the economics of gender

The Economics of Gender

Gender vs Sex

• Sex: perbedaan secara biologis– Laki-laki vs perempuan

• Gender: Characteristics as attributed that are socially associated with being female and male– Feminine– Masculine

What is economics of gender ?

• Interaksi agen ekonomi dalam keluarga, perusahaan dan pasar, sebagai laki-laki dan perempuan berbeda.

• Hal ini dipelajari dalam economics of gender

Seringkali Keliru

Contoh:• – Angka Partisipasi Angkatan Kerja Menurut

Gender seharusnya menurut sex (jenis kelamin)

• – Upah Pekerja Industri Manufaktur Menurut Gender ? Padahal kita hanya menyajikan statistik laki laki dan perempuan.‐

Kajian Gender yang Benar

• Kajian mengapa Angka Partisipasi Angkatan Kerja Perempuan selalu lebih rendah dari laki‐laki?

• Jawab: karena budaya patriarki bahwa laki‐laki bekerja di luar rumah, perempuan di dapur dan mengurus anak

What is Gender Economics ?

• Menerangkan bagaimana perbedaan gender (gender differences) sbg pelaku ekonomi menghasilkan perbedaan keluaran ekonomi (economic outcomes) terhadap masing‐masing jenis kelamin

• Ukurannya ?

Ukuran yang Digunakan

Ukurannya:– Pendapatan, penghasilan, tingkat kemiskinan,

jumlah jam kerja dsb.– Dan ukuran lain yang dipakai para ekonom

untuk menentukan kesejahteraan ekonomi laki laki dan‐ perempuan (alokasi waktu lk vs pr).

Is Economcs Gender Blind ?

• Is macroeconomic policy gender blind?• They persue aggregate goals, blind to

differential impacts on all individuals– Gender – Sector– Location

Isu Gender dalam Economi

1. Pelaku ekonomi di masyarakat dapat laki laki‐ atau perempuan

2. Mereka berinteraksi dalam keluarga, perusahaan maupun pasar.

3. Dua hal ini harus dipelajari dalam ekonomi gender untuk dapat dikatakan valid

Gender Blind

• The omission of gender concerns:– Generates policy with inefficienct macro level

outcomes– Give unpredicted micro level consequences for

women, children and families.

• So what ?

Isu Gender

• Kesetaraan Gender yaitu kesetaraan dalam akses, partisispasi, kontrol dan manfaat.

• Sehingga: terjadi kesetaraan hak di dalam segala sendi kehidupan

• Di masyarakat kita selalu bertanya mengapa laki laki‐ dan perempuan selalu berbeda dalam kegiatan ekonomi? Pdhl lk maupun pr adalah pelaku ekonomi

• Mengapa pendapatan perempuan selalu lebih rendah dari laki laki?‐

• Mengapa banyak terjadi sex segregation dalam pekerjaan,dan apa akibatnya terhadap perbedaan pendapatan?

• Apakah peningkatan jumlah perempuan dalam pasar kerja menyebabkan peningkatan tabungan rumah tangga, meningkatkan household autonomy, atau perceraian atau jumlah anak sedikit?

Perspektif Ekonomi Gender

• Pendekatan ekonomi yang menerangkan perbedaan perbedaan gender.‐

• Prinsip ekonomi:– Pengambilan keputusan dalam kelangkaan sumber

daya (Decision making under constraints scarcity)‐– Bhw manusia itu selalu bertindak rasional, yi:

• Konsisten: bertindak sama dlm situasi yg sama• Visioner: mempertimbangkan efek ke depan,jangka

panjang dan dampak tak langsung dari tingkah laku mrk.

Tetap Gunakan Prinsip Ekonomi

• Scarcity, sumber daya terbatas vs keinginan tidak terbatas

• Opportunity cost, biaya kesempatan yang hilang

• Marginal benefit vs marginal cost• Marginal utility• Market :

– konsep penawaran (supply) dan permintaan(demand) dalam pasar (termasuk pasar kerja)

Gender Bias in the Economic Theory

• Sen (1990), suggested perception of roles and relative value may influence allocation resources within the household.

• Discrimination suggested that perception of both women and employers affect wage determination in the market (Bruce, 1989)

• Blinkers occure! What is these blinkers?

Blinkers and Problems in Economic Theory

1. Boundary Blinkers• Invalid assumption about the nature and

importance of boundary between the household and market is boundary blinkers (gender blind)

• Boundary blinkers, failure to correctly specified the “base populartion” for the measurement of economic activity.

Blinkers and Problems in the Economic Theory

• Consequences:– Movements of productive activities from

household to market are intepreted as an increase in production because the basis for comparison is not the total universe of economic activity (only monitise)

• Taking account this problem:– New household economics (NHE): time allocation


• Clearly seen in:– National accounting system– Measurement of economic growth• Transfer from household production is invisible

• Result of boundary blinkers:– Disinvestments in human resources, as efficient: transfer

burden from public sector (out of monetise economy)– Burden falls to household where real but nonmonetise cst

becomes convieniently invisible– This: false impression of net efficiency gain for both public

sector and economy as a whole


2. Measurement BlinkersIs to take account accurate recognition of women’s contribution to economic preoduction due to under enumeration of their participation in the labor force.

Simple Microec theory asume work or not decision is only about allocation of time between work or leisure


• Men and women have different activities, women also bear primarily responsibility for biological and social reproduction.

• Men: devide time between mutually exclusive activities

• Women: engage multiple an concurrent activities (biological reproduction and child care: continual and large demand demands of time)


• GDP, doent measure women and men’s contribution, the lower the FFP for women, the lower the contribution and no particular importance.

• Women’s contribution are overlooked and underenumerated (contribution to wealth and welfare of their family and community)


3. The Specification ProblemProblem arise from the failure of conventional

economics to identify and take to account the opportunity cost of women’s time.

Opprtunity cost of working includes:child care, domestic work, community activities.

Nonmarket activities: treated as costless and ignored, it is unpriced resource.


• The key is to use opportunity cost of nonmonetise activities.

• Women’s domestic activities, create human capital (health and education and quality of future generation) therefore contribute to economic production


4. The efficiency ProblemFocus in microec: allocative efficiency, defined

by pareto criterion.Pareto optimum: situation which not posibble to

change allocation of resources without making someone worse off.

At macro level: short term static allocative efficeincy is achieved when it is imposible to rearrange resources to increase total output


• Dynamic allocative efficiency: Long term resource allocation

• Effect gender bias:– Acts as subsidy, unpaid household inputs are unpaid

the true value– Women’s unpaid family labor subsidised economic

preoduction generally– Unequal acsess on control of resources.– Inability to move between jobs, and to search higher

returns, lack the incentives for HH to provide complementary physical capital or technology to raise women’s labor productivity


– Value of women’s reproductive role undervalued– Lower lifetime earnings, lead to no incentive to

undertake human capital investment among women5. Contextual BlinkersIs blinked to the economic significance of social and

institutional context in which economic activity takes place.

Neglect the role: families, households, social and cultural norms, conventions and institutions. (important for women)


• Family and household considered as moral economy: individual decision to max utility

• NHE, individuals operate using shadow price• Values, attitudes, social conventions, behavioral

norms and cultural mores are overlooked• Neoclassical economic theory assume: agents

behave in fundamentally similar ways. Do they? They differ by norm, cultural and society values


• This blinker: made owmen to be ignored by social and institutions.

• Contextual blinkers: blind fact that social conventions are another source of allocative inefficiency, restricting free movement of female resources to their most productive use.

• By increasing social and psychological cost and reducing the benefit of market work for women.

Gender Differentiated Impact of Macroeconomic Policy

• Affect household through income, prices of goods consumed, access to public goods amd household participation in production and work.

• SR: effects depend on role in household• LR: effects human capital formation, will

change incentives or capacity to undertake longrun investments

Konsep dasar perbedaan laki laki dan‐perempuan dlm ekonomi

• Memakai ukuran ukuran tentang pendapatan, ‐penghasilan, partisipasi angkatankerja, tingkat kemiskinan, pembagian waktu rumah vs pasar kerja dll

• Kajian tentang tren perubahan antar waktu memberikan ilustrasi pemberdayaan peremp.

• Dan mencari latar belakang terjadinya mengapa terjadi perubahan: mis. perubahan setting organisasi kemasyarakatan yg menyebabkan terjadinya perbedaan gender dlm semua aspek ekonomi

Berapa Banyak Laki-laki dan Perempuan Bekerja

• Diukur dengan Angka Partisipasi Angkatan Kerja (Labor Force Participation Rate).

• Bekerja = melakukan kegiatan untuk upah, gaji atau keuntungan (uang atau non uang)‐

• Menganggur= tidak bekerja tetapi sedang mencari pekerjaan

Trend TPAK• Data tren TPAK memperlihatkan perubahan

setting dan pemberdayaan perempuan.• TPAK perempuan meningkat tajam, tetapi

tetap lebih rendah dibanding TPAK laki laki‐• TPAK laki laki relatif stabil, tetapi tetap tinggi‐• Mengapa TPAK perempuan meningkat tajam?

(kini lebih banyak perempuan masuk pasar kerja, ini pemberdayaan perempuan atau kemiskinan?

Pertanyaan perbedaan gender(data USA, 1950 1990)‐

• Mengapa TPAK perempuan selalu lebih rendah dari pada laki laki?‐

• Mengapa peningkatan TPAK Perempuan sangat tajam? Tetapi lebih rendah dari TPAK laki laki?‐

• TPAK laki laki stabil tetap tinggi‐• Mengapa tingkat pengangguran perempuan

selalu lebih tinggi dari laki laki?‐

• Mengapa terjadi peningkatan TPAK perempuan kawin?

• Terutama TPAK perempuan kawin yang mempunyai anak balita meningkat tajam?

• Perempuan lebih banyak bekerja sebagai clerical work dan sektor jasa

• Laki laki lebih banyak bekerja di menjadi ‐manager dan professional

• Laki laki bekerja di pertambangan, konstruksi,‐ transport dan utilities (listrik, telpon dll).

Keikutsertaan dalam Serikat Kerja

• Keikut sertaan perempuan pekerja dlm serikat pekerja lebih rendah dr laki laki dan stabil, tidak ‐berubah

• Kasus perempuan yg ditangani serikat pekerja juga rendah (peremp 15% laki 20%)

• Tetapi ada tendensi keanggotaan perempuan dlm SP meningkat dari 18% thn 1950 ke 38%tahun 1990 (jumlh perempuan/jumlh SP).

• Apakah kita punya data tentang ini?

Gender Gap Penghasilan• Diukur dari rasio penghasilan pr thd lk• Ada tendensi rasio meningkat, artinya ada

peningkatan penghasilan perempuan– Peningkatan kualitas kerja pr vs lk?– Penurunan diskriminsasi thd perempuan di pasar

kerja– Shift struktur pekerjaan ke arah modern sector –

manufacture, finance, foreign trade– Convergence of occupational distribution of men

and women? (pekerjaan bisa dilakukan leh pr maupun lk.)

Bagaimana Kesejahteraan Perempuan• Penghasilan Pr selalu lebihrendah dari LK• Akses PR terhadap sumber daya keuangan lebih

rendah dr LK, tdk punya kontrol, tdk menikmati manfaat, tdk mendapat hak, ketimpangan gender, tdk ada kesetaraan

• Lk dgn pendapatan tinggi cenderung menikah dgn Pr pendapatan lebih rendah. Msh berlaku?

• Dilihat dlm keluarga: gabungan pendapatan. Less variation of income at family level

Household as an Economic Unit

Kompisisi Rumah Tangga (livingarrangement)

• Difinisi rumah tangga (BPS)• Komposisi: jumlah dan siapa anggota RT– Keluarga batih (Ortu + anak)– Keuarga luas (Ortu+anak+orang lain)– Lain2: three generations under one roof

• Bagaimana pembagian kerjanya?• Siapa yang lebih berkuasa dlm pengambilan

keputusan ? Kepala RT, KRT bersama isteri?, Isteri saja?

Keuntungan tinggal bersama vssendiri

1. Economies of production – belanja bersama, masak bersama dll (cost sharing)

2. Internalisasi dr externalisasi3. Meringankan biaya transaksi4. Meringankan variasi utilitas karena resource

pooling

Power distribution in household

• Money (yg bawa uang ke rumah lebih powerful)

• Patriarchy (helping husband maintaining harmony)

• Children• Re negotiation of power within a household‐

(kalau suami isteri sama sama bekerja?)

Money as source of power• Partner yg membawa penghasilan lebih besar

ke rumah, punya power utk ambil keputusan• Tentang hal hal penting: beli rumah, mobil, ‐

perlengkapan rumah, siapa yang tentukan suami?

• Isteri, pengambil keputusan seputar anak, dapur,mengunjungi keluarga

• Siapa menentukan isteri untuk ber KB? Dan jumlah anak yg diinginkan?

Budaya patriarki dan pembagian kerja

• Idealnya pembagian kerja yg rasional adalah seimbang antara lk dan pr

• Tapi budaya patriarki cenderung mengunggulkan lk sebagai bread winner, ‐diskriminasi perempuan di pasar kerja, menurunkan potensi perempuan untuk memperoleh pendapatan,seumur hidup tergantung suami, akses, kontrol dan manfaat terbatas, tidak ada kesetaraan, gender gap.

Double burden perempuan bekerja• Meskipun isteri masuk pasar kerja tetapi tetap

mengerjakan pekerjaan rumah tangga, mengasuh anak, masak, nyuci dll.

• Suami? Mana egalitarianisme?• Isteri bekerja : market and non market work• Isteri melepaskan hak leisure time• Leisure time = non market good?, maka isteri

mendapat share lebih kecil dlm HH total production

GENDER AND DEMOGRAPHIC CHANGE

• Gender system: socially constructed expectations for male and female behaviour that are found in the society– Division of labor and responsibility (granted

different rights and obligation)– Side effect: inequality power between sexes,

autonomy, and well being—disdavantage of females

• Demographic change: change over time in a population– Fertility– Mortality– Migration (not a focus in researches)

• What specific variabel must be altered to influence fertility and mortality

Fertility

• Bongaarts proximate detrminant:– Age of women becoming sexually active– Prevalence, duration and intersity of

breastfeeding– Contraceptive use– Use of abortion

Mortality

• Mosly and Chen: 5 major proximate determianat s of infant and child mortality:– Maternal factors (mothers age, number of

previous births, interval– Environmental contamination– Nutrient deficiency– Injury– Personal illness control

• Individual have important role in affectting fertility and mortality

• Difficulties in studying gender and demographic change: no means unique to this topic, mkin strong causal inerence about gender systems and demographic change, complexity of gender system, varying role that of gender system apear to play under different circumstances

What DO We Know

• Fertility: – female education and employement to fertility is

consistant and robust than employement fertility (positive, nol)

– The relationship is greater among educated women.

– Female empowerment, reduces fertility and increase contraceptive use

What Do We Know

• Chilhood Mortality– Maternal education: increase childhood survival

by women becoming more self confident, communicative relationship with spouse

– Women’s education:strongly related to chilhood survival: health care, hygiene

– Women’s employment: increase resources to improve childrens nutrition or health care

– Partriachal gender system: elevated deaths among female children.

The Impact of Demographic Change on Gender Systems

• Historically, demographic change has also affected gender system change

• How?• Lower Fertility: women have more fee time-

enter LF, have higher education, have own income, more bargaining power

• The demographic regime: fertility below the replacement level and high life expectancy as precondition to gender change.

The Impact of Demographic Change on Gender Systems

• Scarcity of women: increase their value in marriage market

• Timing of motherhood and marriage: strong effects on women’s subsequent achievements and well being. (autonomy and power within family)

• Achievement of a modern demographic regime may be one pre-condition for changes in women’s and men’s lives that eventually lead to a less stratified gender system

HOW MUCH DO MEN AND WOMEN WORK ?

How much Do Men and Women Work?

• By age group, marital status, presence of children (USA, 1948-1992)– Men:

• Participation decrease among youngger and older age• Postpone entering labor market: schooling• Retire at early ages

– Women:• LFP increase, greater among married women, tripling among

women with preschool children• Why ?

– Increase demand this increases their wage, draws them into LF

Part time Workers as % of Total Employment by Sex, 1970, 1980 and

1992Women Men Total

1970 27,5 9,5 16,4

1980 26,8 9,6 16,9

1992 25,4 10,8 17,5

Percentage Distribution of Family Income, Median, Mean Family Income by Sex, 1988

Men Women

< $ 5000 2,6 3,9

$ 5000 - 9999 6,5 9,2

$ 10.000- 19.999 16,9 19,2

$20.000 - 29.999 19,5 18,9

$30.000 - 39.999 17,3 16,1

$40.000 - 49.999 13,3 12,3

$50.000 - 74.999 15,3 13,0

$75.000 - 99.999 5,4 4,7

≥ $ 100.000 3,2 2,7

Median Income $32.039 $ 29.087

Mean Income $38.732 $ 35.542

Allocation of Time: % Distribution of Weekly Time Devoted to Various Activities

by Sex, 1985

Women Men

Personal Care 44 44

Leisure 23 24

Paid Work 13 23

Housework 12 5

Shopping 4 3

Childcare 4 1

Explanation of Women’s LFP

Demand side:• General rise in labor• Rise in education of womenSupply factors:• Rising wages for women• Changing technology of nonmarket production• Change in family composition• Falling male wages

Explanation in the Fall of Men’s LFP

Demand side• Sectoral decline in labor demand in sectors

where men predominantly employed (manufacturing)

• Increase in substitution of female for male laborSupply side factors:• Rising real wages• Rises in nonearned income

Women’s formal labor force participation lowest among all regions

Characteristics of women in the labor market

Female Education and Labor Force Participation in MENA and EAP, 1970-2000Female Education and Labor Force Participation in MENA and EAP, 1970-2000

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

1970 1980 1990 2000

Female enrollment in secondary school, MENA

Female labor force particpation, MENA

Female enrollment in secondary school, EAP

Female labor force particpation, EAP

Percent

Note: In East Asia and the Pacific (EAP), secondary enrollment is for 1999 rather than 2000Source: ILO 1996; World Bank 2003d, 2003j

Characteristics of women in the labor market

Female Unemployment Rates by Educational Level in MENA Countries, Various YearsFemale Unemployment Rates by Educational Level in MENA Countries, Various Years

Female labor force participation and higher overall employment

Empirical evidence does not support the claim that women’s Empirical evidence does not support the claim that women’s increased labor force participation increases unemploymentincreased labor force participation increases unemployment

HOUSEHOLD AS AN ECONOMIC UNIT

Percentage Distribution of Married Couple Families by Labor Force Status of Spouse, 1991

Percentage

Husband and Wife in LF 54,0

Husband in LF, Wife not in LF 24,3

Both not in LF 17,0

Wife in LF, Husband not in LF 4,7

How Power is Distributed inHousehold

• Money as Power• Patriarchy on household sharing• Women care more in children• Renegoriation of sharing rules

the economics of gender

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