pemanfaatan......(1 - 18)

ANALISIS KEBIJAKAN PEMANFAATAN RUANGWILAYAH PESISIR DI KOTA - PASURUAN - JAWA TIMUR

SUGIARTIBadan Perencanaan Pembangunan Daerah Kota Pasuruan

DIETRIECH.G.BENGENPusat Kajian Sumberdaya Pesisir dan Lautan

Fakultas Perikanan dan Ilmu KelautanInstitut Pertanian BogorE-mail: [email protected]

danROKHMIN DAHURI

Direktur Jenderal Pesisir, Pantai dan Pulau-pulau KecilDepartemen Kelautan dan Perikanan Republik Indonesia

ABSTRAKenelitian ini dilakukan pada bulan April - Agustus 1999 di wilayah pesisir Pasuruan, Jawa Timur. Tujuanpenelitian ini adalah untuk (1) mengevaluasi kesesuaian lahan dalam pemanfaatan ruang wilayah pesisr,(2) menganalisis faktor-faktor yang menyebabkan terjadinya konflik pemanfaatan ruang dalam pengelolaansumberdaya pesisir, (3) mengetahui persepsi pemerintah, swasta dan masyarakat berkaitan dengan penentuan

prioritas penggunaan lahan, (4) Menentukan prioritas penggunaan lahan dalam pemanfaatan ruang wilayah pesisir,(5) Menyelesaikan konflik pemanfaatan sumberdaya pesisir, dan (6) Memberikan rekomendasi sebagai dasarpertimbangan pengambilan keputusan dalam penentuan kebijakan. Dalam mengevaluasi kesesuaian lahan digunakanSistem Informasi Geografis (SIG), dan untuk menyelesaikan konflik penggunaan lahan digunakan metode ProsesHierarki Analitik (Analytical Hierarchy Process - AHP). Hasil penelitian memperlihatkan bahwa penyelesaian optimaldalam pemanfaatan sumberdaya di Desa Gadingrejo direkomendasikan untuk kawasan industri, sementara desaTrajeng direkomendasikan untuk industri dan bantaran sungai.Kata-kata kunci: Sistem Informasi Geografis, Proses Hierarki Analitik, Pasuruan, wilayah pesisir

ABSTRACT

This research was conducted in April – August 1999 in Pasuruan coastal zone Pasuruan. This researchaimed to (1) Evaluate Land suitability in exploitation space of coastal zone (2) Analysis the causal factors of landuseconflict of Coastal Resources Management (3) Know the perception of government, private and communities in actof determining of landuse priority (4) Determine of optimalization the landuse priority in coastal area (5) Solve conflictof the resources exploitation of coastal zone (6) Recommend the decision –makers with respect to coastal land usepolicy. For evaluating the land suitability its used Geographic Information System (GIS) Method, and for resolvinglanduse conflict its used Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) Method. The result showed that the solution forresources exploitation in Gadingrejo village should be to industrial used, while in Trajeng village it is recommended thatindustrial and embankment areas be developed.Keywords: Geographic Information System (GIS), Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP), Pasuruan, coastalzone

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PENDAHULUAN Arah pembangunan yang dilaksanakan didaerah selama ini masih terkonsentrasi di daratan,sehingga tekanan kegiatan pembangunan di darat akansemakin tinggi oleh proses pembangunan. Kondisi

demikian sangat dirasakan di Kota Pasuruan yangmemiliki daya dukung lahan dan potensi sumberdayadaratan yang terbatas. Oleh karena itu pemanfaatansumberdaya pesisir dan lautan di wilayah pesisir KotaPasuruan seluas 1.244 Ha merupakan salah satu

Pesisir & Lautan Volume 3, No.2 2000

alternatif yang tepat bagi pengembangan pembangunandaerah dan menjadi salah satu tumpuan harapan bagipemenuhan kebutuhan masyarakat dimasa mendatangAnonymous, 1998).

Pemanfaatan sumberdaya pesisir di KotaPasuruan berpotensi menimbulkan permasalahan dalampemanfaatan ruang oleh berbagai pengguna lahan(stakeholders) yang mempunyai perbedaankepentingan, sehingga dapat memicu terjadinya konflikdalam pemanfaatan ruang. Agar pengembanganpembangunan di wilayah pesisir Kotamadya Pasuruandapat mengakomodir kebutuhan nyata masyarakat, makadiperlukan suatu analisis kebijakan yang dapat digunakansebagai dasar / bahan pertimbangan bagi para pengambilkeputusan dalam menentukan pemanfaatan ruang danpenetapan kawasan yang optimal dan proporsional untukberbagai pengguna lahan (stakeholders) yangberkepentingan.

Perumusan MasalahKotamadya Daerah Tingkat II Pasuruan terdiri

dari 3 (tiga) Kecamatan dikelilingi oleh hinterland kotayang berada di wilayah Kabupaten Pasuruan danmerupakan daerah yang potensial untuk kegiatan industri,pertanian, perikanan dan Konservasi

Berdasarkan arahan Rencana Induk Kota(RIK) dan Rencana Umum Tata Ruang (RUTR)Kotamadya Pasuruan, serta Hukum serta Peraturanperundang – undangan yang ada dikaitkan dengankondisi faktual di lapangan, permasalahan utama yangterjadi dalam pemanfaatan ruang di wilayah studi adalahkonflik penggunaan lahan / pemanfaatan lahan dan alihfungsi (konversi) lahan, penyimpangan pemanfaatanruang dari rencana tata ruang, dan pemanfaatan ruangyang tidak sesuai dengan peruntukkannya.

Dengan demikian, maka perumusanmasalahnya adalah sebagai berikut :a) Apakah pemanfaatan ruang yang ada telah sesuai dengan kesesuaian lahannya ?b) Faktor - faktor apa yang menyebabkan terjadinya konflik pemanfaatan ruang ?c) Bagaimana persepsi pemerintah, swasta dan masyarakat terhadap konflik penggunaan lahan yang terjadi ?d) Kebijakan apa yang sebaiknya dilakukan dalam menyelesaikan konflik pemanfaatan ruang yang terjadi?

Tujuan dan ManfaatPenelitian ini bertujuan untuk :

a) Mengevaluasi kesesuaian lahan dalam pemanfaatanruang wilayah pesisir.

b) Menganalisis faktor-faktor yang menyebabkanterjadinya konflik pemanfaatan ruang dalampengelolaan sumberdaya wilayah pesisir.

c) Mengetahui persepsi pemerintah, swasta danmasyarakat berkaitan dengan penentuan prioritaspenggunaan lahan.

d) Menentukan prioritas penggunaan lahan dalampemanfaatan ruang wilayah Pesisir.

e) Memberikan rekomendasi sebagai dasarpertimbangan pengambilan keputusan dalampenentuan kebijakan.

Penelitian ini diharapkan dapat memberikankontribusii bagi pembangunan daerah, melaluipengembangan proses hierarki analitik dan analisis SIGdalam pemanfaatan ruang dan penetapan kawasan, selainitu diharapkan dapat menjadi bahan pertimbangan bagipengambilan keputusan dalam penentuan kebijakanpenyusunan rencana tata ruang wilayah pesisir, dansebagai acuan teknis dalam menetapkan suatu kawasandan pemanfaatan ruang serta pengendaliannya.

Kerangka PendekatanBerdasarkan karakteristik dan dinamika dari

kawasan pesisir dan lautan, potensi dan permasalahanpembangunan serta kebijakan pemerintah untuk sektorkelautan, maka dalam mencapai pembangunan kawasanpesisir dan lautan secara optimal dan berkelanjutan,tampaknya hanya dapat dilakukan melalui pengelolaanwilayah pesisir dan lautan secara terpadu. Hal ini cukuplogis, karena bila dikaji secara impiris, terdapatketerkaitan ekologis atau hubungan fungsional antarekosistem di dalam kawasan pesisir maupun antarkawasan pesisir dengan lahan atas dan laut lepas.Dengan demikian perubahan yang terjadi pada suatuekosistem pesisir, cepat atau lambat akan mempengaruhiekosistem lainnya. Pada prinsipnya pengelolaan wilayahpesisir berkenaan dengan faktor lingkungan ekologis,lingkungan ekonomi dan lingkungan sosial yang salingberkaitan dan diatur melalui hukum, aturan aturan lokaldan tradisi. Timbulnya masalah dalam pengelolaantersebut antara lain karena ketiga faktor tersebut tidakberjalan secara harmonis..

Kebijakan pembangunan wilayah pesisir danlautan berdasarkan kebijaksanaan pemerintah yang diaturdalam Undang Undang Nomor : 24 Tahun 1992, tentangPenataan Ruang, menetapkan Rencana Tata Ruang KotaPasuruan sebagai pedoman dalam perumusan kebijakan


pokok pemanfaatan ruang guna mewujudkanketerpaduan, keterkaitan dan keseimbanganpembangunan di daratan, wilayah pesisir dan lautan.Essensi tata ruang menurut Undang - undang Nomor :24 Tahun 1992 adalah Rencana Tata Ruang, PedomanPemanfaatan Ruang dan Cara PengendalianPemanfaatan Ruang yang diatur dalam pasal 13, 15dan 17 UU No: 24 Tahun 1992. Perencanaan tataruang pada dasarnya merupakan perumusanpemanfaatan / penggunaan ruang secara optimal denganorientasi produksi dan konservasi bagi kelestarianlingkungan.

Peraturan dan perundang - undangan yangbersifat sektoral dan belum operasional tersebutmerupakan salah satu penyebab terjadinyapenyimpangan pemanfaatan ruang dari rencana tata ruangyang ada, karena masing masing stakeholders, baikpemerintah : dalam hal ini lembaga / instansi, maupunpihak swasta dan masyarakat berusaha memanfaatkansumberdaya yang ada di wilayah pesisir se optimalmungkin sesuai dengan kepentingan masing - masing.Disamping itu kondisi alam yang meliputi : ketersediaanlahan, daya dukung lahan dan lingkungan serta dankondisi sosial budaya masyarakat setempat yang meliputi: response masyarakat, tradisi dan kebiasaan yang sudahturun - temurun dan lain lain juga perlu dipertimbangkandalam perumusan kebijakan pemanfaatan ruang wilayahpesisir dan lautan.

Penyimpangan pemanfaatan ruang dariRencana Tata Ruang berpotensi menimbulkan konflikpemanfaatan ruang. Dengan mempelajari konflikpemanfaatan ruang melalui pendekatan analisis spasialdan analisis konflik., akan dapat ditentukan prioritaskegiatan pemanfaatan ruang yang optimal. hasil keduaanalisis tersebut dapat memberikan rekomendasi bagipengambilan keputusan dalam penentuan kebijakan(Gambar 1); sedangkan permasalahan kebijakan dalampemanfaatan ruang diuraikan secara sistematik dalamgambar 2.

METODOLOGILokasi Penelitian

Lokasi penelitian terletak di wilayah pesisirKotamadya Pasuruan yang terdiri dari 9 Desa /Kelurahan, yaitu : Gadingrejo, Tamba’an, Trajeng,Tapa’an, Ngemplakrejo, Mandaranrejo, Panggungrejo,Kepel dan Blandongan (Gambar 3).

Pengumpulan Data Data sekunder diperoleh dari Dinas, Instansi

terkait dan data primer diperoleh dari survei, observasidan wawancara secara langsung di lapangan. Sedangkanpengambilan sampel dilakukan secara purposivesampling terhadap sejumlah responden denganpertimbangan responden adalah aktor / pengguna lahan(stakeholders) yang dianggap memiliki keahlian atauyang memiliki kemampuan dan mengerti permasalahanterkait serta yang mempengaruhi pengambilan kebijakan,baik secara langsung maupun tidak langsung.

Analisis DataSistem Informasi Geograpis (SIG)

Untuk mengevaluasi kesesuaian lahan dilakukanAnalisis spasial dengan pendekatan SIG yangmenggunakan perangkat lunak ArcInfo 3.5 danArcView 3.1 dengan metode tumpang susun (overlay),pembobotan (weighting), pengharkatan (scoring) dankelas (Class).

Analisis spasial dilakukan terhadap 4 (empat)jenis kesesuaian lahan, yaitu : kesesuaian lahan untukindustri, tambak, sawah, permukiman dan konservasi.Setiap jenis penggunaan lahan dianalisis kesesuaiannyaberdasarkan kriteria dan persyaratan penggunaan lahan,kemudian diidentifikasi secara terpisah denganmempertimbangkan masing – masing faktor / parameterpembatas. Klasifikasi suatu faktor pembatas (parameter)bagi suatu peruntukan penggunaan lahan disusun dalampembobotan, scoring dan kelas. Pembobotan, scoring dan kelas yang telahdilakukan tersusun 4 (empat) kelas, yaitu : Sangat Sesuai(S1), Sesuai (S2), Tidak Sesuai Saat Ini (N1) dan TidakSesuai Permanen (N2). Pemberian bobot setiapparameter ditentukan terbesar 1,0 dan terkecil 0,8,sedangkan pemberian harkat/skor pada setiap parameterditetapkan tertinggi 25 dan terendah 10, dan untukpemberian kelas pada setiap faktor pembatas ditentukanberdasarkan pada besar skor yang diperoleh. Skortertinggi akan mendapatkan kelas 1, berikutnya 2 danseterusnya sampai pada skor terendah mendapatkankelas 4 (tabel 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ).

Metode Pendekatan Proses Hierarkhi Analitik(AHP).

Analisis kebijakan yang bertujuan untukmenyelesaikan konflik pemanfaatan ruang yang terjadidengan cara memilih / menentukan prioritas kegiatan /


penggunaan lahan yang optimal digunakan metodependekatan AHP dengan bantuan perngkat lunak‘Expert Choise’. Untuk dapat memberikan solusi yangdiinginkan, maka ada 4 (empat) aspek yangdipertimbangkan, yaitu : aspek ekonomi, lingkungan,

KEBIJAKANPengelolaan Wilsir

PENATAAN RUANGWilayah Pesisir

Kondisi & PotensiWilayah

Permasalahan

PEMANFAATANRUANG

PERENCANAANTATA RUANG

PENGENDALIANPemanfaatan Ruang

PENYIMPANGANPemanfaatan Ruang

KONFLIKPEMANFAATAN

RUANG

ANALISISSPASIAL

PEMANFAATAN RUANGWILAYAH PESISIR YANG OPTIMAL

ANALISISKONFLIK

KESESUAIANL A H A N

PRIORITASKEGIATAN

REKOMENDASI

Tidak Ya

Gambar 1. Diagram kerangka pendekatan masalah

sosial dan teknologi. Dari keempat aspek tersebutterdapat beberapa faktor yang sangat mempengaruhikeputusan pada pemilihan / penentuan prioritaspenggunaan lahan dalam pemanfaatan ruang yang akandikembangkan. Selanjutnya disusun struktur hirarkifungsionalnya.


HASIL DAN PEMBAHASAN1. Evaluasi Kesesuaian Lahan

Dari hasil analisis kesesuaian lahan untuk masing-masing penggunaan lahan, diperoleh luas arealpenggunaanlahan seperti yang dirinci dalam Tabel 6.

a. T a m b a k Lokasi yang sangat sesuai untuk kawasan

tambak berada di sebagian Desa Blandongan, DesaKepel, Desa Tapa’an, Desa Panggungrejo, DesaNgemplakrejo dan Tamba’an seluas 600,425 Ha, danlokasi yang sesuai berada di sebagian Desa Blandongan,Desa Kepel, Desa Tapa’an, Desa Tamba’an danDesa Trajeng seluas 302,354 Ha, sedangkan lokasitidak sesuai saat ini dan tidak sesuai permanen,masing – masing berada pada sebagian KelurahanGadingrejo, Desa Trajeng, Desa Tamba’an, DesaNgemplakrejo dan Mandaranrejo seluas 152, 352

KonflikPemanfaatanRuang antarStakeholders

K O N D I S I PERMASALAHAN DAMPAK

Rencana Tata RuangBelum mengakomodir

KebutuhanMasyarakat

Rencana TataRuang Bersifat

Parsial danSektoral

KonflikPembangunan dan

Pelestarian

Pemanfaatan Ruangyang Tidak Sesuai

denganPeruntukkan

PenyimpanganPemanfaatanRuang dari

Rencana TR

Hukum danPeraturan

belumOperasional

PenegakanHukum danPeraturan

belum Konsisten

TingkatKesejahteraa

RakyatMenurun

PemanfaatanRuang

WilayahPasisir Tidak

Optimal

KerusakanSumber

Daya danDegradasi

Lingkungan

R I K

R U T R

HUKUMDAN

PERATURANPERUNDANGUNDANGAN

KEBIJAKAN

Gambar 2. Diagram permasalahan kebijakan dalam pemanfaatan ruang

Ha dan sebagian Desa Blandongan, KelurahanGadingrejo dan Desa Kepel seluas 188,870 Ha(Gambar 4).

b. I n d u s t r i Lokasi yang sangat sesuai untuk kawasanindustri seluas 185,177 Ha berada di sebagian DesaMandaranrejo, Desa Ngemplakrejo, Desa Trajeng, danKelurahan Gadingrejo, dan lokasi yang sesuai seluas492,88 ha berada disebagian Kelurahan Gadingrejo,Desa Trajeng, Desa Kepel, Desa Tapa’an dan DesaTamba’an; sedangkan lokasi tidak sesuai saat ini seluas57,22 ha berada di Desa Tamba’an, Desa Ngemplakrejodan Desa Trajeng, sementara yang tidak sesuai permanenseluas 508,72 ha berada di sebagian Desa panggungrejo,Desa Blandongan, Desa Kepel dan Desa Tapa’an(Gambar 5).


c. PermukimanLokasi yang sangat sesuai untuk kawasan

seluas 112,921 ha berada di sebagian KelurahanGadingrejo dan Desa Trajeng, dan lokasi yang sesuaiseluas 227,522 ha ini barada di sebagian Desa Kepel,Desa Blandongan, Desa Ngemplakrejo dan KelurahanGadingrejo; sedangkan lokasi yang tidak sesuai saatini dan tidak sesuai permanen, masing – masing seluas283,132 ha berada di lokasi Desa Kepel, Desa Trajeng,Desa Blandongan, Desa Tapa’an Desa Mandaranrejo,Desa Ngemplakrejo, desa Tamba’an dan KelurahanGadingrejo, dan seluas 620,425 ha berada di sebagianKelurahan Gadingrejo, Desa Blandongan, Desa Kepel,Desa Tapa’an, Desa Ngemplakrejo, DesaMandaranrejo, Desa Panggungrejo dan Desa Trajeng(Gambar 6).

d. S a w a h Lokasi yang sangat sesuai untuk kawasan

pertanian sawah seluas 191,523 Ha, dan lokasi sesuaiseluas 298,357 Ha, sedangkan lokasi tidak sesuai saatini dan tidak sesuai permanen, masing – masingseluas 27.650 Ha dan seluas 726.466 Ha (Gambar7).

e. K o n s e r v a s iLokasi yang sangat sesuai untuk kawasan

konservasi seluas 220,245 Ha, dan lokasi sesuai seluas16,544 Ha, sedangkan lokasi tidak sesuai saat inidan tidak sesuai permanen, masing – masing seluas399,795 Ha dan seluas 607,237 Ha (Gambar 8).

Berdasarkan hasil analisis spasial penggunaanlahan, dapat diidentifikasi konflik penggunaan lahan yangterjadi, yaitu: (1) konflik penggunaan lahan antara industridan tambak di Kelurahan Gadingrejo, dan (2) konflikantara industri, pemukiman dan tambak di Desa Trajeng.

Adapun faktor yang antara lain menyebabkan terjadinyakonflik adalah pemanfaatan ruang yang tidak sesuaidengan Rencana Tata Ruang yang ada.

2. Konflik Pemanfaatan RuangDari hasil analisis AHP terhadap konflik yang

terjadi, berdasarkan judgment para stakeholders yangmeliputi : Pemerintah, Swasta dan Masyarakat,diperoleh nilai Consistency Ratio (CR) berkisarantara 0,03 s/d 0,11 atau masih berada dibawah nilaiCR < 0,10. Dengan demikian para stakeholders‘konsisten’ dalam memberikan nilai pembobotandengan tingkat penyimpangan yang kecil.

a) Konflik antara Industri dan TambakBerdasarkan hasil analisis pendapat kelompok

dalam Penentuan Prioritas Penggunaan Lahan bagimasing - masing stakeholders yang berkepentinganterhadap konflik yang terjadi di Kelurahan Gadingrejo,diketahui bahwa : menurut persepsi pemerintah, prioritaspertama adalah Industri dengan nilai bobot 0,58 danapabila dilihat dari hierarki diatasnya (level 3), makabobot faktor tertinggii adalah Peningkatan pendapatandengan nilai bobot 0,54 dan Penyerapan tenaga kerja

dengan nilai bobot 0,107. Jadi persepsi pemerintah dalammenentukan prioritas pertama diperuntukkan industridengan pertimbangan aspek ekonomi dan sosial. Danmenurut persepsi Swasta, prioritas pertama adalahindustri dengan nilai bobot 0,72, dan apabila dilihat darihirarki diatasnya (level 3), maka bobot faktor tertinggiadalah eksploitasi sumberdaya dengan nilai bobot 0,68dan ketersediaan lahan dengan nilai bobot 0,12. Jadipersepsi swasta dalam menentukan prioritas pertamadiperuntukkan industri dengan pertimbangan aspekekonomi dan lingkungan. Sedangkan berdasarkanpersepsi masyarakat, prioritas pertama adalah tambak


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dengan nilai bobot 0,76 (tabel 7). Bila dilihat dari hierarkidiatasnya (Tingkat 3), faktor tertinggi adalah tradisi dankebiasaan yang turun - temurun dengan nilai bobot 0,61,dan meningkatkan pendapatan dengan nilai bobot 0,09.

Jadi persepsi masyarakat dalam menentukan prioritaspertama diperuntukkan industri dengan pertimbanganaspek sosial dan ekonomi.

Berdasarkan hasil analisis aspek dan faktor -faktor yang berpengaruh pada struktur hierarki pertamadan kedua terhadap penentuan prioritas penggunaanlahan, dapat dikatahui bahwa : penggunaan tanah untukindustri, pertimbangan aspek ekonomi yang palingberperan dengan bobot sebesar 0,511 dan faktor yangsangat mempengaruhi aspek tersebut dalam kaitanpenggunaan lahan untuk industri secara berurutan adalahPeningkatan pendapatan merupakan prioritas pertamadengan bobot 0.303, hal ini dimungkinkan denganadanya industri di wilayah tersebut dapat meningkatkanpendapatan asli daerah dan masyarakat setempat, daneksploitasi sumberdaya alam merupakan prioritas keduadengan bobot 0.228, sedangkan prioritas ketiga adalahtumbuhnya sektor informal dengan bobot sebesar 0.129,hal ini disebabkan perkembangan industri memicutumbuhnya sektor informal sebagai sektor penunjang

Penggunaan lahan untuk tambak, menunjukkanbahwa pertimbangan aspek sosial merupakan prioritaspertama dengan bobot sebesar 0,507 dan faktor yangsangat mempengaruhi aspek tersebut adalah faktor tradisidan kebiasaan yang turun – temurun dengan bobotsebesar 0.197, dan prioritas kedua adalah merupakanpendapatan masyarakat dengan bobot sebesar 0.178,sedangkan prioritas ketiga adalah penyerapan tenagakerja dengan bobot sebesar 0.157 (Tabel 8 dan 9).

Berdasarkan hasil analisis pendapat gabunganpada penentuan prioritas penggunaan lahan menunjukkan

bahwa penggunaan lahan di Kelurahan Gadingrejo lebihdiutamakan untuk industri dengan nilai bobot sebesar0,529 yang didasarkan pada pertimbangan aspekekonomi (meningkatkan pendapatan asli daerah dan

masyarakat setempat), dengan nilai bobot sebesar 0,279,dan pertimbangan aspek sosial (penyerapan tenaga kerja)dengan nilai bobot sebesar 0,223 (Tabel 10; Gambar9). Aspek ketiga yang cukup berpengaruh adalah aspeklingkungan (pencemaran), dimana industri – industri yangberkembang di daerah ini yang berpotensi menimbulkanpencemaran, diharuskan mengelola limbahnya baikpadat maupun cair sebelum dibuang ke sungai atau laut.

b) Konflik antara Industri, Tambak danPermukiman

Dengan cara yang sama pada analisis konflikpenggunaan lahan di Kelurahan Gadingrejo, maka padaanalisis konflik penggunaan lahan antara industri,permukiman dan tambak di Desa Trajeng diperoleh hasilpada tabel 11 .

Berdasarkan hasil analisis hierarki, konflikpenggunaan lahan untuk industri, permukiman dantambak di Desa Trajeng diprioritaskan untuk industridan tambak dengan nilai bobot sebesar 0.344 dan 0.343(Tabel 11 ; Gambar 10). Kedua kegiatan penggunaanlahan dapat dilakukan berdampingan , berdasarkanpertimbangan aspek ekonomi (meningkatkanpendapatan asli daerah dan masyarakat setempat) nilaibobot sebesar 0.258, pertimbangan aspek lingkungan(pencemaran limbah industri) dengan nilai bobot sebesar0,179 (Tabel 11 ; Gambar 10), Industri - industri yangberkembang di daerah penelitian yang berpotensimenimbulkan pencemaran, diharuskan mengelolalimbahnya baik padat maupun cair sebelum dibuangke sungai atau laut. Aspek ketiga yang juga berpengaruh


adalah aspek sosial (tradisi dan kebiasaan yang turun -temurun) dengan nilai bobot 0.170; Sedangkan prioritaskedua diperuntukkan bagi pemukim dengan nilaibobot 0,313. (Tabel 11; Gambar 10).

4. Analisis KebijakanMenurut E.S. Quade, Analisis Kebijakan adalah

suatu bentuk analisis yang menghasilkan dan menyajikaninformasi, sedemikian rupa, sehingga dapat memberikanlandasan bagi para pembuat kebijakan dalam membuatkeputusan. Analisis kebijakan menghasilkan informasi


mengenai nilai – nilai dan serangkaian tindakan yangdipilih. Oleh karena itu analisis kebijakan dapat dilakukandengan melalui evaluasi dan rekomendasi kebijakan.

Berdasarkan hasil analisis hierarki terhadapkonflik penggunaan lahan dalam pemanfaatan ruangwilayah pesisir yang terjadi di Kelurahan Gadingrejoyang telah dibahas sebelumnya, maka dapat diketahuibahwa : konflik antara industri dan tambak berdasarkanhasil analisis hierarki, lokasi tersebut lebih diutamakanuntuk kegiatan industri dan berdasarkan hasil evaluasikesesuain lahan lokasi tersebut memang sesuai untukkedua kegiatan tersebut, sedangkan faktor penyebab

Gambar 9. Hasil analisis hierarki kegiatan industri dan tambak dalam penggunaan lahan wilayah pesisir diKelurahan Gadingrejo, Pasuruan.

terjadinya konflik di lokasi tersebut karena penggunaanlahan yang tidak sesuai dengan arahan Rencana TataRuang yang diperuntukkan untuk kegiatan tambak.Dengan demikian penentuan penggunaan lahan untukindustri dapat direkomendasikan sebagai landasanpengambilan keputusan dalam menentukan kebijakanuntuk menyelesaikan konflik yang terjadi di KelurahanGadingrejo.

Demikian pula halnya dengan penggunaan lahandi Desa Trajeng dimana lokasi tersebut dapatdiprioritaskan untuk kegiatan industri dan tambak, karenakedua kegiatan memiliki tingkat kepentingan yang relatif

Tingkat 1TujuanUtama

Tingkat 2Aspek

Tingkat 3Faktor/Kriteria

Level 4Prioritas/Kebijakan

PENENTUAN PRIORITASKEGIATAN

(PENGGUNAAN LAHAN)

EKONOMI(0,443)

LINGKUNGAN(0.266)

S O S I A L(0.275)

TEKNOLOGI(0.016)

Pendapatan(0.279)

Eksploitasisumber daya

(0.063)

SektorInformal(0.101)

Pencemaran

(0.191)

Keterse-diaan lahan

(0.075)

TenagaKerja

(0.223)

Adat &Kebiasaan

(0.052)

TransferTeknologi

(0.016)

INDUSTRI(0.344)

T A M B A K(0.343)


sama baik bagi pemerintah, swasta maupun masyarakat.Prioritas berikutnya dapat direkomendasikan untukpemukiman, meskipun berdasarkan hasil evaluasikesesuaian lahan lokasi tersebut sangat sesuai untukindustri, tapi juga sesuai untuk tambak dan pemukiman.Faktor penybab terjadinya konflik di desa Trajeng karenapenggunaan lahan untuk tambak di lokasi tersebut tidaksesuai dengan arahan Rencana Tata Ruang yangmemprioritaskan untuk kegiatan industri dan pemukiman,dengan petimbangan arah pengembangan pembangunan

wilayah. Berdasarkan hasil analisis hierarki dan evaluasiserta pertimbangan arahan dan Rencana Tata RuangTahun 1994, maka penentuan prioritas penggunaan lahandapat direkomendasikan untuk kegiatan industri dantambak dalam upaya menyelesaikan konflik yang terjadidi Desa Trajeng.

Tingkat 1TujuanUtama

Tingkat 2Aspek

Tingkat 3Faktor/Kriteria

Level 4Prioritas/Kebijakan

PENENTUAN PRIORITASKEGIATAN

(PENGGUNAAN LAHAN)

EKONOMI(0,426)

LINGKUNGAN(0.264)

S O S I A L(0.282)

TEKNOLOGI(0.028)

Pendapatan(0.258)

Eksploitasisumber daya

(0.056)

SektorInformal(0.112)

Pencemaran

(0.179)

Keterse-diaan lahan

(0.084)

TenagaKerja

(0.112)

Adat &Kebiasaan

(0.170)

TransferTeknologi

(0.028)

T A M B A K(0.343)

INDUSTRI(0.344)

PEMUKIMAN(0.313)

Gambar 10. Hasil analisis hierarki kegiatan tambak, industri, dan pemukiman dalam penggunaan lahan wilayahpesisir di Desa Trajeng, Pasuruan


KESIMPULANDari hasil dan pembahasan serta rekomendasi yang

telah diuraikan sebelumnya, maka dapat disimpulkanbahwa :

Berdasarkan evaluasi Kesesuaian lahan wilayahpesisir Kota Pasuruan direkomendasikan kawasanyang sangat sesuai untuk dikembangkan bagiperuntukan tambak berada di sebagian besar DesaBlandongan, Desa Kepel, Desa Panggungrejo, DesaNgemplakrejo dan Desa Tamba’an seluas 600,43ha. Industri dapat dikembangkan di sebagian DesaMandaranrejo, Desa Ngemplakrejo, Desa Trajengdan Kelurahan Gadingrejo seluas 185,18 ha.Kawasan pemukiman dapat dikembangkan disebagian Desa Trajeng dan Kelurahan Gadingrejoseluas 112,92 ha. Kawasan Pertanian Sawah beradadi sebagian Desa Blandongan, Desa Kepel dan DesaTapaan seluas 91,52 ha. Kawasan Konservasi beradadi sebagian Desa Blandongan, Desa Panggungrejodan Desa Tamba’an seluas 220,42 ha.Faktor – faktor yang mempengaruhi terjadinya konflikpemanfaatan ruang dalam pengelolaan sumberdayawilayah pesisir adalah terjadinya penyimpanganpemanfaatan ruang dari Rencana Tata Ruang danberdasarkan evaluasi kesesuaian lahan, Rencana TataRuang yang ada dibuat Tahun 1994 sudah tidak sesuailagi dengan kondisi dan perkembangan wilayah.Persepsi pemerintah dan swasta Terhadap

pemanfaatan ruang wilayah pesisir di KelurahanGadingrejo, lebih diutamakan bagi kegiatan industridengan pertimbangan aspek ekonomi. Sedangkanpersepsi masyarakat lebih dominan untuk kegiatantambak dengan pertimbangan aspek sosial, yaitupengusahaan tambak merupakan tradisi dankebiasaan yang turun temurun.Persepsi pemerintah dan swasta terhadap

penentuan prioritas penggunaan lahan dalampemanfaatan ruang wilayah pesisir di Desa Trajenglebih diutamakan bagi kegiatan industri, kemudiantambak dan permukiman. Sedangkan persepsimasyarakat lebih mengutamakan kegiatan tambakdengan pertimbangan aspek sosial.Dengan mempertimbangan hasil evaluasi kesesuaian

lahan, hasil analisis hierarki dan Rencana Tata Ruangyang ada, serta kondisi perkembangan wilayah, makauntuk menyelesaikan konflik yang terjadi di KelurahanGadingrejo direkomendasikan untuk kawasan

industri, karena kawasan tambak yang adadisekitarnya kurang produktif, sehingga lahan yangada dapat dikonversi, akan tetapi untuk kawasantambak yang masih produktif tetap dipertimbangkan.Sedangkan di Desa Trajeng direkomendasikan untukkawasan industri dan tambak, karena kedua kegiatantersebut mempunyai tingkat kepentingan yang relatifsama baik bagi pemerintah, swasta maupunmasyarakat. Dari kedua rekomendasi tersebut dapatdigunakan sebagai dasar pengambilan keputusandalam menentukan kebijakan.

SARAN• Perlu dilakukannya revisi Rencana Tata Ruang,

karena Rencana Tata Ruang yang ada sudah tidaksesuai lagi dengan kondisi dan perkembanganpembangunan wilayah.

• Perlu adanya sosialisasi Rencana Tata Ruang kepadamasyarakat sebagai persiapan menghadapiperubahan dan perkembangan penggunaan lahan.

DAFTAR PUSTAKAAnonymous. 1998. Evaluasi dan perencanaan sumberdaya

pesisir dan kelautan Kotamadya Dati II Pasuruan Tahun1995/1996. Bappeda Kotamadya Dati II Pasuruan.

Bengen, D. G. 2000. Sinopsis ekosistem dan sumberdaya alampesisir. Pusat Kajian Sumberdaya Pesisir dan Lautan,Institut Pertanian Bogor.

Chrisman, N. 1997. Exploring Geographic Information System.John Willey & Sons, Inc. Washington.

Dunn, W.N. 1998. Analisa kebijakan publik: Kerangkan analisadan prosedur perumusan masalah. PT. HaninditaGrahaWidya. Yogyakarta. (Terjemahan)

Quade, E.S. 1998. Analysis for public decisions. North-HollandPublishing Co. New Yok.

Realino, B. 1998. Sistem Informasi Geografis dengan PC ArcInfo.Laboratorium RS, GIS & Geomatics, BPP Teknologi.Jakarta.

Saaty, T.L. 1993. Pengambilan keputusan bagi para pemimpin(proses hirarki analitik untuk pengambilan keputusandalam situasi kompleks). P.T. Pustaka BinamanPressindo. Jakarta. (Terjemahan)

Saaty, T.L. 1994. Decision making in economic, political, sociland technological environments with the analyticalhierarchy process. University of Pittsburgh. USA.

Tomboelu, N., D.G. Bengen dan V.P.H. Nikijuluw. 2000. Analisiskebijakan pengelolaan sumberdaya terumbu karang diKawasan Bunaken dan sekitarnya, Sulawesi Utara.Jurnal Pesisir & Lautan, 3(1): 51-67.


KOMODO NATIONAL PARKCETACEAN SURVEYS:

A RAPID ECOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OFCETACEAN DIVERSITY, ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION

BENJAMIN KAHN, YVONNE JAMESAPEX Environmental

AndJ.S. PET

The Nature Conservancy, Indonesia ProgramJl. Hang Tuah Raya No.42, Lantai II,

Kebayoran Baru, Jakarta 12120, Indonesia

ABSTRACT

uring May and October 1999 visual and acoustic cetacean surveys were conducted in Komodo NationalPark (KNP), Indonesia and adjacent waters. The surveys were conducted as a rapid ecological assessmentof KNP with the aim to 1. identify which cetacean species occur in these waters; 2. monitor seasonalpatterns and identify sensitive marine areas for cetaceans; 3. identify marine environmental impacts affecting

cetaceans; 4. provide site-specific information on cetaceans for educational and environmental awareness programs;5. initiate a volunteer cetacean monitoring program for environmental staff and dive operations.

In total, 14 cetacean species were identified during 207 active survey hours conducted over 26 field days.The surveys covered an estimated 1443 nautical mile (nm). The 14 species encountered were predominantly toothedwhales and dolphins, and included the long-nosed spinner dolphin (Stenella longirostris), bottlenosed dolphin (Tursiopstruncatus), pan-tropical spotted dolphin (S. attenuata), melon-headed whale (Peponocephala electra), sperm whale(Physeter macrocephalus), Risso’s dolphin (Grampus griseus), Fraser’s dolphin (Lagenodelphis hosei), pygmykiller whale (Feresa attenuata), false killer whale (Pseudorca crassidens), rough-toothed dolphin (Stenobredanensis), common dolphin (Delphinus sp.), pygmy or dwarf sperm whale (Kogia sp.), Cuvier’s beaked whale(Ziphius cavirostris) and a rorqual whale species (Balaenoptera sp.) with unusual morphological characteristics.

An estimated total of 2423 individual cetaceans were sighted during the 1999 survey periods. The acousticsurveys included 93 hydrophone listening stations. These covered an estimated 5912 nm2. Acoustic contact withcetaceans was recorded during 29% of the listening stations. The sightings within KNP borders were dominated bymembers of the Family Delphinidae, especially T. truncatus and S.longirostris. The off-shore waters adjacent toKNP have a far more diverse pattern and high diversity of cetaceans, some rare and endangered. Three specieswere seen regularly throughout the survey period: S. longirostris, T. truncatus and S. attenuata. For eight speciesa relative abundance index was calculated using multiple species-specific visual search times. Species were assigneda local abundance category (abundant, common, uncommon and rare) according to their sighting frequency and visualsearch time. On six occasions species associations were observed, including one school comprising of four differentdolphin species.

The presence of new-born calves was observed for seven dolphin species as well as the sperm whale,indicating the KNP area could be an important cetacean calving (and breeding) ground. Several environmentalimpacts were identified of relevance to cetaceans, which are especially sensitive to acoustic disturbances, such asreef bombing, as well as chemical pollution.

Responsible cetacean watching potential in the area has increased due to the survey results. However, thismay not be an appropriate activity without strict permit and operational conditions, educational programs and adequateenforcement realised from the start. The survey’s outreach activities include a volunteer cetacean monitoring program.The Nature Conservancy field staff and several dive tourism operators interested in cetacean ecology and oceanconservation have advanced their identification skills through workshops and field training. This program is currentlyactive with staff recording cetacean sightings on standardised datasheets. This community involvement will increasethe information available on KNP cetacean diversity and abundance during times other than the priority surveyperiods.

Komodo National Park and World Heritage Area has been identified as one of the richest marine diversitysites in the Indo-Pacific. The rapid ecological assessment for cetaceans shows that the Komodo region is also animportant habitat for whales and dolphins, and would benefit from additional cetacean survey efforts to assist resource

D


management plans, conservation measures and alternative livelihood options. Extensions of the Park and its bufferzones have been adopted by the management authorities in order to protect cetacean preferred habitats and migrationroutes and a 25 year management plan is currently being implemented.Key words: cetacean, rapid ecological assesment, Komodo National Park

ABSTRAK

Pada bulan Mei dan Oktober tahun 1999 telah dilakukan penelitian visual dan akustik di Taman NasionalKomodo dan perairan sekitarnya. Penelitian tersebut dilakukan sebagai kajian ekologis secara cepat terhadap TamanNasional Komodo dengan tujuan: 1. Mengidentifikasi spesies setasean yang terdapat di perairan tersebut, 2. Memantaupola-pola musim dan mengidentifikasi wilayah perairan yang sensetif bagi setasean tersebut, 3. Mengidentifikasidampak lingkungan laut terhadap setasean, 4. Menyediakan informasi mengenai setasean yang spesifik untuk perairantersebut bagi program-program pendidikan dan kesadaran lingkungan, dan 5. Menginisiasi satu program pemantauansetasean sukarela bagi staf pengelola lingkungan hidup dan penyelenggara kegiatan selam.

Secara total, survei yang dilakukan selama 207 jam kerja dalam 26 hari lapangan telah mengidentifikasi 14spesies setasean. Daerah yang diteliti mencakup perairan seluas 1.443 mil laut. Jenis setasean yang teridentifikasididominasi oleh jenis-jenis paus bergigi dan lumba-lumba, termasuk lumba-lumba paruh panjang (Stenella longirostris),lumba-lumbahidung botol (Tursiops truncatus), lumba-lumba totol (S. attenuata), paus kepala semangka(Peponocephala electra), Paus sperma (Physeter macrocephalus), lumba-lumba abu-abu (Grampus griseus),lumba-lumba Fraser (Lagenodelphis hosei), paus pembunuh kerdil (Feresa attenuata), paus pembunuh palsu(Pseudorca crassidens), lumba-lumba gigi kasar (Steno bredanensis), common dolphin (Delphinus sp.), paussperma kerdil atau cebol (Kogia sp.), paus paruh Cuvier (Ziphius cavirostris) dan a rorqual whale species(Balaenoptera sp.) dengan karakteristik morfologi yang tidak biasanya.

Sejumlah 2.423 individu setasean terpantau selama periode penelitian di tahun 1999 tersebut. Survei akustiktermasuk pemasangan 93 stasiun pendengar bawah air (hydrophone) yang meliputi area setasean terekam sebanyak29% pada stasiun pendengar. Pantauan visual di sekitar Taman Nasional Komodo didominasi oleh jenis-jenis familiDelphinidae, terutama T. truncatus dan S. longirostris. Perairan laut lepas yang berdampingan dengan Taman NasionalKomodo memiliki pola yang jauh lebih beragam dan modernitas yang lebih tinggi, beberapa termasuk langka danterancam punah. Tiga spesies terpantau secara reguler selama penelitian yaitu: S. longirostris, T. truncatus dan S.attenuata. Untuk spesies dilakukan perhitungan indeks kelimpahan relatif dengan menggunakan “multiple spesies-spesific visual search times”. Tiap spesies diberi kategori kelimpahan lokal (melimpah, umum, tidak umum, jarang)sesuai dengan frekwensi penampakan dan periode pencarian visual (“usual search time”). Dalam 6 kesempatan telahdiobservasi asosiasi spesies, termasuk satu kelompok yang terdiri dari 4 spesies lumba-lumba yang berbeda.

Kemunculan bayi-bayi dari 7 jenis lumba-lumba dan juga dari paus sperma menunjukkan bahwa TamanNasional Komodo merupakan perairan dimana spesies-spesies tersebut melahirkan dan mengasuh anaknya. Beberapadampak lingkungan yang relevan terhadap setasean seperti gangguan akustik telah didefinisikan, misalnya pengebomandan juga polusi kimiawi.

Potensi pengamatan setasean di wilayah tersebut telah meningka sebagai hasil penelitian. Namun bagaimanapunkegiatan tersebut mungkin bukan kegiatan yang sesuai, bila tidak dilengkapi oleh kondisi perijinan dan operasionalyang ketat, program-program pendidikan dan penegakan hukum yang memadai yang dirancang dari awal.

Staf lapangan The Nature Conservancy dan beberapa penyelenggara kegiatan selam yang memiliki minatterhadap ekologi setasean dan konservasi laut telah meningkatkan kemampuan mereka dalam melakukan identifikasimelalui lokakarya dan latihan di lapangan. Program ini sedang di aktifkan dengan staf The Nature Conservancyuntuk merekam penampakan setasean yang telah distandarkan. Pelibatan masyarakat akan meningkatkan ketersediaaninformasi mengenai keanekaragaman setasean di Taman Nasional Komodo dan kelimpahannya di waktu-waktu lainselain survei.

Taman Nasional Komodo dan “World Heritage Area” telah diidentifikasi sebagai salah satu lokasikeanekaragaman hayati laut yang terkaya di Indo-Pasifik. Pengkajian ekologis secara cepat untuk setasean menunjukkanbahwa wilayah Pulau Komodo merupakan habitat penting bagi paus dan lumba-lumba, dan akan mendapat keuntungandari kegiatan penelitian tambahan mengenai setasean, untuk membantu perencanaan pengelola sumberdaya, tindakan-tindakan konservasi dan alternatif mata pencaharian. Perluasan taman dan wilayah penyangganya telah diadopsi olehpengelola sebagai cara untuk melindungi habitat yang disukai oleh setasean dan jalur migrasinya dan rencana pengelolaan25 tahun saat ini sedang diimplementasikan.Kata-kata kunci: setasean, kajian ekologis cepat, Taman Nasional Komodo


INTRODUCTIONThe significance of cetacean surveys at Komodo

National Park, Indonesia.The waters of Komodo National Park (KNP)

and adjacent areas include numerous coastal and marinehabitats, and are characterised by strong currents,localised upwellings and a complex oceanography. KNPhas exceptional tropical marine bio-diversity and recentcoral reef and fish surveys conducted by The NatureConservancy (TNC) have identified at least 250 speciesof scleractinian corals, 70 species of sponges, over 900species of fish and several species of marine turtles andmammals (TNC, 1997). Its World Heritage Area statusreiterates the importance to “ensure the identification,protection, conservation, presentation and transmissionof world heritage values to future generations”(UNESCO, 1972).

No detailed studies have been done in thesewaters on cetacean species diversity, abundance anddistribution. A review of cetaceans sighted in Indo-nesian waters includes 29 species and regards theoccurrence of three species as unconfirmed(Rudolph et al., 1997). Data on cetacean speciesdiversity, abundance and distribution is especiallyimportant when considering the region’s complexoceanography. Indonesia is uniquely located as theonly equatorial region worldwide where inter-oce-anic exchange of marine flora and fauna occurs (e.g.Tomascik et al., 1997). Cetacean movements be-tween the tropical Pacific and Indian Oceans canoccur through the passages between the LesserSunda Islands which span over 900 km betweenthe Sunda and Sahul shelves (Klinowska, 1991).

The ecological significance of these passagesremains poorly understood, yet their importance as whaleand dolphin migration corridors has been identified(PHPA, 1984). Migratory cetaceans which include thesepassages in their local or long-range movements arevulnerable to numerous regional and local environmentalimpacts such as habitat destruction, subsurface noisedisturbances, net entanglement, marine pollution and overfishing of marine resources (Hofman, 1995). Most, ifnot all, of these impacts may occur in the waters ofKomodo National Park. These impacts would affectresidential populations as well as transient species thatinclude these waters in their long-range movements.

Cetaceans are long-lived marine mammalsdependent on the long-term health of marine resources.Their ecology, longevity, mobility and sensitivity todisturbances make cetaceans appropriate indicators foracute as well as chronic marine environmental impacts.

It is important to conduct periodic visual and acousticcetacean surveys in Komodo National Park and adjacentwaters in order to:1. To provide data on cetacean diversity, distribution

and abundance in all marine habitats of Komodo

National Park (KNP). The survey’s marine habitatfoci include:

i. Coastal habitats of KNP to monitor the presence ofvulnerable coastal cetaceans.

ii. Inter-island straits and deep channels of KNP toexamine their significance as migration corridors forwide-ranging migratory cetaceans occurring ineastern Indonesian waters.

iii. Oceanic areas to the north and south of KNP tomonitor the presence of oceanic cetaceans.

2. To monitor seasonal patterns in KNP cetaceandiversity, distribution and abundance.

3. To identify sensitive marine areas for cetaceans,including preferred feeding grounds, mating locationsand migration corridors.

4. To identify regional marine environmental impactsaffecting KNP cetaceans.

5. To provide site and species-specific information onKNP cetaceans for:

i. Marine resource and park management purposes.ii. Environmental awareness and educational programs.6. To establish community-based cetacean monitoring

programs through the active participation ofmanagement agencies and stakeholders including:

i. TNC-Komodo Field Office staffii. Balai Taman Nasional Komodo rangersiii. Komodo National Park dive operators.

Previous cetacean sightings in Komodo NationalPark and adjacent waters.

The oldest recorded sightings of cetaceans inthe Komodo region were made during the 19th Centuryby the Yankee whalers who sailed through these watersto the Sulu and Celebes Sea whaling grounds. Theserecords show that sperm whales (Physetermacrocephalus) were sighted year round and caughtoccasionally in the Komodo region (Townsend, 1935).

Recent reports on Komodo cetaceans arescarce. A review of Indonesian cetaceans (whichincluded both historical information and more recentsightings) listed a total of five species (Rudolph et al.,1997) for this region. Another noteworthy reportmentions that the endangered blue whale (Balaenopteramusculus) has been sighted year round in Komodowaters, with a peak abundance in April-May (IUCN/UNEP, 1988).

The initial cetacean survey in May 1999 wasthe first of this kind in the area. The surveys identifiedadditional rare species (e.g. Kogia, Pseudorca) whichwere not previously reported in the area (Kahn, 1999).The group composition of several of species sighted,such as the bottlenosed dolphin (Tursiops truncatus)and melon-headed whale (Peponocephala electra),included newborn calves. This initial survey indicatedthat the KNP area warranted additional attention as arelatively diverse cetacean habitat. The survey effortsduring the October intermonsoon period were scheduled


to provide comparable data to the previous survey,maximise the probability of mysticete (baleen whale)sightings and obtain data on the area’s ecologicalsignificance for both resident and migratory cetaceans.

SURVEY METHODS ANDRESEARCH ACTIVITIES

The methodologies involved in this program havebeen specifically designed to cause minimal disturbanceto cetaceans while allowing for discrete and closeobservations. These procedures have been extensivelytrialed in Indonesian waters

Survey method I: TNC speedboats.The majority of the visual and acoustic cetacean

surveys were carried out from a 25-foot TNC Yamahaspeedboat cruising at 16-18 knots. This survey focusedon the coastal areas, bays and inter-island passages ofKNP. While underway a minimum of two experiencedobservers conducted visual surveys of the surroundingswaters. Once cetaceans were sighted, the vessel’s courseand speed were adjusted to allow for a discreet approachand close observation. Whenever possible a positivespecies identification (ID) was made. Unidentifiedcetacean encounters were also recorded. These wereusually the result of unfavourable light conditions, seastate, lack of proximity or active avoidance behaviour.

Time, sea surface conditions, GPS location,group size and presence of newborn calves, minimumdistance from vessel, direction of travel and eight selectedbehaviours were recorded on standardised, waterproofdata sheets (Appendix I). After the ID and recordings,the vessel departed from the sighting area at reducedspeed and resumed with the predetermined survey route.

During offshore routes the visual surveys werecomplimented by periodical acoustic listening stationsusing a directional Vemco custom VHLF hydrophonewith audio amplifier. Acoustic surveys were onlyconducted if the vessel was located 4 or more nauticalmiles offshore to minimise any coastal interference.Listening stations were conducted every 30 minutes, orapproximately 7-8 nautical miles apart depending on off-shore conditions. The survey would commence in theearly morning departing from The Nature Conservancy(TNC) Komodo Field Office in Labuan Bajo, Flores,Nusa Tenggara Timor and returned before sunset eachday. On one occasion an overnight stop was made atWenci Ranger Station, KNP, to increase the speed boatsurvey effort for Selat Linta and Selat Sape, which arethe major deep-water passages between Sumbawa andFlores.

Survey method II - Local live-aboard vessels.Visual and acoustic cetacean surveys were also

carried out from two local live-aboard vessels, in orderto increase coverage to remote areas and allow the

surveys to continue during less optimal weatherconditions. The data collection procedures did not differbetween survey methods. The vessel speed averaged6-7 knots and visual range was increased by the regularuse of binoculars and increased observer height. Themajority of the acoustic surveys were conducted whileon-board the live-aboard vessels. Listening stations wereconducted more than 4 nautical miles (nm) off-shore tominimise disturbance and spaced approximately 6 nmapart. The live-aboard survey effort focused on thewaters adjacent to KNP, such as the productive regionnorth of Komodo, Banta and San Geang, as well as theFlores and Sumba Seas. Unseasonally strong southerlywinds and high seas in May meant this last area wassurveyed during the October period only.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONBecause of the limited time scale of the cetacean

rapid ecological assessment (REA) in Komodo watersand the challenging nature of studying living cetaceans,the results described in this report are largely descriptive.Comparative analyses will be conducted once the twointermonsoon KNP cetacean survey periods in 2000have been completed and seasonal and annual variationsin cetacean ecological parameters can be examined.Sensitive marine areas for cetaceans within KNP willalso be evaluated upon completion of the 2000 surveys.

Visual survey effort.The results of the visual and acoustic cetacean

surveys conducted in KNP and adjacent waters can befound in Tables 1 and 2 respectively. Surveys wereconducted from 16-26 May and 11-28 October 1999.In total, 14 cetacean species were identified (Table 2c).The survey effort comprised of 26 field days and totaled207 active survey hours. The surveys covered anestimated 1443 nautical mile (nm). The 14 speciespositively identified during 92 encounters werepredominantly toothed whales and dolphins (SuborderOdontoceti), although during the October period rorqualwhales (Balaenoptera sp., Suborder Mysticeti) wereobserved frequenting the Gili Mota area on threeoccasions. This was the only area where baleen whaleswere encountered in 1999. An estimated total of 2423individual cetaceans were sighted at sea. A detailedsummary of survey effort for both methods and fieldperiods is provided (Table 2).

Acoustic survey effort.The acoustic survey included 93 hydrophone

listening stations. It is estimated that a single stationwithout any land interference and clear 360o receptionrealistically surveys 63 nm2 - o2 x the estimated acousticradius of 6.5 nm. The acoustic survey covered an


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estimated 5912 nm2 in all. Acoustic contact withcetaceans was recorded during 29% of the listeningstations (Table 3). The acoustic radius has been estimatedand calibrated numerous times by cross-checking audibleunderwater vessel noise and coastal interference withradar positions and GPS distances in various weatherconditions.

The acoustic surveys confirm the relatively highabundance of cetaceans in these waters. Acousticsurveys are more effective than visual methods whendetecting the presence of deep diving cetaceans withshort surface intervals and often have an increased rangewhen compared to visual surveys. The surveys havecombined these methods where possible, resulting in acomprehensive search effort. Subsequent acoustic surveydata will also be valuable for comparisons betweendifferent regions and seasons.

Cetacean species diversity and distribution.The species diversity of the region appears to

be relatively high. By conducting a relatively limitedsurvey effort in the two intermonsoon periods, close tohalf of all cetacean species known to occur in Indonesianwaters have been positively identified. The speciesidentified during the rapid ecological assessment are listedin Table 1, as well as their IUCN conservation status,Indonesian and regional (Flores) names.

To analyse the positions of cetacean encountersand identify potential sensitive marine areas forcetaceans, all GPS cetacean encounter coordinates weretranscribed to a global information system (GIS) formatand assigned species-specific data points (Figure 1). Thedistribution of cetaceans shows the colour-codeddistribution of 14 cetacean species. Sightings were

categorised and allocated the following symbols (Table4).Members of the Family Delphinidae, especially thebottlenosed dolphin, T.truncatus, dominate thedistribution of sightings within KNP borders. Theoffshore areas have a more diverse pattern. Numerousspecies of oceanic odontocetes are frequentlyencountered in this habitat, especially the long-nosedspinner dolphin, S. longirostris (Figure 1). Thedominance in sighting frequencies and abundances ofthe two most common dolphins (S.longirostris and T.truncatus) shows that these species are able to adaptextremely well to a wide variety of marine environments,ranging from shallow turbid coastal waters to oceanicconditions. Other species may be more selective, orlimited, in their preferred habitats and thus morevulnerable to disturbances and displacement.

During the extensive review of the high qualityphotographic slides and digital video images, field guidesand literature, it became clear that the rorqual whales(Balaenoptera sp.) encountered off Gili Mota did notconform to any rorqual species’ morphology publishedthus far. Rorqual whale morphologies (Balaenopterasp.) in the Indo-Pacific, and especially South East Asia,are not well known. Several cetacean species from thisregion are described from skulls and occasionalstrandings and not in living detail. Other cetacean speciesin Australasia are being reviewed taxonomically and re-classified with additional (sub) species (e.g. Perrin etal., 1996). Subsequent encounters within KNP bordersduring the April 2000 cetacean surveys have confirmedthe unusual external features of this balaenopterid. Highquality slide images and digital footage have beenreviewed by several cetacean experts world wide, yet apositive identification remains difficult without genetic


samples and comparative DNA analysis (Kahn, 2000).

Species-specific data: Sighting frequencies, groupsizes, calving rates and visual search times.Sighting frequencies.

Of the estimated 2423 cetaceans seen and 14species identified, only one dolphin species(S.longirostris) was classified as locally abundant (Table4). Two species were considered common (T.truncatus; S.attenuata,), five uncommon (P.electra;Balaenoptera sp.; P. macrocephalus; G.griseus;L.hosei), and the remaining six species were consideredrare (Kogia sp.; P. crassidens; F. attenuata; D.delphis; S. bredanensis; Z. cavirostris - Table 4). Theabundance categories were defined by sighting frequency(Table 6).

These estimated local abundances were alsoconfirmed by the visual search times as calculated foreight cetacean species (Table 4). All species-specificsighting frequencies of positively identified cetaceanencounters are shown in Figure 2. The relatively highsighting frequency of S.longirostris, S. attenuata, T.truncatus and P. electra during both 1999 surveyperiods indicates KNP may inhabit residentialpopulations of these species at least.

Group sizes and composition.The mean group size (and standard errors) was

calculated for all cetacean species encountered (Figure3, Table 4). This data accurately reflects the knownsociality of the species most frequently encountered.More detailed group compositions are hard to examinewithout more intrusive techniques such as biopsy darting.The most realistic source for group composition data in

the KNP area would be from a (mass) stranding eventin the area.Although strandings are a rare occurrence in KNP, withthe additional Balai Nasional Park Rangers and TNC-KFO Monitoring Staff involved in the cetacean sightingprogram, any stranding would have a good chance ofbeing recorded and sampled. Data on speciesidentification, health status, individual sizes and sex shouldbe recorded together with photographic materialillustrating the external characteristics of the animals.Calving rates.

The presence or absence of calves was recordedfor most encounters. Calves are defined as newborndepending on their size and behaviour. Newborn calvesare estimated to be less than 6-12 months old. Calveswere observed for seven dolphin species and the spermwhale, indicating the KNP region may be an importantcetacean calving and breeding ground. No mating wasobserved, but for most species this takes place shortlyafter the birth of a single calf (e.g. Simmonds andHutchinson, 1996). The estimated calving rates shouldbe considered preliminary and interpreted with caution(Table 5).Initial visual search times (IVST).

For each field day, the active visual survey time(hours) prior to the first cetacean encountered wasrecorded as the initial visual search time (IVST). IVSTsightings did not need to result in positive identifications.Mean IVST of both survey methods and seasons werecompared (Table 6). IVST did not differ significantlybetween season (t-test, p=0.08) or survey method (t-test, p=0.13).


Species - specific visual search times (VST).For those cetacean species encountered more

than two times (nm3), a species-specific visual searchtime (VST) was calculated. VST could be calculatedby recording the search effort in hours between sightingsof the same species. VST is defined as the mean of allspecies-specific sighting intervals as corrected for activesurvey hours and survey method. The equation is

VST= Σ{ (∆t1-2 species A) - inactive survey time ∆t1-2 species A } / nspecies A

∆t1-2 species A = the survey time (hrs) between two subsequent encounters with

species A.

inactive survey time = the at sea spend (hrs) on otheractivities such as prolonged encounters withother species and operational pauses

nspecies A = the total number of encounters with species

A over the survey period (VST could becalculated for species with n(3 only)

To calculate VST, the data from different surveymethods was pooled in order to obtain the maximumcomparable observations. This calibration was equatedby comparing the visual search times of the two methodson the two most common species - S.longirostris andT.truncatus. The VST for both species proved highlyconsistent between survey methods (Table 7). The searchtime calibration from survey method two (local live-aboard) to method one (TNC speedboat) wascalculated to be 0.40 (±0.03). Although the data allowedfor only a limited number of calibration sets (n=4), thelow variance between calibration sets indicated the datawill remain robust once converted. In addition, theestimated speed ratio of the different survey methodsvery closely approximates this index (6/16= 0.38).


Seasonality.Information on the temporal and geographical

variations in cetacean diversity and abundance are crucialto evaluating conservation measures, yet often requirelarge data sets before any patterns can be identified (e.gWhitehead and Kahn, 1992). Seasonal fluctuations inKNP cetacean diversity distribution and abundance areespecially difficult to quantify because of the absence oflong-term observations. No detailed patterns wereidentified. Still, some general differences were evidentfor the two survey periods in 1999. Of the two periods,the October survey resulted in a marked increase incetacean diversity, total encounters and overall estimatedabundance (Table 2). This may be in part due to theincreased survey effort, or the KNP area inhabited amore diverse cetacean community during this time. Towhat extend these results are confounded by searcheffort, or even short-term oceanographic fluctuationsremains unclear. Additional survey efforts in 2000 will

be necessary to further investigate these initial patternsin seasonality.

Species associations.The survey results include numerous cetacean

species associations. This is a fascinating aspect ofcetacean ecology, yet the function of these associationsremains poorly understood. A total of six odontocetecetacean associations have been recorded during thesurvey periods. The observations of these speciesassociation gives further indication that KNP is a valuablemarine area for cetaceans.

Multi-species photo-identification of individualcetaceans.

One of the main long-term objectives of the rapidecological assessment surveys is to investigate cetaceanmovements and habitat use within Komodo National


Park and its adjacent waters. This is necessary in orderto develop ecologically-based conservation measuresfor management plans relevant to cetaceans and otherlarge migratory marine life.

Information on cetacean movement patterns andhabitat use is normally obtained by conducting multi-day visual and acoustic tracking surveys of particularpods of echolocating odontocetes, or by placing radioor satellite transmitter tags on individual animals ofselected species. Non-invasive tagging of individualwhales and dolphins can be best achieved byphotographing the distinctive marks and colour patternsof numerous cetacean species. Reliable identificationfeatures for individual photo-identification studies havenow been used for most baleen whales, sperm whales,pilot whales, several beaked whale species, as well asRisso’s, spotted and bottlenose dolphins. Individualphoto-identifications have been cataloged for thefollowing KNP cetacean species: Bottlenose dolphin T.truncatus, Risso’s dolphin G. grampus, rorqual whalesBalaenoptera sp., spotted dolphin S. attenuata, melon-headed whale P. electra and sperm whale P.macrocephalus.

These identifications are part of an IndonesianCetacean Photographic Library, which includescetaceans photographed in northern Sulawesi, theSangihe-Talaud Archipelago, Bali, Lombok andSumbawa. The long-term aim of the library is to confirmany re-sightings of previously photo-tagged individualsin the future. This will provide valuable resourcemanagement information on species’ habitat preferences,local movement patterns and potential migration routes.In addition to the TNC Komodo Field Office staff andBalai Komodo National Park rangers, numerous diveoperators have been approached to report cetaceansightings and assist with the photo-identification effortsof Indonesia’s cetaceans. Interested individuals withpossible identification photographs of Indonesiancetaceans are welcomed to contact the first author (BK).

Educational activities and the TNC CetaceanMonitoring Program. Educational activities.

The survey’s outreach activities include aCetacean Monitoring Program forThe Nature Conservancy (TNC) field staff, Balai TamanNasional Komodo rangers and dive tourism operatorsinterested in cetacean ecology and ocean conservation.

This community involvement will ensure theprogram remains active between priority cetacean surveyperiods with continuous, real-time data recordings. Thisalso facilitates information exchange between interestedparties and fosters environmental awareness with TNCstaff, KNP rangers, the nature-based tourism industryand local guides.

The education and environmental awareness activities

conducted during the survey periods include:i. Cetacean ecology and species identification slide

seminars and videos for TNC staff, KomodoNational Park rangers and interested parties.

ii. In-field cetacean identification training for TNCstaff, Komodo National Park rangers andinterested parties.

iii. Interviews with TNC staff and KNP Rangersto record details on previous cetacean sightings.

iv. Implementation of a voluntary cetacean sightingand monitoring program to TNC staff, as wellas two interested live-aboard dive operationswhich frequent KNP and various remote marineareas of Nusa Tengara.

v. The distribution of information sheets,educational videos and illustrated referencebooks on the identification of cetaceans at sea.

vi. Additional training on data recording and use ofstandardised datasheets (Appendix I). Thesedatasheets are also in use at other locations inIndonesia.

Cetacean sightings by TNC Komodo Field OfficeStaff and KNP Rangers.Interviews with TNC personnel and KNP

Rangers revealed that mysticetes (baleen whales) havebeen sighted within KNP, albeit infrequently. In someinstances the same whales remained within KNP watersfor several weeks, others were sighted only once. Mostsightings occurred during the September-October intermonsoon period. No positive identifications were madeby KNP Rangers. TNC staff also sighted numerouslarge cetaceans between 1995-1998, including rorqualwhales (Balaenoptera sp.) in Selat Molo; sperm whales(P. macrocephalus) in Selat Sape; and a stranding of alarge 15-20m unidentified mysticete at Rinca (J.Pet andA. Mulyadi pers.comm.).

The TNC Cetacean Monitoring Program iscurrently active. Sightings are to be reported to thecetacean monitoring coordinator of the Komodo FieldOffice in Labuan Bajo. The coordinator is to verify anypositive identifications using the check lists, referencebooks and educational materials provided or bycontacting the program’s principal investigators. If thereare any uncertainties on the positive species identification,then the encounter must recorded as ‘unidentifiedcetacean’. Any guesswork, although done with the bestof intentions, will greatly affect the accuracy of the datacollected. This should be avoided at all costs. Wehope that these monitoring activities will becomeincorporated into the daily routine of all marinemonitoring personnel and boat crew interested. Theenthusiasm shown thus far, and the growing experienceof the staff involved, will surely result in valuable data onIndonesia’s cetaceans throughout the year.

Cetacean survey contributions by the dive community.


Numerous dive operators have expressed interestin cetacean identification and are actively involved in aregional cetacean sighting program. The majority ofoperators have been briefed to identify those cetaceansfrequently encountered at sea and to record thisinformation on datasheets. Importantly, most contactpersons responsible for data entry have experience withidentifying cetaceans at sea. We are indeed fortunatethat these motivated persons continue to monitor anextensive coastal area during their daily routes to andfrom dive sites. Once completed, the data sheets arefaxed or e-mailed to the APEX Environmental office.Data are then verified, processed and become part ofan Indonesian cetacean database. Numerous sightingshave been reported covering an extensive marine areafrom Bali to Alor, northern Sulawesi, Papua Barat andPapua New Guinea. Operators or individuals withcetacean identification photographs or other relevantinformation are encouraged to contact the authors.

Increased marine education and environmentalawareness, together with the conservation andenforcement measures currently implemented in KNP,are crucial for the future of Komodo’s marine andterrestrial bio-diversity and the development ofalternative, sustainable livelihoods alike.

Environmental threats to KNP cetaceans.An overview of direct and indirect environmental

threats to cetaceans can be found in numerous reviews(e.g. Hofman 1995) and include:

• Marine debris• By-catch in commercial fisheries• Noise pollution• Food chain effects• Diseases• Oil and chemical spills

Of these the following are of particular relevance tocetaceans occurring in KNP and adjacent waters:

Marine debris and net entanglement.On May 21, 1999 the survey identified a large

marine area polluted with high concentrations ofdiscarded plastics. The area affected was estimated tobe 5-10 nm2 and was located between 8o13 S/119o24E and 8o11 S/119o31 E. Large quantities of plasticobjects were seen, ranging from household wares topellets, ropes, drums, large containers and bags. Theseitems were distributed between the surface andapproximately 20 metres deep.

Depending on the prevailing currents, thissignificant accumulation of plastic waste could haveseriously affected KNP marine life and its remotebeaches and coastal areas. At present, no effectivewaste disposal system for the KNP region includingLabuan Bajo and Sape is available (Pet & Djohani,1996), so it seems likely that at least part of the waste

was locally produced.On October 28, 1999, a 100m section of

discarded long-line equipment was retrieved in openocean south of Komodo Isl. (at approximately 8o 53 S/119o 25 E). Hooks and buoys were present and althoughthis type of ghost net is relatively benign when comparedto discarded gillnets, these nets continue to pose a seriousthreat to all large migratory marine life (e.g. Read, 1998).On all other survey routes the occurrence of marinedebris was minimal.

Noise pollution related to destructive fishingpractices.

On May 22, 1999 a total of seven bomb blastswere heard north of Labuan Bajo during two morninghydrophone listening stations of six minutes each (locatedat 8o16S/119o47E and 8o16S/119o53E respectively).No acoustic contact with cetaceans was recorded duringthese stations. The nearest point of land was eightnautical mile from these locations and no other vesselswere sighted. Additional blasts, both within KNPborders, as along the southeast coast of Sumbawa, havebeen witnessed in 2000.

No direct studies on the effect of reef bombingon cetaceans have been published so far. However,research on effects of seismic and military tests indicatethat the potential impact of bombing on these acousticallysensitive marine mammals could be extensive (Ketten,1998).

Blasts or rapid onset sources are capable ofinducing broad hearing losses in virtually all cetaceanspecies. Blast injuries usually result from a singleexposure with an explosive shock wave which has asudden, massive pressure increase above ambientfollowed by a pressure decrease to well below ambient.Overpressures between 30 and 50 kPa are enough fora high incidence of severe blast injury. Acoustic traumas,at any one frequency, are highly species dependent andare a complex interaction of exposure time, signalcharacteristics, and intensity for a particular species atthat frequency (Ketten, 1998). Generally, the smallerspecies are most sensitive to high frequency disturbances,whereas the larger whales are most disturbed by lowfrequency noise (Gordon and Moscrop, 1998).

Non-lethal reef blasting effects on cetaceans in the vicinityof the explosion site include:• the permanent reduction of sensory capabilities• the masking of important signals (including

echolocation, intra-species communication,predator-prey interactions and otherenvironmental cues)

• the disruption of important behaviours throughstartle and repellence

• the long-term abandonment of important habitatsand

• the alteration of migration patterns.


These sub-lethal effects of reef blasting can havea profound impact on residential and migratory cetaceanpopulations patterns (Ketten, 1998).

Apart from the negative effects on cetaceans,reef bombing is one of the major threats to reefecosystems and sustainable reef fishing practices inIndonesia (e.g Djohani et al., 1999). The acousticdetection of reef bombing activities may indicate thatlarge scale monitoring of this illegal fishing activity in KNPcan be done effectively by installing several hydrophonerecorder units at strategic locations.

A constant acoustic monitoring presence in KNPcould:a) Quantify the practice of reef bombing in KNP and

adjacent waters.b) Effect a rapid enforcement response once a relay

system to a shore-based monitoring station isoperational.

c) Act as a deterrent by increasing the risk for fishermento be caught while bombing KNP reefs.

Gill netting activities.The apparent increase in the use of monofilament

gill nets in the KNP area (J.Pet pers. comm.) could havea major impact on KNP cetaceans throughentanglements in active and discarded fishing gear. Thisis likely to result in higher accidental cetacean deaths(Read, 1998). KNP cetaceans, as well as other largemarine life in these waters, are especially vulnerable tonet placements along the numerous inter-island passagesand possible migration corridors. Such gill net placementscould quickly result in high cetacean by-catch rates.

Potential long-term effects of destructive fishingactivities near Nusa Tenggara migratory straits andpassages.

The number of inter-island channels along theNusa Tenggara island chain have been previouslyidentified as important cetacean migration routes fornumerous whale species, some rare and endangered(PHPA 1984). These passages are strictly limited innumber. Displacement of migratory marine animals froma preferred passage would result in lengthy and unfamiliaralternative routes. For instance, if the KNP passages(Selat Sape, Selat Linta and Selat Molo) are avoidedthen the alternative migratory passages are severalhundred kilometers away (i.e. the Sumbawa-LombokStrait or the Flores-Alor passages). If these alternativepassages are also subjected to similar levels of acousticdisturbance then the options for migratory cetaceans areeven further diminished.

Ultimately, high levels of acoustic disturbanceand inappropriate fishing methods (including gill and driftnetting) in or near Indonesia’s major passages could leadto the effective blockage of migratory routes, and theextirpation of vulnerable large migratory cetacean

species. This would impact on the feeding ecology andmating systems of these long-lived marine mammals ineastern Indonesian seas. Such activities could even affectregional Indo-Pacific waters, as ‘large scale bioticlinkages mean that impacts can reverberate throughgeographically vast areas’ (Agardy 1997) and is ofspecial relevance to migratory cetaceans (e.g. Kahn etal., 1993).

Increased protective management measures forKNP straits, and indeed all of Nusa Tenggara’s majorisland passages, are crucial to the conservation ofIndonesia’s marine bio-diversity. Straits and passagesshould be considered as priority management units forspecies of special concern, such as those threatened orendangered, have important ecological roles, and thoseof cultural or commercial importance (Agardy, 1997).

Alternative livelihood options: Responsiblecetacean watching potential in KNP.

To provide for sustainable alternative livelihoodsis one of the main challenges to tropical marineconservation and an integral part of Indonesia’senvironmental issues. Environmentally sensitive marinetourism is widely viewed as a viable option to createeconomic and environmental sustainability as analternative to resource depleting activities.

It appears likely that the current cetaceansurveys and rapid ecological assessment will increaseinterest in commercial cetacean watching ventures inKNP. It is thus of interest that numerous internationalexamples have illustrated that initial permit requests shouldbe carefully considered; and if found appropriate forKNP, these activities should be strictly controlled withadequate management policies and enforcementmeasures in place from the start.

The basic prerequisites for responsible cetaceanwatching activities are:

1. Long-term consistency of cetacean sightings.2. Controlled access to the targeted cetacean

habitat.3. High standards of environmental awareness of

operators with a commitment to:i. Minimal disturbance boat handling techniques.ii. Periodic rest periods for target species.iii.Specific training programs for staff.iv.Educational commentaries and materials for clients.

4. Adequate management and enforcement of rulesand regulations. Management issues to beaddressed include but are not limited to:

i. Licensing and evaluation of permit requirements.ii. The limit of the number of operators.iii. The maximum number of vessels.iv. The maximum number of clients per vessel.v. Minimal approach distances and other strict

operational guidelines and industry codes ofconduct.

vi. Educational programs in cetacean ecology and


species identification for park managers, rangers andenforcement field staff.

vii. Environmental management charges or otherinitiatives to integrate marine conservation andtourism.

viii. Enforcement measures against the entry of illegaloperators and regulatory breaches by permit holders.

ix. Logistics and economic costs of managementrequirements.

5. Marine environmental monitoring and cetaceanresearch

i. Monitoring of cetacean diversity, distribution andabundance, behaviours and responses to cetaceanwatching activities.

ii. On-going surveys and ecological research on KNPcetaceans.

Relevance of regional cetacean surveys to coastalresource management and marine protected areasin Indonesia.

Cetaceans, as a guild of common species with arelatively high localised abundance, are increasinglyrecognised as a useful tool for marine conservationprograms. Cetaceans have been identified as focalspecies for marine resource management andconservation (Lambert, 1997). In eastern Canada, forexample, results from cetacean surveys have beeninstrumental in the establishment of a new marineprotected area (Hooker et al., 1999).

The on-going rapid ecological assessments ofKomodo National Park cetaceans have identified arelative high cetacean diversity, abundance and extensivedistribution within KNP borders and the adjacent watersof the Flores and Sumba Seas. The 1999 assessmentsindicate that the survey area supports a diverse communityof whales and dolphins throughout the year. Sensitivemarine areas for Indonesia’s cetaceans are increasinglyapparent as more data on resident and migratory speciesbecomes available in 2000.

The cetacean survey program in KomodoNational Park and adjacent waters has been implementedas an integral component of the current marine resourcesmanagement strategy. Such a program is of directrelevance and broadens the protective managementperspective for Komodo National Park and WorldHeritage Area.

The KNP protective measures for cetaceans asincorporated in the 25 year management plan includeextensions of Park boundaries and cetacean migrationbuffer zones (Pet and Yeager, 2000). This is an importantcetacean conservation strategy for Komodo NationalPark, but also when viewed from a regional perspective.

The Indo-Pacific, and the Eastern Indonesianregion in particular, is considered the most bio-diverseocean realm in the world. Indonesia’s cetaceans, ashighly effective and specialised predators, are animportant component of this diversity and inhabit river,

coastal and oceanic habitats. However, there is aconsiderable lack of scientific knowledge of relevanceto marine resource management on the ecology ofIndonesia’s living cetaceans and this situation can onlybe improved by regional cetacean surveys.

Obtaining additional data on cetacean speciesdiversity, distribution and abundance is especiallyimportant when considering Indonesia’s location andcomplex regional oceanography. Indonesia is uniquelylocated as the only equatorial island nation where inter-oceanic exchange of marine flora and fauna occurs (e.gTomascik et al., 1997). Cetacean movements betweenthe tropical Pacific and Indian Oceans can occur throughthe Nusa Tenggara passages (PHPA, 1984; Klinowska,1991; Kahn 2000). Because of this significantgeographical location, there is an urgent need foradditional protective measures for cetaceans in all seasunder Indonesian jurisdiction.

Acknowledgements.We would like to thank The Nature Conservancy

- Indonesia Program for supporting this program,especially Rili Djohani, Dr. Peter Mous, Pak JohannesSubijanto and Andreas Muljadi, Ir. Novianto B.W.,M.Sc, Head of Balai Taman Nasional Komodo and allthe staff of TNC Komodo Field Office for the assistanceduring the surveys. We are also thankful to diveoperators Mr. Larry Smith, Mr. Condo Subagyo andMr. Mark Heighes for their active involvement in thecetacean monitoring program in Komodo National Parkand adjacent waters. Dr. Peter Arnold of the Museumof Queensland, Townsville, Australia, Dr. Peter Best ofthe South African Museum, Cape Town, South Africaand Dr. Bill Perrin of Southwest Fisheries Science Center,La Jolla USA kindly assisted with the KNPBalaenopterid identifications.

.


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OBJECTIVESIncrease public’s awareness of the benefitsof integrated coastal and marine resourcesmanagement.Stimulate dialogue between practitionersand scientific community.Share experience and learn lessons withinthe coastal and marine managementcommunity.

SCOPETechnical, legal, political, social and policy

that related to the management of coastal andmarine resources.

TARGET AUDIENCEGovernment officials at all levels, academ-

ics, researchers and practitioners involved in dis-cipline of coastal and marine resources manage-ment.

FORMATResearch and policy review papers (up to3,000 words).Research notes (usually based upon morelimited set of data and not exceeding 1,500words).Topic review articles (not more than8,000 words).Comments (opinions relating to previouslypublished material and all issues relevant tothe journal’s objectives, not more than 1,000words).Book review.

TUJUANMeningkatkan kepedulian masyarakat luasterhadap manfaat dari pengelolaan sumberdayapesisir dan lautan secara terpadu.Merangsang dialog di antara para praktisi danpakar pengelolaan sumberdaya pesisir danlautan.Membagi pengalaman dan pengetahuandi antara seluruh pemerhati masalah-masalahpengelolaan sumberdaya pesisir dan lautan.

RUANG LINGKUPTeknis, hukum, politik, sosial dan kebijakan yang

berkaitan dengan pengelolaan sumberdaya pesisirdan lautan.

SASARAN PEMBACAPejabat pemerintah dari seluruh tingkatan,

kalangan akademik, para peneliti dan praktisi, sertaberbagai kalangan pemerhati masalah-masalahpengelolaan sumberdaya pesisir dan lautan.

FORMATMakalah penelitian dan kajian kebijakan (tidaklebih dari 3.000 kata).Laporan singkat (menggunakan data yang lebihterbatas dan tidak lebih dari 1.500 kata).Artikel kajian (tidak lebih dari 8.000 kata).Komentar (opini tentang naskah yang telahditerbitkan dan berbagai macam isu lain yangsesuai dengan ruang lingkup jurnal, tidak lebihdari 1.000 kata).Resensi Buku.

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