teori komunikasi keorganisasian koc 3232 dr. hamisah zaharah hasan zaherahhamisah@yahoo.com

Teori Komunikasi Keorganisasian

KOC 3232Dr. Hamisah Zaharah Hasan

zaherahhamisah@yahoo.com

Objektif

Pada akhir kursus ini pelajar akan dapat:• Menerangkan asal-usul teori dalam

komunikasi keorganisasian

• Menghuraikan teori berkaitan komunikasi keorganisasian

• Mengaitkan kepentingan memahami teori dalam komunikasi keorganisasian

Sinopsis

Kursus ini merangkumi teori komunikasi organisasi dalam pendekatan klasikal dan saintifik; teori dalam pendekatan hubungan kemanusiaan, teori dalam pendekatan kontemporari iaitu pendekatan kritikal. Bentuk dan kandungan komunikasi dalam pendekatan tersebut dan implikasi teori kepada komunikasi keorganisasian.

Penilaian Kursus

Ujian 30 %

Quiz 10

Tugasan Individu 20 %

Peperiksaan Akhir 40%

RujukanByres, P.Y. 1997. Organizational communications:theory and behavior.

Boston:Allyn & Bacon

Eisenberg,E.M. &Goodall Jr.,H.L.1997. Organizational communication:Balancing creativity and constraint.(2nd ed.). NY:St. Martin’s

Hatch, M.J & Cunliffee, A.L. 2006. Organizational theory. (2nd ed).NY: Oxford University Press.

Miller,K. 2012. Organizational communication. Approaches and processes. (6th ed).Belmont, CA:Wadsworth

Neher, W.W. 1997. Organizational communication: challenges of charge, diversity, and continuity. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

TeoriKeorganisasian

Klasikal6

Idea utamateori keorganisasian klasikal

• Terdapat satu cara terbaik melaksanakan tugas (There is “one best way” to perform a task)

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Terhasil daripada dua perspektif:

• Pengurusan saintifik – fokus terhadap pengurusan kerja dan pekerja

• Pengurusan pentadbiran – menekankan isu berkaitan bagaimana keseluruhan struktur organisasi perlu dibentuk

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Penyumbang utama terhadap pembentukan teori tersebut

Pengurusan saintifik:»Frederick Taylor

Pengurusan pentadbiran:»Henri Fayol »Luther Halsey Gulick»Max Weber

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Frederick Taylor•Taylor dilahirkan di Pennsylvania pada 20 March 1856• Tamat pengajian di Eropah, bercadang untuk memasuki universiti Harvard, namun gagal ujian kemasukan.•Taylor kemudian bertugas di syarikat mengeluarkan “pump” di Philadelphia•Beliau kemudian mengikuti pengajian kejuruteraan mekanikal di Stevens, dan tamat dalam masa hanya tiga tahun.

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Midvale Steel Company• Taylor mula bertugas di Midvale steel Company

pada 1878.• Berjaya melipat-gandakan produktiviti pekerja-

pekerjanya dan dinaik pangkat kepada foreman• Mulai mengkaji mengenai produktiviti sebagai satu

cara mengukur pengeluaran. • Kemudian dilantik menjadi Ketua Jurutera di

Midvale.

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Pencapaian

• Mereka sistem untuk memaksimumkan kerja yang efisyen dari pekerja dan mesin.

• Fokus terhadap kajian mengenai masa dan pergerakan dan bagaimana menyelesaikan tugas dalam jangkamasa yang singkat.

• Menjadi Jurutera Perunding kepada beberapa syarikat.

• Menulis —The Principles of Scientific Management

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Prinsip Utama Pengurusan Saintifik 1. Analisis tugas secara saintifik – pemerhatian, pengumpulan

data dan pengukuran yang betul untuk mengenalpasti cara terbaik melaksanakan setiap tugas.

2. Pemilihan personnel – pemilihan secara saintifik dan dilatih, ajar, serta bentuk sebagai pekerja.

3. Kerjasama Pengurusan – pengurus perlu bekerjasama dengan pekerja untuk memastikan semua kerja dijalankan mengikut prinsip saintifik yang dibentuk.

4. Penyeliaan fungsional – pengurus bertindak untuk merancang, menguruskan, membuat keputusan sementara pekerja pula tugas mereka ialah “bekerja”.

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Henri Fayol

• Jurutera dan Pengusaha Peranchis• Bertugas sebagai Pengarah Urusan sebuah organisasi

yang terbabit dalam perlombongan.• Mementingkan prinsip pengurusan daripada

personaliti individu.• Fayol adalah orang pertama mengenalpasti

pengurusan sebagai proses penilaian berterusan.

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5 Fungsi Pengurusan FayolPeranan utama pengurus:PerancanganPengurusanMengarahMengkoordinasiMengawal

Terdapat 14 prinsip tambahan yang diperkenalkan Fayol

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14 Prinsip Fayol:1. Pembahagian Tugas — memperbaikki efisiensi dengan

mengurangkan pembaziran, meningkatkan output, dan memudahkan latihan tugas.

2. Kuasa dan Tanggungjawab —kuasa: hak untuk memberi arahan dan kuasa terhadap mendapatkan ketaatan – Tanggungjawab: Tanggungjawab menjalankan tugas.

3. Disiplin — hormat peraturan organisasi

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4. Keunggulan arahan —pekerja hanya perlu diarah oleh satu ketua sahaja.

5. Keunggulan arah— mengelompokkan tugas yang sama untuk dibawah arahan satu pengurus.

6. Tidak mementingkan faedah individu tetapi penekanan faedah organisasi— tidak boleh beri keutamaan kepada kepentingan individu daripada organisasi

7. Pembayaran kepada kakitangan— bayaran yang adil dan memuaskan kepada semua kakitangan.

8. Pemusatan tugas— Tanggungjawab kepada pengurus – pekerja melaksanakan tugas.

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9. Rantaian skalar (Line of authority)— Arahan dari pengurusan atasan kepada pekerja bawahan.

10. Susunan— Kedudukan yang teratur antara pekerja dan peralatan.

11.Equiti— Layanan pengurus kepada pekerja mesti adil dan saksama.

12. Kestabilan jawatan — pembentukan kestabilan jawatan untuk mengelakkan komitment yang rendah daripada pekerja.

13.Inisiatif— pekerja perlu digalakkan untuk memberi pandangan yang membina.

14. Esprit de Corps — pembentukan semangat kerjasama, kerja dalam kumpulan, dan kesatuan pekerja.

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Luther Halsey Gulick(1892-1992)

• Pakar kewangan dan pentadbiran munisipal• Bertugas di Institute of Public Administration,

professor of municipal science and administration at Columbia, dan juga komiti dalam pentadbiran Franklin D. Roosevelt.

• Mengembangkan prinsip Fayol kepada 7 prinsip:

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1. Perancangan – Menggariskan pencapaian dan kaedah untuk pencapaian tersebut.

2. Penyusunan – membentuk struktur autoriti formal menerusi pembahagian tugas yang dirancang, difahami, dan dikoordinasikan dalam pelan.

3. Penstafan - memilih dan melatih staf dan memastikan environment kerja yang kondusif.

4. Pengarahan – tanggungjawab dlm membuat keputusan, mengkomunikasikan dan mengimplementasikan keputusan serta menjalankan penilaian pekerja bawahan yang adil.

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5. Pengkoordinasian – segala kegiatan dan usaha adalah untuk menyatukan organisasi ke arah mencapai objektif yang sama.

6. Rekod – kejayaan direkodkan untuk memastikan kelemahan dapat diperbaikki.

7. Belanjawan – setiap aktiviti yang hendak dijalankan perlu menyediakan bajet.

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Max Weber(1864-1920)

• German sociologist• Weber first describes the concept of bureaucracy –

an ideal form of organizational structure• He defines bureaucratic administration as the

exercise of control on the basis of knowledge• Weber states, “Power is principally exemplified

within organizations by the process of control”

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Weber uses and defines the terms authority and power as:

• Power: any relationship within which one person could impose his will, regardless of any resistance from the other.

• Authority: existed when there was a belief in the legitimacy of that power.

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Weber classifies organizations according to the legitimacy of their power and uses three basic classifications:

Charismatic Authority: based on the sacred or outstanding characteristic of the individual.

Traditional Authority: essentially a respect for customs.

Rational Legal Authority: based on a code or set of rules.

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Weber recognizes that rational legal authority is used in the most efficient

form of organization because:

• A legal code can be established which can claim obedience from members of the organization

• The law is a system of abstract rules which are applied to particular cases; and administration looks after the interests of the organization within the limits of that law.

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• The manager or the authority additionally follows the impersonal order

• Membership is key to law obedience

• Obedience is derived not from the person administering the law, but rather to the impersonal order that installed the person’s authority

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Weber outlined his ideal bureaucracy as defined by the following parameters:

• A continuous system of authorized jobs maintained by regulations

• Specialization: encompasses a defined “sphere of competence,” based on its divisions of labor

• A stated chain of command of offices: a consistent organization of supervision based on distinctive levels of authority

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• Rules: an all encompassing system of directives which govern behavior: rules may require training to comprehend and manage

• Impersonality: no partiality, either for or against, clients, workers, or administrators

• Free selection of appointed officials: equal opportunity based on education and professional qualification

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• Full-time paid officials: only or major employment; paid on the basis of position

• Career officials: promotion based on seniority and merit; designated by supervisors

• Private/Public split: separates business and private life

• The finances and interests of the two should be kept firmly apart: the resources of the organization are quite distinct from those of the members as private individuals.

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(a) A tendency to a leveling of social classes by allowing a wide range of recruits with technical competence to be taken by any organization

(b) Elite status because of the time required to achieve the necessary technical training

(c) Greater degree of social equality due to the dominance of the spirit of impersonality or objectivity

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Weber’s Theory of Bureaucracy

• Tenets of Bureaucracy Tenets of Bureaucracy – Rules– Specified sphere of competence– Hierarchy– Specialized Training– Workers do not own technology– No entitlement to “official position” by incumbent– Everything written down– Maintenance of “ideal type” - bureaucracy

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Weber’s Theory of Bureaucracy

• Concerned with describing the ideal structure of Concerned with describing the ideal structure of an organizationan organization

• Cornerstone: existence of written rulesCornerstone: existence of written rules

• The rational application of written rules ensures The rational application of written rules ensures the promotion of legitimate authority and the the promotion of legitimate authority and the effective and efficient functioning of the effective and efficient functioning of the organization.organization.

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Weber’s Theory of Bureaucracy

• Application in the Modern WorkplaceApplication in the Modern Workplace– Large organizations guided by countless rules Large organizations guided by countless rules

are bureaucraciesare bureaucracies– Linked with inefficient, slow-moving Linked with inefficient, slow-moving

organizationsorganizations– Organizations have several characteristics of Organizations have several characteristics of

bureaucraciesbureaucracies

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Common Criticisms of Classical Organizational Theory

Classical principles of formal organization may lead to a work environment in which:

• Employees have minimal power over their jobs and working conditions

• Subordination, passivity and dependence are expected • work to a short term perspective• Employees are lead to mediocrity • Working conditions produce to psychological failure as a

result of the belief that they are lower class employees performing menial tasks

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SUMMARY• Classical Theories of Organizations (p. 36)Classical Theories of Organizations (p. 36)

– Taylor’s Theory of Scientific ManagementTaylor’s Theory of Scientific Management– Fayol’s Administrative TheoryFayol’s Administrative Theory– Weber’s Theory of BureaucracyWeber’s Theory of Bureaucracy

• All 3 theories attempt to enhance management’s ability to All 3 theories attempt to enhance management’s ability to predict and control the behavior of their workerspredict and control the behavior of their workers

• Considered only the task function of communication Considered only the task function of communication (ignored relational and maintenance functions of (ignored relational and maintenance functions of communication)communication)

• Designed to predict and control behavior in organizationsDesigned to predict and control behavior in organizations

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36

Henri FayolMax Weber

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Henri FayolMax Weber

Kajian-kajian Hawthorne

Kajian oleh Elton Mayo terhadap Motivasi Pekerja dan Produktiviti Kerja

KAJIAN HAWTHORNE Dr. Hasan 38

• Satu siri kajian mengenalpasti output pekerja hasil daripada layanan yang baik oleh pengurus.

• Mengambil sempena nama kilang Western Electric Company di Hawthorne, Illinois.

KAJIAN HAWTHORNE Dr. Hasan 39

Definisi Kajian Hawthorne

• “ Kajian Hawthorne dijalankan pada 1927-1933 di Western Electric Hawthorne Works, Chicago, dan Harvard Business School Professor Elton Mayo dari Sekolah Perniagaan Harvard mengenalpasti produktiviti dan persekiataran kerja.”

KAJIAN HAWTHORNE Dr. Hasan 40

• Tujuan kajian adalah untuk mengenalpasti kesan daripada keletihan dan perlaksaan tugas yang sama setiap hari terhadap produktiviti dan cara mengawal mereka menerusi pembolehubah rehat, kerja lebih masa, suhu dan kelembapan.

KAJIAN HAWTHORNE Dr. Hasan 41

Latar belakang kajian

• “Mayo ingin mengenalpasti kesan daripada keletihan dan melakukan kerja yang sama terhadap produktiviti dan bagaimana mengawal pembolehubah seperti waktu rehat, jumlah jam bekerja, suhu dan kelembapan.”

KAJIAN HAWTHORNE Dr. Hasan 42

• Enam wanita yang memasang geganti telefon.

• Membuat perubahan keadaan kerja yang kerap dengan peretujuan mereka.

• Jumlah geganti yang dibuat, suhu dan kelembapan bilik, sejarah peribadi serta sejarah perubatan, tabiat makan dan tidur, perbualan ketika bekerja.

• Tiada penyelia untuk pekerja tersebut.

• Mereka disuruh untuk bekerja mengikut kehendak mereka dan keselesaan mereka.

KAJIAN HAWTHORNE Dr. Hasan 43

Eksperimen Mayo

• Pada keadaan biasa, waktu kerja adalah 48 jam termasuk hari sabtu. Tiada waktu berhenti rehat.

KAJIAN HAWTHORNE Dr. Hasan 44

Keadaan Biasa

• Pekerja diarahkan membuat satu kerja untuk lapan minggu.

• Output produktiviti meningkat.

KAJIAN HAWTHORNE Dr. Hasan 45

Eksperimen Satu

• Pekerja diberikan dua waktu rehat, setiap satu selama lima minit iaitu waktu pagi dan petang untuk jangka masa lima minggu.

• Output meningkat.

KAJIAN HAWTHORNE Dr. Hasan 46

Eksperimen Dua

• Waktu rehat ditambah kepada 10 minit setiap kali rehat.

• Output meningkat mendadak.

KAJIAN HAWTHORNE Dr. Hasan 47

Eksperimen Tiga

• Pekerja diberkan rehat sejumlah 6 kali dan setiap kali selama lima minit.

• Output jatuh sedikit.• Pekerja merungut kerana kekerapan berhenti

mengganggu konsentrasi mereka.

KAJIAN HAWTHORNE Dr. Hasan 48

Eksperimen Empat

• Waktu rehat seperti waktu asal diberikan dan pekerja dijamu sup panas.

• Output meningkat.

KAJIAN HAWTHORNE Dr. Hasan 49

Eksperimen Lima

• Pekerja dibenarkan pulan jam 4:30 p.m. dan bukan 5:00 p.m.

• Output meningkat.

KAJIAN HAWTHORNE Dr. Hasan 50

Eksperimen Enam

• Pekerja dibenarkan pulang jam 4:00 p.m.• Output di tahap yang sama.

KAJIAN HAWTHORNE Dr. Hasan 51

Eksperimen Tujuh

• Semua perubahan ditarik balik dan pekerja kembali kepada keadaan asal.

• Output yang tertinggi dicatatkan.

KAJIAN HAWTHORNE Dr. Hasan 52

Eksperimen Lapan

Kajian ini membuktikan hubungan antara perseorangan dan antara kumpulan adalah penting dalam menentukan kecekapan dan keberkesanan pekerja berbanding persekitaran kerja.

KAJIAN HAWTHORNE Dr. Hasan 53

Rumusan Kajian

Motivation and Hygiene Factors

Frederick Herzberg

(1923 – 2000)

Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

• Focuses on outcomes that lead to higher motivation and job satisfaction, and those outcomes that can prevent dissatisfaction.–Motivator needs relate to the nature of the work itself

—autonomy, responsibility, interesting work.–Hygiene needs are related to the physical and

psychological context of the work—comfortable work environment, pay, job security.

• Unsatisfied hygiene needs create dissatisfaction; satisfaction of hygiene needs does not lead to motivation or job satisfaction.

Two-factor Theory (or Motivation-Hygiene Theory)

• Herzberg:Herzberg:– Job contextJob context is source of dissatisfaction is source of dissatisfaction

• Problems with Problems with hygiene factorshygiene factors (e.g., pay, working (e.g., pay, working conditions) lead to dissatisfaction; lack of conditions) lead to dissatisfaction; lack of problems means lack of dissatisfactionproblems means lack of dissatisfaction

– Job contentJob content is the source of job satisfaction is the source of job satisfaction• Motivator factorsMotivator factors (e.g., achievement, (e.g., achievement,

responsibility) link with job performance; if high, responsibility) link with job performance; if high, satisfaction high and performance strongsatisfaction high and performance strong

Two-factor Theory (or Motivation-Hygiene Theory)

• Validity unconfirmed – not replicated using Validity unconfirmed – not replicated using different methodsdifferent methods

• Still does not explain individual differences, Still does not explain individual differences, professional or cultural differencesprofessional or cultural differences

Motivators and Hygiene Factors

• Frederick Herzberg theorized that two entirely separate dimensions contribute to an employee’s behavior at work—hygiene factors and motivators.– Hygiene factors are elements such as working conditions,

pay, policies, interpersonal relationships– Motivators fulfill high-level needs and include

achievement, recognition, responsibility and opportunity for growth

Motivators and Hygiene Factors

• Motivators satisfy subordinates–-the things which encourage them to attend work, comply to group or team goals, and produce.

•  They often are linked to performance. Positive recognition by a superior and among peers during a formal meeting is an example of this.

Motivators and Hygiene Factors

• Hygiene factors keep subordinates from being dissatisfied. They apply to subordinates regardless of performance. –  Timely and thorough completion of and counseling on fitness

evaluations are an example of a hygiene factor. –  The act is expected. When it does not happen subordinates become

dissatisfied and may come to believe that superiors are not taking care of them.

• Satisfiers (motivators) and dissatisfiers (hygiene factors) lie on completely different scales and must be considered independently.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

• KITA versus “true” motivation– Short-term movement versus long-term motivation

• Job enrichment is an attempt to instill an internal generator in the employee

• Studies of Herzberg’s theory have included employees working in a variety of industries and jobs– Accountants, engineers, nurses, military officers, and

others

Hygiene Factors

• Work environment & target basic needs• Range from dissatisfaction to no

dissatisfaction• The presence of hygiene cannot lead to satisfaction or

high levels of motivation• Perception that hygiene is an entitlement

Hygiene Factors (cont)

• Salary– Can it ever be enough?

• Benefits– Health care costs, premium sharing

• Company policy & administration• Work conditions

– Office space, equipment, etc.

Motivator Factors

• Motivators– Tap needs for psychological growth– Job content: The work itself– Lead to high levels of employee motivation and

satisfaction

Motivator Factors (cont)

• Examples– Recognition– Responsibility– Achievement– Growth and learning

Prentice Hall, 2001 Chapter 6 69

Herzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryHerzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Hygiene Factors(lower order needs)

Hygiene Factors(lower order needs)

Motivator Factors(higher order needs)

Motivator Factors(higher order needs)

• Salary• Company policies• Working conditions• Benefits• Job security

• Salary• Company policies• Working conditions• Benefits• Job security

• Career Advancement

• Personal growth

• Recognition

• Responsibility

• Achievement

• Career Advancement

• Personal growth

• Recognition

• Responsibility

• Achievement

High HighJob Dissatisfaction Job Satisfaction0

Herzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryHygiene Factor - work condition related to

dissatisfaction caused by discomfort or pain– maintenance factor– contributes to employee’s feeling not dissatisfied– contributes to absence of complaints

Motivation Factor - work condition related to the satisfaction of the need for psychological growth– job enrichment– leads to superior performance & effort

Motivation–Hygiene Theory of Motivation

Hygiene factors avoid job dissatisfaction

• Company policy & administration

• Supervision• Interpersonal relations• Working conditions• Salary• Status• Security

SOURCE: Adapted from Frederick Herzberg, The Managerial Choice: To be Efficient or to Be Human . (Salt Lake City: Olympus, 1982). Reprinted by permission.

• Achievement• Achievement recognition • Work itself• Responsibility• Advancement• Growth

• Salary?

Motivation factors increase job satisfaction

Motivation-Hygiene Combinations

High M Low M

High H high motivation few complaints

low motivation few complaints

Low H high motivation many complaints

low motivation many complaints

(Motivation = M, Hygiene = H)

Job Satisfaction

Job satisfaction = how positively or negatively Job satisfaction = how positively or negatively individuals feel about their jobsindividuals feel about their jobs

• Observable informally through observation Observable informally through observation and interpretation of behaviour and wordsand interpretation of behaviour and words

• Measured formally in questionnairesMeasured formally in questionnaires– E.g., Minnesota Satisfaction QuestionnaireE.g., Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire– E.g., Job Descriptive IndexE.g., Job Descriptive Index

Effects of Job Satisfaction

• Link to absenteeism Link to absenteeism – Satisfied have lower absenteeismSatisfied have lower absenteeism

• Link to turnover Link to turnover – Dissatisfied more likely to quitDissatisfied more likely to quit

• Link to performance complexLink to performance complex– Satisfaction is NOT good predictor of individual performanceSatisfaction is NOT good predictor of individual performance– Successful performance does seem to lead to greater Successful performance does seem to lead to greater

satisfactionsatisfaction– Proper allocation of rewards can increase both performance Proper allocation of rewards can increase both performance

and satisfactionand satisfaction

Summary

• Hygiene factors (dissatisfiers) are working conditions, pay, policies, interpersonal relationships

• Motivators (satisfiers) fulfill high-level needs and include recognition, responsibility and opportunity for growth

Theory X/Y

• Douglas MacGregor, 1960• Interaction between supervisors and

subordinates• Organization’s management approach is

determined by supervisors’ attitudes and belief about subordinates

• Beginning of human relations movement

Theory X

• Role of Management– Management responsible for

organizing elements of productive enterprise

– People need to be controlled and directed

– People would be passive otherwise

• Human Nature– man works as little as

possible– lacks ambition, dislikes

responsibility, prefers to be led

– inherently self-centered– naturally resistant to change– gullible, not very bright

Theory Y

• Role of Management– Management responsible for

organizing elements of productive enterprise

– Task of management is to arrange organizational conditions so that people can achieve their own goals best by directing their own efforts toward organizational objectives

• Human Nature– People are not naturally

passive, they have become so as a result of experience in organizations

– Motivation and capacity for assuming responsibility is inherent in people

Prentice Hall, 2001 79

Theory XTheory XManagers See Workers As…Managers See Workers As…

Disliking WorkDisliking Work

Avoiding ResponsibilityAvoiding Responsibility

Having Little AmbitionHaving Little Ambition

Theory YTheory Y Managers See Workers As…Managers See Workers As…

Enjoying WorkEnjoying Work

Accepting ResponsibilityAccepting Responsibility

Self-DirectedSelf-Directed

Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)

Theory X

Assumes that employees dislike work, lack ambition, avoid responsibility, and must be directed and coerced to perform.

Theory Y

Assumes that employees like work, seek responsibility, are capable of making decisions, and exercise self-direction and self-control when committed to a goal.

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

• Theory X– Management view that assumes workers generally dislike

work and must be forced to do their jobs• Theory Y

– Management view that assumes workers like to work and under proper conditions, employees will seek responsibility to satisfy social, esteem, and self-actualization needs

Theory Z

• A management philosophy that stresses employee participation in all aspects of company decision making