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Journal of The Pacific Society / April 1998 / No. TB - Tg (Vo1. 21, No.1 - 2 ) (11) 124FISHING PRACTICES OF NAIMASIMASI VILLAGEA COMMUTER VILLAGE OUTSIDE

SUVA, VITI LEVU, FIJINorman J. Quinnl

andJone Kanalagi

Biology Department, School of Pure and Applied SciencesUniversity of the South PacificSuva, Fiji

Aquatic resources have been an important part ofthe life of many Pacific Islanders for centuries. How-ever, changes associated with a developing economy inFiji have altered the way villagers utilize aquatic re-sources. The proximity of Naimasimasi Mllage (TailevuDistrict, Viti Levu Island, Republic of Fiji) ro Fiji'scapital city, Suva, has resulted in a change from asubsistence to a commuter community.

Historically, the people of the village depended onboth marine and freshwater resources for food and forsale in the market. However, there has been a declinein the fishing activities over the last decade. New roadswere constructed which improved access to urban areasand urban employment. Today, about 20Vo of the vil-lage commutes daily to urban centers to work and onlya few families totally rely on fishing to meet their foodand income requirements. Many people who have ob-tained employment in urban centers have lost some oftheir traditional knowledge about fishing.

The improved access to urban markets has influencedthe remaining fishers to modify their fishing techniquesand customs to increase their catches. This is perceivedby others in the village as a threat to the long-term

sustainability of these marine resources.Additionally, villagers are aware of the effects that

increased pollution levels from modification of uplandvegetation communities and urban chemical runoff havehad on the marine environment in Fijian coastal waters(Penn, 1981; Dougherty, 1988; Cripps, 1992; Stewartand de Mora, 1992: Naidu et al. 1991: Naidu andMorrison, 1994; Tabudravu, 1995; Naqasima, 1996) andare concerned about the potential for their resources tobecome contaminated.

Recent fisheries studies in Fiji have focused onwomen's involvement (Lal and Slatter, 1982; Chung,1995; Matthews, 1995; Tiraa-Passfield, 1995; Vunisea,1995), provided baseline catch information of a fishingcommunity (Veitayaki. et al. 1995r. analyzed fishingpattems in relation to environmental factors (Beeching,1993), or documented the subsistence women's fisheryoff Suva Point and its importance to many low incomeurban families and potential threars to the fishery (Quinnand Davis, 1997).

This study is the first which examines the actualfishing techniques, local knowledge, and managementstrategies of people from the Tailevu District of Fiji.

t Present Address:Tropical Discoveries, P.O. Box 305874, Sr. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands 00g03


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(r2) -123- ,&+t++A# ree\+ 4 H ffi78/7e+ (ffi2r&ffi1/2+?)

Figure 1. Guiding the boat through the mangroves.DESCRIPTION OF NAIMASIMASI VIL.LAGE

Naimasimasi Village is located on the southeasterncoast of Viti Levu about 40 km from Suva. The sur-rounding area is hilly with rivers running to the man-grove lined coast. The villagers use the rivers to accessthe mud flats and inshore reefs. Although the highvolcanic islands of Fiji have abundant cultivable land,the sea remains a powerful influence supplying foodand identity to coastal people.

Only five households out of a community of 60households are totally dependent on fishing for their live-lihood. These families have small boats, outboard en-gines, nets, and large freezers to preserve their catch.Another 20 families have small punts that are used forfishing (Fig. l). The rest of the community usually justwalks to the mangrove and mudflats for collecting andfishing.

Typically the commercial fishermen fish at least twicea week, normally on Wednesdays and Thursdays. Theycommonly fish at night using gill nets and hand lines.

Their catch is frozen until it is taken to Suva or Nausonfor sale to shops or in the market (Fig. 2).

The number of people going out to fish is depen-dent upon weather conditions and the availability oftarget species. Some fish are seasonally plentiful in thelagoon. The fishing grounds in the lagoon and by thereefs are named and considered to be owned andmanaged by various clans termed mataqali. Some ofthe fishing areas are more productive than others andare closely managed by the village governing bodies.

FISHING PRACTICESThe fishing methods commonly used are gleaning,

hand-lining, net fishing and spear fishing. Fishing isdone on the nearby mudflats, around patch reefs, inlagoonal waters, in the mangroves and freshwater creeks.Gleaning

Gleaning is the most common fishing method. Thecollectors use their bare hands or a small knife and acollecting bag (noke) that is made from woven reeds.


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Journal of The Pacific Society / April 19gB / No. TB - Tg (Vol. 21, No. 1 2) (13) t22

Figure 2. Fish being sold at a shop and local market in Nausori, Fiji.The following animals are commonly collected from thereef: seaurchins (cawaki), giantclams (vasua), trochus(slcl) and Venus ark shell (ftalftoso).

The catch per unit effort (CPUE) of sea urchins onthese reefs is much higher than around Suva (Gounder,1995). This higher CPUE is probably the result of alower fishing pressure and larger populations of urchins.Reef gleaning is done less frequently as access isrestricted to those with small boats which are able totraverse the lagoon waters.

The seafood commonly collected in the mangroveand on the mud flats using this method are listed inTable L

Some of the aspects of catch differs from thatreported elsewhere. Unlike the kaikoso populationaround Suva Peninsula, which appears to be limited tothe tidal flats most exposed to tidal currents and istemporally variable (Maybin 1989; Quinn and Davis,1997), the kaikoso population utilized by theNaimasimasi villagers is common throughout a largearea of the intertidal zone and does not show any largeyearly variation in population size. Also, while South(1993) states that Caulerpa, Hypnea and Gracilaria are

the preferred edible seaweed genera for Fijians, theNaimasimasi villages prefer Solieria robusta.Net Fishing

Gill net fishing is practiced by both commercial andsubsistence fishermen. Commercial fishermen use 100m long nets which are set in the lagoon at a low tideand are checked after the next tidal cycle. Usually manyfish are caught and the catch includes many smalljuveniles. This method has created conflict within thevillage because subsistence fishermen think this methodis a threat to the sustainability of the fishery.

There are two types of subsistence net fishing. Onetechnique uses long nets like the commercial fishermen,but only when there is an important village gatheringor communal feast.

The second type of net fishing is done by groupsof both men and women on the mud flats and theshallow parts of the lagoon between the mud flats andbarrier reef. The nets are typically 5 m by 3 m withwooden sticks at each end. The nets are carried by twopeople as they wade tfuough waist deep water lookingfor schools of fish. When a school is spotted they


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(14) - r2r - ;&+i++e# ne}+ 4 E ffi78/7eE (ffi2r&ffi1/2==)encircle it and then gradually decrease the diameter ofthe circle. Their catch is then put in a noke that is tiedaround their waist. Fish commonly caught using thismethod are listed in Table 2.Spear Fishing

Spear fishing is usually done by men in the lagoonand in the mangroves. Their spears, called makita, .Nemulti pronged metal rods with pointed tips fixed to a2 m long wooden stick (Fig. 3). The best time to gospear fishing is on the flood tide when the fish arefollowing the tide in search of food. The fish usuallycaught using this technique are listed in Tables I and2.

Hand line FishingHand lining is usually done from small boats by

women in the lagoon or near the lagoonal patch reefs.People without boats usually wade out on the mud flatsas the tide comes in and fish in waist deep water.Commercial fishermen fish on the reefs mostly at night.The Venus Ark shell (kaikoso) or small prawns (moci)are caught in small creeks in the mangroves using smallnets and are used as bait. Monofilament fishing linehas replaced bush rope.

People first started using monofilament line about30 years ago and by the early 1970's this had com-pletely replaced bush rope. The line is usually wrappedaround empty plastic bottles. Fish commonly caught withhand lines are listed in Table 2.Fish Attracting Devices

A traditional fish attracting device (FAD) used bythe fishermen is called sago. It is constructed by plac-ing large branches of mangrove trees in piles on thesubtidal mudflats. They are kept in place by "V" shapedbranches that are pushed into the mud. Nuqa (Siganusspp.) feed on the decaying bark and they, along withthe mud crabs, seek shelter among the branches. Forcommunal gatherings and feasts, groups of men placea long net around the sago at low tide. Then severalmen jump into the water and beat the water with sticksscaring the fish and mud crabs into the net.

Another kind of FAD that the villagers use in themangroves is made of thin bamboo poles about 3 mlong. The poles are smashed into thin pieces and tied

Figure 3. Makita, are rnulti pronged sharpmetal 5 cm diameter rods fixed to 2m long wooden stick and used tospear fish from a boat.together using the forest vine, wa me.TheFAp is thenput across mangrove creeks and left for several weeks.Either men or women return to the FAD with nets atlow tide to catch the fish seeking shelter there.Crustacean Mangrove Fisheries

Mangroves are common along the coast and host adiverse and abundant crustacean community. Crustaceanscommonly caught for food include mud crabs (qari),crabs (kuka), land crabs (lairo), and mud lobsters(man'a) (Table l).

The mud crabs are caught in the creeks using a typeof net called lawasua. The net is I m x I m squarewith two bent sticks, usually small mangrove prpp roots,tied diagonally to each other on the corners of the net.Three or four land crabs are then tied together in acluster using a vine (wa me) and placed in the middleof the net. The net is then put into the creek and isweighed down using stones tied to the corners of thenet. Ropes from the four comers are attached to a rope


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Journal of The Pacific Society / Aprl| 1998 / No.78 - 79 (Vo]. 21, No.1 - 2 ) (15) - 120 -E

i:h

which goes to the surface. When the float attached tothe net bobs the net is lifted up with the catch.

Another way to catch crabs is to use a baited crabtrap made out of chicken wire (Fig. 4). This is a newtechnique practiced by villagers since the 1970's. Thistechniques uses less effort and is more popular, but costmore than the traditional technique.

i#; ,

A common method of catching mud lobsters (man'a)is called kucokuco in Rewa villages, but known askucukucuraki or butubuturakl elsewhere. The methodinvolves finding the lower ends of the burrow at hightide and then forcing water into the burrow using thefoot or less commonly the hand. This surging motionirritates the animal causing it to come to the surfaceof the burrow where it is caught by hand.

frEBiV

:?t$i!aiiu tW,6iita6i

Figure 5. The man'a snare trap. Details for setting the snare are shown in the upper left(after Pillai, 1985).

Figure 4. A cage for catching gari (crabs).


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Another method is the snare trap (Fig. 5) (Pillai,1985) which is set at the entrance to the burrows. Thetrap is only set by men and is made using a - 1.5 myoung mangrove branch and two strings. The branchis pushed into the mud near the burrow entrance anda Iong string with a loop on the end, termed va, is placednear the bunow entrance (Fig. 6). Another short string(- 60 cm long) is tied to the trap stick at one end anda small (- 3 - 5 cm) stick is tied to the other end ofthe string to function as a trigger. The trigger is heldin place by a small slender stick (- 10 cm long) thatis placed in the burrow with one end protruding abovethe surface of the burrow near the opening. In the courseof making visits during high tides to the burrow en-trance tbe mud lobster disturbs the stick and releasesthe trap.

The season for catching mud lobsters is betweenDecember and April when the females are ripe.

Three different forms of the mud lobster (Thalassinaanomala) are caught: man'a batibati (one big chelae),man'a culadi (both chelae of the same stze) and man'adabai (bright yellow ovaries inside telson - a ripe

female). Villagers prefer the high fat content of the ripeovaries. In the cooler months (June - August) many ofthe burrows are covered with mud and the females areberried or spent (Pillai, 1985).

The crab (kuka) is usually caught during low tides.Women and occasionally men dig them out of theirburrows in the mangroves using their hands (Fig. 7)or small spades. From May to October the [rabs usu-ally come out of their holes and climb up mangrovetrunks and are collected by hand.

The larger crabs and mud lobsters are an importantsource of income. Bundles of six or seven mud crabsare sold on along the road in the village. The priceranges from $F20 -$F40 ($Fl = US$0.67 October 1997)according to size and number of crabs in a btndle, Kuknare sold for $F2 to $F3 a bundle of 10 to 13 crabsdepending on size and season in the Suva market. Themud lobster (man'a) sells for $Fl per animal. Thereis little size variation between individuals of mudlobsters sold.Freshwater fishing

Nets are the main fishing method used in freshwaterstreams. The nets are approximately I m x I m withsmall wooden sticks tied at the sides of the net. Pairsof women are the primary fishers using this technique.The women's fishing season is from June to November,the dry season. The women push the net through thewater as a group catching mainly freshwater eels (duna)and prawns (moci). After heavy floods men fish in thefreshwater, usually at night, using spears, klives, netsand pressure lamps.SOCIAL CUSTOMS AND CONSERVA.TION METHODS

The introduction of European culture and traditions,saw the loss of some of the Fijian traditions and customsassociated with fishing. For instance, during the precontact period fishers were required by custom to givethe largest fish caught to their chief. Today that customis all but ignored.

However, a few customs still persist. One of the fewtraditions is the prohibition of fishing (taboo) when anelderly member or the head of a clan owning a fishingground (mataqali) passes away. The taboo period usu-


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Journal of The Pacific Society /Apri1 1998/No.78-79 (Vo].21, No.1 2) (17) - 118

ally lasts for 100 nights after which a feast is hostedby the clan to mark the end of the mourning periodand the removal of the fishing ban. Another custom isthat pregnant women are not allowed to go fishing. Itis believed that they would return with no catch or causeothers not to catch anylhing.

Finally, it is forbidden to eat dabea (Gymnothoraxspp.) and ogo (Sphyraena barracuda) because they areknown to be poisonous.

There are several conservation management strate-gies used. Small fish, prawns, and crabs are releasedwhen trapped. Mangrove crabs, mud lobsters, and rab-bit fish are only caught in seasons when they are knownto be mature. Since the villagers are devout Christians,there is no fishing on Sunday. This effectively reducesfishing pressure on the resource by one seventh.

The traditional aquatic resource conservation meth-ods that have helped sustain a small subsistence popu-lation for many generations must now be adapted tothe needs of a changing society. The society is activelydebating what new strategies must be adopted. The useof long gill nets by commercial fishermen is perceived

Figure 8. Gill net fishing is practiced byboth commercial and subsistencefishermen.

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Figure 7. Juvenile Kuka (crab, Sesarma erythrodactyla) caught by villager.

ii

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(18) - 117 -by some in the village as a threat to the sustainabilityof many of the fisheries (Fig. 8) and there is talk aboutrestricting their use.

It is considered by some outsiders that villagesocieties are not able to adapt their conservation strat-egies in time to prevent a decline of the target speciespopulations. The villagers have said perhaps, but thatthis is not different than what has happened to muchof the developed world's fisheries. However, the vil-lagers have expressed the opinion that they hope thatthe modern concept of sustainable development will beas beneficial to the villagers as the traditional conceptsof sustainable living.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTSWe are grateful to the people of Naimasimasi vil-

lage for sharing their knowledge about the sea. Fund-ing came from the University of the South PacificUniversity Research Committee, grant #6291-1317-70766-15. This work was undertaken while N.J.Q. wasa J. William Fulbright Fellow in the Biology Deparr-ment at the University of the South Pacific. Prof. P.Newell deserves particular recognition for his supportand encouragement. We are grateful to S. Appana whoentered an early version of the manuscript into thecomputer and to both S. Appana and V. Delana forhelping with the editing, proofreading and discussionsabout Fijian fishing practices. We also thank Dr. Bar-bara Kojis for her comments and corrections.

LITERATURE CITEDBeeching, A. J. 1993. A Descriptions of Temporal and

Spatial Fishing Patterns in SLIVA, FIJI. M.Sc.Thesis. University of Newcastle upon Tyne,England. pp. 153

Chung, M. 1995. Linking population, environment, andgender: The case of Suva Harbour, Fiji. In:Fishing for Answers: Women and Fisheries inthe Pacific Islands. E. Matthews (ed.). Womenand Fisheries Network. pp. 109-122.

Cripps, K. 1992. Survey of the point sources of indus-trial pollution entering the port waters of Suva.Engineering Dept., Ports Authority of Fiji,

;tr+/+?A;f; lee}+"4 E ffi78/7eE (ffizr&ffi1 /2==)Suva, Fiji. pp.74.

Dougherty, G. 1988. Heavy metal conce .ions inMarine

an ESCAP/FAO initiated projecting the socio-economic conditionin the fisherfolk communities. Fiji Fisheries

bivalves from Fiji's coastal wP ollution Bulletin. 19(2):81 -84.

Gounder, N. 1995. The reproductive biology the seaurchin Tripneuste s gratilla ) in Fiji.

Pacific.M.Sc. Thesis, University of thepp. 144.Lal, P.N. and C. Slatter, 1982.The integration women

in fisheries development in Fiji: a report of

Division and University of theSuva, Fiji.

Matthews, E. 1995. (ed.). Fishing.for Answeand Fisheries in the Pacificand Fisheries Network. pp. 177.

Maybin, J.A. 1989. Ecological andof Anadara (Mollusca: Bivalvia)some neighbouring islands groups.sis, University of the South Pacific,88.

and fisheries issues concerningantiquata (Mollusca, Bivalvia: Arci

Naidu, S., W.G. L. Aalbersberg, J.E. Brodie, V. . Fuavo-M. Maata, M. Naqasima, P. WhippyMorrison. 1991. Water quality studilected South Pacific lagoons. UNEPSeas Reports and Studies No. 1Reports and Studies No. 49. SoutRegional Environment Programme.

Naidu, S.D. and R.J. Morrison. 1994. ConSuva Harbour, Fiji. Marinetin. 29(l-3):126-130.

Naqasima, M. 1996. An investigation of health

improv-women

Pacific,

WomenWomen

aspectsFiji and

. the-va, pp.

and R.J.on se-gional

SPREPPacific

pp. 99.Bulle-

nadara) and

Batissa violacea (Bivalvia: Co lacea).M.Sc. Thesis. University of the SouSuva, Fiji. pp. 133.

Pacific,

Penn, N. 1981. The environmental conseq andseamanagement of coral sand dredging

grass beds in the Suva region, FijiBull. Mar. Scl. 31(3):814.

Pillai, G. 1985. The mana, or mangroveDomodomo.3(1):2-10.

Quinn, N.J. and M.T. Davis. 1997. Fijian

Islands.


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Journal of The Pacific Society / April 1998 / No.78 - 79 (Vol. 21, No.1 - 2 ) (19) - 116 -subsistence fisheries off Suva Point, Fiji: pro-ductivity and Public Health Considerations.South Pacffic Journal of Natural Science.15:61-90.

South, G. R. 1993. Edible seaweeds: an important sourceof food and income to indigenous Fijians. pp.43-47.In: Matthews, E. 1995. (ed.). Fishingfor Answers: Women and Fisheries in thePacffic Islands. Women and Fisheries Net-work. pp. 177.

Stewart, C. and S.J. de Mora. 1992. Elevated tri(n-butyl)tin concentrations in shellfish and sedi-ments from Suva Harbour,Frji. Appl. Orgo-nometallic Chemistry 6:507 -512.

Tabudravu, J.N. 1995. Experimental and field evalua-tion of Enteromorpha flexuosa as an indica-tor of heavy metal pollution by Zinc, Leadand Copper in coastal waters of Lami, Fiji.

M.Sc. Thesis University of the South Pacific,Suva, Fiji. pp. 146.

Tiraa-Passfield, A. 1995. Fishing activities of ',yomenof the Suva Pony Club squatter settlement,Fiji. In: Fishing for Answers: Women andFisheries in the Pacffic Islands. E. Matthews(ed.). Women and Fisheries Network. pp. 33-42.

Veitayaki, J., Bidesi, V.R., Matthews, E., and A. Ballou.1996. Preliminary baseline survey of marineresources of Kaba Point, Fiji. Marine StudiesTechnical Report 9611, University ofthe SouthPacific, Suva, Fiji. pp. 65.

Vunisea, A. 1995. Subsistence fishing, women andmodemisation in Fiji. In: Fishing for Answers:Women and Fisheries in the Pacific Islands.E. Matthews (ed.). Women and FisheriesNetwork. pp. 101-107.

Table 1: List of shellfish and algae caught by Naimasimasi villagers by alphabetical order of the scien-tific name.Fijian Namekaikosolairodiocawahidrivicivaurakukalumiman'aqari vatuvasuasici

English NameVenus ark shellland crabmud oystersea urchinmangrove musselblacklip pearl shellspiny lobstercrabseaweed

mud lobstersswimmer crabgiant clamsTrochus shells

Latin NameAnadara antiquataCardisoma carnifexCrassostrea mordaxTripneustes gratillaModiolus agripetuesPinctada margaritiferaPanulirus versicolorSesarma erythrodactylaSolieria robustaThalassina anomalaThalamita crenataTridacna spp.Trochus sp.

Methodgleaninggleaninggleaninggleaninggleaninggleaningspearsgleaninggleaningtrapsgleaninggleaninggleaning

Catch Locationmangrove, mudflatmangrovemangrove, mudflatreef flat, mudflatmangrove, mudflatmangrove, mudflatlagoon, reefsmangrovemangrove, mudflatmangrovemangrove, mudflatreef flatreef flat


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Table 2: List of fish caught by Naimasimasi villagers by alphabetical order of theLocal Namevaisaqatakawakawakanailagimatuviludabeabusadokanivudisabutukawagokabatiadamukakeqitawakanace

tadonucumusalalaulavinuqa

ogosaku

English NameBlue spotted rayTrevallySurgeon fishCodRainbow runnerSilver biddyGolden TrevallyMoray eelBarred garfishLong nosed emperorYellow tailed emperorSpangled emperorThumbprint emperorMangrove jackBlackspot perchOrange spotted perchMulletUnicom fishCoral troutGreen trigger fishChub mackerel

BarracudaLong tom

Five banded parrot fish Scarus ghobbanRabbit fish Siganus spp

Scientific NameAmphotistius kuhliiCaranx ignobilisCtenochaetus stratusEpinephelus spp.Elagatis bipinnulatusGerres spp.Gnathanodon speciosusGymnothorax spp.Hemiramphus farLethrinus elongatusL. mahsenaL. nebulosusL. harakLutj anus argentimaculatusL. gibbusMesopristes kneriMugil spp.Mainly M. cephalusNaso unicomisPlectropomus leopardusPseudobalistes fl avimarginatusRastrelliger brachysoma

Mainly Siganus vermiculatusSphyraena barracudaTyiosurus crocodilus

Methodnets, spearsnets, hand line, spearsnetsnets, hand line, spearshand linenets, hand line, spearhand line, netsnethand line, netshand line, netshand linehand linehand line, gill netsnets, spearnethand line, netsnetsnetsnets, hand line, spearsspears, netsnetsnets, hand linenets

hand linenets, hand line

lagoonreef, Ireefreef,outsidelagoonreef,lagoon,reefreef,reefreef,

reef,mudflatslagoonlagoonreef,reeflagoon,reefmudflatsoutsidereef,

analysis of Hawaii's "pineapple army,"Philippine's "carabao army." He is quite einsightful on both of these military groups is bookis "must reading" for both American and schol-ars of the Pacific War and its backgroundis refreshingly new in its approach and presenwill shortly be on the reading lists for al serlousacademic institutions where WWII in thestudied.

ific isDirk Anthony Ilendorf

and theand

Itand

BOOK REVIEWLinn, Brian McAllister, Guardian of Empire: The U.S. Army and the1902-1949, Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina 1997.It is now more than fifty years since the end of the

Pacific War, and it is about time that excellent bookslike the present volume begin appearing. Author Linn'spurpose is to show that the reason the United Stateslost Guam, Wake, the Philippines, and was defeatedsurprisingly at Pearl Harbor, was not due to a failureof intelligence or of incompetence on the part of theAmerican military commanders, but rather was the resultof American strategic and institutional ambivalencelowards the entire Pacific region.

Linn builds his argument on a careful historical University Guam

quinn kanalagi 1998

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