Ethical Issues in Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)Meeting 8-Bioethics-2014

Apakah yang dimaksud dengan

Produk teknologi yang mengubah DNA suatu organisme hidup. (bacteria, animals, plants)

Istilah lainnya: Rekayasa genetika (Genetically

engineered) Transgenik (Transgenic) Teknologi DNA (rDNA) Rekombinan/

(Recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology)

Transgenic bacteria

production of insulin

Degradation of oil spill : gene that synthesize lipase (fat digesting enzyme) from animal is inserted into bacteria Used to clean oil spill that cause water

pollution.

Nitrogen fixation : producing bacteria that can fix nitrogen to increase crops production.

Other types of Transgenic bacteria

Anti-freezing bacteria (transgenic) is sprayed to the plants to prevent the ice formation.

Eg : tomatoes, strawberries

Other types of Transgenic bacteria

Production of transgenic animal

Remove egg cells from

female and fertilize them in

vitro.

Meanwhile, desired genes

from other organism have been cloned.

Injected the cloned DNA

directly into the nuclei of

fertilized eggs.Some of the

cells integrate the foreign DNA

into their genomes and

are able to express the

foreign gene.

Engineered embryos are

surgically implanted in a

surrogate mother.

Embryo develops

successfully- result the transgenic

animal

1

5

43

2

Production of transgenic animal

(a) Production of alpha-1 antitrypsin ( AAT )

AAT helps to lower the production of elastase

If elastase is increased, elastic fibres of lungs will be destroyed – causing emphysema

Gene coding for the production of AAT can be inserted into cow’s DNA

The cow will be able to produce milk containing AAT

(b) Production of tissue plasminogen activator (TPA)

TPA is a protein used to dissolve blood clots in heart attact therapy

Gene coding for the production of TPA can be inserted into cow’s DNA

The cow will be able to produce milk containing TPA

(c)Production of human growth hormone (HGH)

HGH use to stimulate of human growth and to prevent the cretinism of pituitary gland

Gene coding for the production of HGH can be inserted into cow’s DNA

The cow will be able to produce milk containing HGH (for children with low level of HGH)

transgenic plant

Examples of transgenic plant…1. Golden rice – rice that contains beta-

carotene (Vitamin A), which is not found in regular rice.

2. Bt corn – corn that contains a chemical normally found in a bacterium (Bacillus thuringiensis) that is toxic to insects but not to humans.

3. Herbicide resistant plants.

Crops can be modified to:

1. optimize growth conditions2. improve nitrogen assimilation3. increase oxygen absorption4. efficient photosynthetic pathway5. increase starch biosynthesis.

How does this differ from Mendel and his peas?

GM vs. Selective breadingSelective breading-slow-imprecise-modification of genes that naturally occur in the

organismGM-very fast -precise -can introduce genes into an organism that would

not occur naturally!

Why do it?

Rice- not high in essential nutrientsModification: + daffodil genes and a bacterium =

beta-carotene content drastically increased

+ genes from a french bean = double the iron content.

Tomatoes- Introduce genes to increase shelf life.

How is this done?: Transgenic tomatoes

Other applications

Potato - modified to produce a beetle killing toxin

Yellow squash – modified to contain to viral genes that resistant the most common viral diseases

Develop foods that contain vaccines and antibodies that offer valuable protection against diseases such as cholera, hepatitis, and malaria

Canola – modified to resist one type of herbicide or pesticide

Benefits of Genetic Engineering

and Modifying

1. Higher yielding crops, more efficient use of land

2. Can save money and promote higher profits

3. Longer shelf life, less waste Example// Tomatoes from genetically modified seeds stay fresh longer.4. Enhanced taste and quality 5. Reduced maturation time

Benefits of Genetic Engineering and Modifying

6. Increased and improved nutrients and stress tolerance - A single gene genetically engineered into cauliflower can

increase production of beta-carotene 100 times. - A gene can be implanted into a soybean upgrading the

soy protein to a quality equal to that of milk. - Corn can be modified to contain its two limiting amino

acids, lysine or tryptophan7. Improved resistance to disease or illness

- Foods can be enhanced with phytochemicals that help maintain

health and reduce the risks of chronic disease. 8. Improved crop resistance to disease, pests, weeds and

herbicides 9. New products and growing techniques - “Individuals allergic to milk may be able to buy milk that

has been treated with the lactase enzyme” (Whiney, 2002).

- Creating decaffeinated coffee beans are in a process of research.

Benefits of Genetic Engineering and Modifying

Society Increased food

security for growing populations and growth challenges

(Human Genome Project Information (2003), http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/gmfood.shtml)

Risks associated with Genetic Modification

1. Safety Potential human health implications. Potential environmental impact.

Out-crossing Inevitable out-crossing of transgenic plants with naturally

occurring ones. Creation of super-weeds

Creation of biological weapons.

2. Access and Intellectual Property Domination of world food production by a few

companies and developing countries.

Risks associated with Genetic Modification – cont.

3. Ethics “Playing God” Tampering with nature by mixing genes among species.

4. Labeling Not mandatory in some countries (e.g., Canada and the

United States). Mixing GM crops with non-GM confounds labeling

attempts.

5. Society New advances may be skewed to the interests of rich

countries. (Human Genome Project Information (2003),

http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/gmfood.shtml)

Risks with GM continued:

Biodiversity Addition of Bt gene into plants including corn,

potatoes and cotton to increase resistance to plants

Bt gene obtained from Bacillus thuringiensis (a soil bacterium that produces a natural insecticide)

Problem: plants producing Bt toxin are releasing toxin in pollen

Draper, D. (2002). Our Environment: A Canadian Perspective 2nd Ed. Scarborough: Thompson Canada Lmt.

Pollen from a Bt plant was dusted on to milkweed:

- only 56% of young monarch butterfly larvae lived

- whereas pollen from organic plants dusted on the milkweed produced a survival rate of 100%.

Approximately half of the monarch butterfly population live in the “corn belt” of the USA

= this new gene could have serious repercussions for this organism

Ethics in genetic engineering

Genetically modified organism might be: Hazardous (dangerous) to health or ecologically harm to the

environment GMFs may not be totally safe for all

consumers

Transgenic plants might become ‘superweeds’ (difficult to control) Unethical to create ‘genetically

superior’ organisms, including humans

Humans are ‘playing God’ by tampering genetics materials and creating new organisms

Canadian Food Inspection Agency

Genetically modified foods are currently regulated by the CFIA

works collaboratively with Environment Canada, Health Canada, and Fisheries and Oceans

Goal: to ensure that products of biotechnology are considered safe to human and animal health and the environment.

According to the CFIA, the assessment process for GE foods is very rigorous

PERATURAN PEMERINTAH REPUBLIK INDONESIA

NOMOR 21 TAHUN 2005TENTANG

KEAMANAN HAYATI PRODUK REKAYASA GENETIK

PERATURANKEPALA BADAN PENGAWAS

OBAT DAN MAKANANREPUBLIK INDONESIA

NOMOR HK.03.1.23.03.12.1563 TAHUN 2012

TENTANGPEDOMAN PENGKAJIAN

KEAMANAN PANGANPRODUK REKAYASA GENETIK

PERATURANKEPALA BADAN PENGAWAS

OBAT DAN MAKANANREPUBLIK INDONESIA

NOMOR HK.03.1.23.03.12.1564 TAHUN 2012

TENTANGPENGAWASAN PELABELAN

PANGAN PRODUK REKAYASA GENETIK

PENUGASAN PRESENTASI

MINGGU DEPAN

5. Patented OrganismsThe advent of genetic manipulations of organisms inevitably raised the question of patents for such organisms. Patents secure the right to make, license, or sell the item in question, and some genetically modified organisms are of considerable commercial interest. Until recently the US Patent Office had no history of dealing with such organisms. When first approached on the matter, it rejected the attempt to patent a modified bacterium. The US Supreme Court set that decision aside, opening the door to the patenting of all manner of living organisms.Patents are secured for new, useful, and nonobvious processes. In the 1980 case of Diamond v. Charkrabarty, the US Supreme Court held that genetically modified organisms could be patented as items of manufacture or new composition. The justices affirmed a broad interpretation of congressional intent in developing patent law. They asserted that Charkrabarty’s bacterium did not exist in nature but was a creation of the inventor, and that it had a novel character and use. It was modified to help break down crude oil and would thus be useful in cleaning up oil spills.In 1988 the US Patent Office granted a patent on a genetically engineered mouse that contained a gene that made it highly susceptible to cancer, and thus was useful in testing suspected cancer-causing substances. This precedent opened the door for patents on all kinds of organisms whose genes have been modified for one reason or another. The Patent Office was not persuaded by various objections to these patents, in particular, the assertions that these genetic modifications violated the organism’s natural integrity. Biologists do not claim that there is a specific boundary for the borders of a species. Moreover, species exhibit many genetic changes in nature; their genomes are not fixed forever. Finally, it is unclear species have moral right to remain unchanged forever. Nevertheless, the public still sometimes expresses concern about the nature and limits of genetic modification of organisms.Study Questions1. Do boundaries of nature in organisms exist such that humans should not produce transgenic animals that combine genes from more than one species?2. The right of patent gives the researcher licensing control over the use and production of such organisms. Do you agree that it is wise to allow researchers to patent new organisms? Or should such organisms be in the public domain to be produced and used as the public wishes?3. How convincing is the view that no organism—no animal, no plant—has the right to remain genetically unchanged forever?

6. “Franken-Food”Genetic alterations are useful in producing human food. Animals can be modified to produce larger amounts of products, and crops can be altered to produce greater yields or be resistant to disease. Cloning techniques are being used to produce cattle that could be used for milk and meat. Most ethical concerns associated with these developments involve the safety of humans who might eat this food and the impact of introducing genetically altered organisms into the environment.Many animals are genetically modified to improve production and to produce new drugs. In 2002, the National Academy of Sciences issued a report warning that transgenic animals could pose food safety risks. In addition, concerns were raised about the welfare of animals produced through genetic interventions. However, the main focus of the report was on the way in which these animals might affect the environment. In particular, the government might not be ready or able to identify and prevent environmental risks coming from them.The report referred to a genetically modified salmon as an example. This kind of salmon grows exceptionally fast. If it were approved for human consumption, it would be extremely desirable for commercial fisheries because it could be brought to market more quickly than other kinds of salmon. The report raised the possibility that this new salmon could hurt stocks of salmon in the wild. If the new salmon escaped from their breeding pens, they might displace salmon in the wild not only because they mature more quickly but also because they grow larger than most wild species. The larger size could give them significant advantage in predator-prey relationships. Most experts believe that escape to the wild by some fish is inevitable. As a way of controlling the risk, the developer of the salmon, Aqua Bounty Farms in Massachusetts, said it would create a stock that consisted entirely of sterilized females.The FDA indicated that genetically modified animals intended for use as human food would be subject to the same regulations that govern new animal antibiotics and growth hormones. However, the report from the National Academy of Sciences raised an important legal concern: whether the FDA has the authority to deal with environmental risks of transgenic animals as against risks to humans.The report also commented that cloned animals are on the horizon, with companies already cloning beef and dairy cattle. In 2001, the FDA ordered these animals kept from the food chain, and the director of the Center for Veterinary Medicine at the FDA said that the agency will bar cloned animals from the food supply until further research is done.Study Questions1. Why are moral concerns raised about introducing genetic modifications into plants and animals used as human food?2. Dangers to the environment cannot be fully predicted when developing genetically modified organisms. Do you think this means that researchers should not modify organisms used by humans for food?3. Are risks to the environment from genetically modified food so great that it should not be produced at all?