Pemikiran Raden Adjeng Kartini
• Dunia wanita hanya sebatas tembok
Adanya keinginan untuk memperbaikikondisi kaum wanita yang disebabkankungkungan adat, antara lain :
3
• Dunia wanita hanya sebatas tembokrumah.
• Tidak bebas mendapatkan aksespendidikan.
• Dipingit dan dinikahkan dengan priayang tidak dikenal.
Penduduk yang Bekerja (2007)
20.000.000
30.000.000
5
0
10.000.000
Tenaga Profesional
Kepemim
pinan
TataUsaha
TUPenjualan
TUJasa
TUPertanian
Produksi
Lainnya
Wan
itaP
ria
Wanita Pria
Penduduk yang Bekerja (2007)
Jenis Pekerjaan Utama
JENIS KELAMIN
Jumlah
Pria Wanita
Tenaga Profesional 1.945.782 1.857.339 3.803.121
Kepemimpinan 310.089 57.295 367.384
Tata Usaha 2.608.947 1.383.556 3.992.503
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Tata Usaha 2.608.947 1.383.556 3.992.503
TU Penjualan 8.590.673 8.046.116 16.636.789
TU Jasa 3.351.697 2.992.762 6.344.459
TU Pertanian 26.479.175 15.753.497 42.232.672
Produksi 18.446.465 5.325.368 23.771.833
Lainnya 418.454 15.926 434.380
Jumlah 62.151.282 35.431.859 97.583.141
Rata-rata Upah (2006)
1.200.000
1.600.000
7
0
400.000
800.000
Pertanian
Pertambangan
Industri
Listrik
Bangunan
Perdagangan
Angkutan
Keuangan
JasaWa
nit
a
Pri
a
Wanita Pria
Rata-rata Upah (2006)
SEKTOR LAPANGAN PEKERJAAN PRIA WANITA
1Pertanian, Kehutanan, Perburuan, Perikanan
(Agriculture,Forestry,Hunting,Fishery)438.149 234.586
2 Pertambangan, Penggalian (Mining and Quarrying) 1.541.241 771.415
3 Industri Pengolahan (Manufacturing Industries) 826.257 583.768
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3 Industri Pengolahan (Manufacturing Industries) 826.257 583.768
4 Listrik, gas dan air (Electricity, Gaz and Water) 1.176.160 1.338.737
5 Bangunan (Construction) 734.070 1.073.573
6Perdagangan Besar, Rumah Makan & Hotel (Wholesale
Trade,Restaurant & Hotel)806.110 621.248
7Angkutan, Pergudangan dan Komunikasi (Transportation,Storage &
Communication)934.761 944.419
8Keuangan, Asuransi,Jasa Perusahaan (Financing,Insurance,Business
Services)1.422.252 1.461.926
9 Jasa Kemasyarakatan (Public Services) 1.126.559 789.557
Rata-rata 827.101 612.131
Penduduk yang Bekerja BerdasarkanJam Kerja Tahun 2007
30.000.000
45.000.000
9
0
15.000.000
Wanita
Pria
Wanita 803.388 14.623.275 20.005.196
Pria 1.798.703 15.615.701 44.736.878
<1 jam 1-35 jam >35 jam
Konsep Diskriminasi
Differences in EARNINGS andEMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIESamong equally skilled workers
George Borjas :
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among equally skilled workersemployed in the same job simplybecause of the worker’s race,gender, national origin, sexualorientation, or other seeminglyirrelevant characteristics.
Konsep Diskriminasi
Discrimination means treating people
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Discrimination means treating peopledifferently and less favourably becauseof characteristics that are not related totheir merit or the requirements of the job.
These include race, colour, sex, religion,political opinion, national extraction andsocial origin.
The Discrimination Coefficient
Lauched for the first time
by Gary S. Becker
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The Economics of Discrimination (1957)
• Basic Concept : Taste Discrimination
• Assumption Two types of workers :
The Discrimination Coefficient
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• Assumption Two types of workers :
• White workers : wage wW
• Black workers : wage wB
• If the employer is prejudiced againtsblack, employer gets disutility fromhiring black workers.
The Discrimination Coefficient
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• Disutility : employer will act as if costsfor black worker wB (1 + d), where d ispositive number and is called :
The Discrimination Coefficient
• Suppose that wB = $10, and that d =0,5 ;the employer will then act as if hiring ablack worker costs $ 15
The Discrimination Coefficient
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• The greater the prejudiced, the greater isthe disutility from hiring black workers,and the greater is the discriminationcoefficient d.
• If these black employers prefer to hireblack workers, they will act as if hiring ablack worker is cheaper than it actually is.
The Discrimination Coefficient
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black worker is cheaper than it actually is.
Nepotism Coefficient wB (1 – n )
Labor Market Discrimination Analysis
FIRM
Non D iscrim inatoryF irm
D iscrim inatoryFirm
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F irm
W = VM P
Firm
W hite Firmagaints Black
Black Firmagaints B lack
D iscrim inationCoeffic ient
is very H igh
Discrim inationCoefficient
is relatively Low
Skill and Labor Market Outcomes (2001)
WHITE BLACK HISPANIC
Male Female Male Female Male Female
Highschool Graduate ormore (Percent)
84.3 85.2 78.5 78.9 56.1 57.9
Bachelor’s degree or more29.1 25.4 16.4 17.5 11.0 11.2
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Bachelor’s degree or more(Percent)
29.1 25.4 16.4 17.5 11.0 11.2
Labor Force ParticipationRate (Percent)
79.9 59.9 72.1 65.2 83.8 59.3
Unemployment Rate(Percent)
4.7 3.6 8.0 7.0 5.2 6.6
Annual Earnings (in $1,000)49.8 29.6 33.5 26.0 30.8 22.3
Annual Earnings(Full Time)
55.4 37.1 38.5 30.8 34.3 28.0
• Assumption :
White Workers and Black Workers arePerfect Subtitutes in Production.
Employer Discrimination
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• Firms’s output depends on the totalnumber of workers hired, regardless oftheir race have the same MarginalProduct of Labor ( MPE )
Employer Discrimination
Production function:
q = f ( EW + EB )
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q firm’s output
EW number of white workers hired
EB number of black workers hired
Employment in a non Discriminatory Firm
• Both groups of workers have the sameValue of Marginal Product, a nondiscriminatory firms will hire whichevergroup is Cheaper
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• Suppose that wW > wB , a firms thatdoesn’t discriminate will hire blackworkers up to the point where
wB = VMPE*BE
The Employment Decision of a FirmThat Does Not Discriminate
DollarBlack workers
wage is less thanwhite wage How many worker
will be hired..??
?VMPE
wB = VMPE
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Bw
Employment*BE
• The employer act as if black wage is notwB , but instead equal to wB (1 + d).Where d is discrimination coefficient.
Employment in a Discriminatory Firm
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• The employer’s hiring decision based ona comparison wW and wB (1 + d)
– Hire only blacks if wB (1 + d) < wW
– Hire only white if wB (1 + d) > wW
• As long as black and white workers are perfectsubtitutes, firms have a segregated workforce.
• Employer’s who have little prejudice and hence
Employment in a Discriminatory Firm
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• Employer’s who have little prejudice and hencehave small discrimination coefficient, will hireonly BLACKS (called “Black Firm”).
• Employer’s who are very prejudice and havevery large discrimination coefficient, will hireonly WHITES (called “White Firm”).
• The white firm hires workers up to thepoint where : wW = VMPE
Assumption : w > W
Employment in a Discriminatory Firm
WHITE FIRM
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• Assumption : wW > WB
• The white firm is paying an excessivelyhigh price for its workers and hiresrelatively few workers ( )*
WE
• Non discriminatory firms :
wB = VMPE
Employment in a Discriminatory Firm
BLACK FIRM
*BE
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• If discrimination coefficient d0 :
– Price of Black Labor wB ( 1 + d0 )
– Amount of Labor hired :
wB ( 1 + d0 ) = VMPE
Employment in a Discriminatory Firm
BLACK FIRM
The number of black workers hired, therefore,is smaller for firms that have larger
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is smaller for firms that have largerdiscrimination coefficient.
The Employment Decision of aPrejudiced Firm
Dollar
Black Firm 1 dw
11 dwB
Discrimination Coefficient
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Bw
*BE0
BE Employment
VMPE
1BE
01 dwB
Firms that discriminate lose on two counts :
• The prejudiced employer could have hiredthe same number of black worker at lowerwage. Because black and white workers are
Discrimination and Profits
37
wage. Because black and white workers areperfect subtitutes.
• Discriminatory black firms are hiring too fewworkers ( or ) they are giving upprofits in order to minimize contact withblack workers.
0BE 1
BE
Dollar
Profit and Discrimination Coefficient
max
Max Profit
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DiscriminationCoefficient
BlackFirm
w
dw0
White Firm
Max Profit
• Firm dengan Discrimination Coefficient :– Rendah cenderung Black Firm
– Tinggi cenderung White Firm
Discrimination and Profits
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• Asumsi : Supply Black Worker PerfectlyInelastic sejumlah N Black person tidakterpengaruh tingkat upah.
Labor Market Equilibrium
Black-WhiteWage Ratio
1
S
D’
)'/( WB ww
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*)/( WB ww
Black Employment0
1
R
D
D’
N
• Diskriminasi dilakukan oleh “Fellow Worker”
• Misal : White worker yang bekerja pada BlackFirm dengan upah w akan merasa mendapat
Employee Discrimination
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Firm dengan upah wW akan merasa mendapatupah wW (1- d).
• Tidak berpengaruh terhadap “Profitability ofFirms” karena white worker dan black workeradalah perfect subtitutes sehingga firmmembayar jumlah upah yang sama.
• Dikemukakan oleh Harry J. Holzer dan KeithR. Ihlanfeldt (1998) research di Atlanta,Boston, Detroit dan Los Angeles.
Customer Discrimination
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• Keputusan membeli tidak ditentukan olehActual Price ( p ) tapi oleh The Utility-Adjusted Price p (1 + d).
• Employer dapat mengatur tenaga penjualansesuai kondisi.
Customer Discrimination
TYPE FIRM> 50 %BLACK
CUSTOMER
> 75 %WHITE
CUSTOMERPERBEDAAN
Customer &worker
58,0 % 9,0 % 49,0 %
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workerbertemu 58,0 % 9,0 % 49,0 %
Customer &worker tidakbertemu 46,6 % 12,2 % 34,4 %
Perbedaan - - 14,6 %
Customer Discrimination and NBA
Lawrence Kahn and Peter Sherer 1998) :
A study of attenance records indicatesthat replacing a black player with an
eqqually talented white player bring in
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eqqually talented white player bring inabout 9,000 additional fans per year.
At $50 a head (a very conservative estimate ofticket prices and concession revenues), theracial switch would increase annual teamrevenues by roughly $450,000
Measuring Discrimination
___
MW___
FW
Asumsi : Tenaga kerja terdiri dari
• Male, dengan average wage
• Female, dengan average wage
50
_________
FM WWW
Diskriminasi : selisih average wage, yaitu :
Measuring Discrimination
Pengembangan model :
Schooling mempengaruhi pendapatan
Earning Function :
• Male : Sw
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• Male :
• Female :
MMMM Sw
FFFF Sw
M menyatakan pendapatan pria meningkat bilamendapatkan tambahan 1 tahun pendidikan.
Measuring The Impact ofDiscrimination on the Wage
Dollars
Women’sEarningFunction
___
MW
*
Men’sEarningFunction
Women’s Earning
Men’s Earning
Men’sEarning
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M
F
___
FW
Schooling
Function*
Fw
__
Fs__
Ms
Women’s SchoolingMen’s Schooling
Measure Discrimination :
*Fw
___
FWWoman’sEarning
Global Gender Gap 2007
INDONESIA
Rank 2007 : 81Score 2007 : 0.6550 ( 1 = equality )
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Rank 2006 : 68Score 2007 : 0.6541( 1 = equality )