mixed methode research.docx
TRANSCRIPT
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ResearchDesign diualitative/ QuantitativeMixedMethoDsM ichael R. h
aRwell
University of Minnesota
Tdia editor dari buku ini menegaskan bahwa Permintaan pendidikan terhubung lemah untuk
mempelajari ide-ide yang menjanjikan. Itu Implikasinya adalah bahwa penelitian pendidikanbanyak memiliki sebuah "mur dan baut" karakter yang membatasi kreatif Generasi masalah
atau pemecahan masalah dan enggan mengambil risiko. onsekuensi dari ini praktek peluang
untuk memajukan terjawab kami memahami masalah pendidikan ofimportant dan
solutions.!his adalah pernyataan yang berani tapi itu adalah salah satu yang didukung oleh
pemeriksaan diterbitkan dan studi pendidikan yang tidak dipublikasikan. #eorang pemain
kunci dalam proses ini merupakan penelitian studi desain. $alam banyak studi pendidikan
penelitian desain mencerminkan "cookie cutter" pendekatan di mana desain yang sama
berulang-ulang dan sempit diterapkan dalam cara yang dapat membatasi apa yang dipelajari
dan bagaimana ide studied.Research berbasis yang tidak bisa dengan mudah dipetakan ke
sejumlah kecil desain diterima penyandang dana dan jurnal profesional kemungkinan akan
ditinggalkan atau dimodifikasi agar sesuai banyak digunakan desain penelitian.Penegasan dari bab ini adalah bahwa penelitian ini ide menjanjikan dalam pendidikan akan
baik dilayani oleh peningkatan penggunaan desain penelitian yang menarik pada beberapa
tradisi in%uiry.In beberapa kasus desain ini saat ini tersedia dan tantangannya adalah untuk
lebih peneliti untuk mempekerjakan mereka &atau terus mempekerjakan mereka' dalam ketat
manner.In kasus lain desain baru akan perlu untuk dikembangkan. (fek bersih adalah bahwa
katalog penelitian desain yang tersedia untuk pendidikan peneliti adalah memperluas secara
dramatis. Ini Perubahan tidak mengancam atau melemahkan nilai desain yang saat ini banyak
digunakan tetapi melainkan meningkatkan kolam desain penelitian tersedia untuk
mendukung penyelidikan ketat.
)ab ini mengeksplorasi peran penelitian desain dalam studi ide menjanjikan di pendidikan
tion dengan asumsi dua kondisi yang present.*irst adalah bahwa ide yang dikejar bernilai
mengejar yaitu sebuah ide yang cukup dapat menyebabkan dan dukungan pembentukan
penting pendidikan pertanyaan dan identifikasi solusi untuk masalah pendidikan penting.
edua adalah bahwa setiap tahap proses penelitian terkait dengan mempelajari ide
menjanjikan adalah ketat. +on ini ditions menyederhanakan pemeriksaan peran desain
penelitian dalam studi ide menjanjikan.
arakteristik tiga penelitian methodologies &metode kualitatif metode kuantitatif metode
campuran' dan peran mereka dalam mempelajari ide-ide
Halaman 2
Sectionaku aku aku.HaippoRtunities danchallenges diDesigning danconDucting
sayanQuiRy
diyakini bernilai belajar dijelaskan. saya menggunakan dua studi untuk menggambarkan
kekuatan dalam penelitian desain serta kesempatan untuk meningkatkan hasil dan
memberikan perhatian yang lebih besar untuk campuran methods karena kebaruan relatif
mereka dan materi bagi esensial. !iga cara yang peneliti dapat meningkatkan kemampuan
desain penelitian untuk lebih mendukung #tudi ide menjanjikan dalam studi pendidikan
dijelaskan. #aya menyimpulkan dengan menyatakan bahwa dicampur metode menawarkan
jalan sangat menjanjikan menuju menggunakan desain penelitian dengan cara yang
mendukung rigor Permintaan ous.
ResearchDesign
$alam penelitian pendidikan biasanya mungkin &dan tentu saja populer' untukmengkarakterisasi penelitian metodologi penelitian sebagai kualitatif, sebagai kuantitatif
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tie, atau sebagai melibatkan kualitatif dan kuantitas produk metode tatie dalam hal ini
biasanya disebut metode sebagai campuran. Penelitian jangka desainsecara luas digunakan
dalam pendidikan namun mengambil arti yang berbeda dalam studi yang berbeda. &Itu istilah
metode penelitian dan desainpenelitianakan digunakan secara bergantian dalam bab ini.'
ntuk-contoh ple dalam sebuah penelitian desain penelitian mungkin mencerminkan
seluruh proses penelitian dari pembuatan konsep masalah untuk tinjauan literatur penelitian-pertanyaan tions metode dan kesimpulan sedangkan di studi lain desain penelitian hanya
mengacu pada metodologi penelitian &misalnya pengumpulan data dan analisa'. Mungkin
tidak mengherankan ada ariasi yang tion dalam dan di antara metodologi bagaimana $esain
penelitian didefinisikan. /amun ini ariasi yang tion tidak mempengaruhi pemeriksaan peran
desain penelitian dalam mempromosikan studi ketat menjanjikan ide dan dengan demikian
definisi tunggal penelitian desain tidak diadopsi dalam bab ini. #aya berasumsi bahwa
pertanyaan penelitian yang mengemudi kekuatan di balik pilihan desain penelitian dan setiap
perubahan yang dibuat untuk elemen desain sebagai studi terungkap.
Mengidentifikasi desain penelitian studi adalah important karena memberikan informasi
tentang fitur kunci dari penelitian yang dapat berbeda untuk kualitatif kuantitatif danmetode campuran. /amun salah satu fitur umum di seluruh penelitian desain adalah bahwa
pada satu atau lebih poin dalam proses penelitian data dikumpulkan &nomor kata-kata gerak
tubuh dll' meskipun dalam cara yang berbeda dan untuk tujuan yang berbeda. $engan
demikian studi kualitatif adalah antara lain penelitian yang mengumpulkan dan
menganalisis data kualitatif, studi kuantitatif adalah antara lain penelitian yang
mengumpulkan dan menganalisis data kuantitatif, dan sebagainya.
+rotty &0112' menggambarkan empat fitur kunci dipertimbangkan dalam desain penelitian3
epistemologi yang menginformasikan penelitian filosofis sikap yang mendasari metodologi
yang bersangkutan &misalnya pasca-positiisme konstruktiisme pragma- tism adokasi 4
partisipatif, melihat Morgan 5667' metodologi itu sendiri dan teknik-teknik dan prosedur
yang digunakan dalam desain penelitian untuk mengumpulkan data. *itur-fitur ini
menginformasikan deskripsi penelitian desain di bawah ini.
Metode Penelitian Kualitati
Metode penelitian kualitatif fokus pada disco kenai dan memahami pengalaman per-
P8/$8/G dan pikiran peserta-yang penelitian kualitatif mengeksplorasi makna tujuan
atau kenyataan &9iatt 012:'. $engan kata lain penelitian kualitatif adalah kegiatan yang
terletak menempatkan pengamat di dunia. !erdiri dari dari satu set interpretatif praktek
materi yang membuat dunia terlihat. Praktik-praktik ini mengubah dunia. Mereka mengubah
dunia menjadi sebuah serangkaian representasi termasuk catatan lapangan wawancara
percakapan foto rekaman dan memo untuk diri sendiri. Pada tingkat ini penelitian kualitatif
melibatkan penafsiran pendekatan naturalistik kepada dunia. Ini berarti bahwa penelitikualitatif mempelajari hal-hal dalam pengaturan alam mereka mencoba untuk membuat rasa
atau menafsirkan fenomena dalam hal makna orang membawa kepada mereka. &$en;in hal. ?' Pusat untuk penyelidikan ini adalah adanya mul- tiple "kebenaran"
yang dibangun secara sosial &=incoln < Guba 012>'. Penelitian kualitatif biasanya
digambarkan sebagai memungkinkan eksplorasi rinci dari topik yang menarik di mana
informasi dikumpulkan oleh peneliti melalui studi kasus etnografi bekerja wawancara dan
sebagainya. Melekat dalam ini Pendekatan adalah deskripsi dari interaksi antara peserta dan
peneliti di naturalistik pengaturan dengan beberapa batasan sehingga fleksibel dan proses
penelitian terbuka. Ini unik interaksi tions menyiratkan bahwa hasil yang berbeda dapat
diperoleh dari peserta yang sama tergantung pada siapa peneliti adalah karena hasil
diciptakan oleh peserta dan peneliti dalam situasi tertentuHalaman 3
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!a" #$. Desain Penelitian Kualitati di / Kuantitati / Mixed Metode&pp. ?1-@6'. $engan
demikian peniruan dan generali;ability umumnya tidak tujuan penelitian kualitatif.
Metode penelitian kualitatif juga dijelaskan sebagai induktif dalam arti bahwa peneliti dapat
membangun teori atau hipotesis penjelasandan konseptualisasi dari rincian yang diberikan
oleh peserta. !ertanam dalam pendekatan ini adalah perspektif bahwa para peneliti tidak
dapat menyisihkan mereka pengalaman persepsi dan bias dan dengan demikian tidak bisaberpura-pura menjadi pengamat obyektif dengan penelitian. arakteristik penting lain adalah
bahwa meluasnya penggunaan metode kualitatif dalam didikan kation relatif baru dating
sebagian besar untuk tahun 0126 dengan perkembangan yang sedang berlangsung dalam
metodologi dan pedoman pelaporan &$en;in 566:'. Relatif kebaruan metodologi ini juga
berarti bahwa norma-norma profesional berdampak penelitian termasuk- ing standar bukti
pendanaan masalah dan editorialpraktek yang berkembang &lihat misalnya Pipi 566>,
*reeman deMarrais Preissle Roulston < #t.Pierre 5667'. $eskripsi baik kualitatif metode
muncul dalam )ogdan dan )iklen &566?' +reswell &0112' $en;in dan =incoln &566>'
Miles dan 9uberman &011@' dan Patton &5665'. 8da beberapa kategorisasi penelitian desain
dalam penelitian kualitatif dan tidak ada yang uniersally disepakati &lihat misalnya $en;in
< =incoln 566>'. +reswell &566?' tercatat lima strategi Permintaan dalam penelitiankualitatif yang saya memperlakukan sebagai sindrom onymous dengan desain penelitian3
narasi phe #tudi nomenological studi grounded theory etnografi dan studi kasus. +reswell
juga dijelaskan enam fase tertanam dalam setiap penelitian desain yang lebih spesifik
daripada yang disarankan oleh +rotty &0112' tapi masih mencakup hampir semua aspek
studi3 &0' filosofis atau teoritis perspektif, &5' pengantar studi yang termasuk tujuan dan
penelitian pertanyaan, &?' datacollection, &@' analisis data &>' =aporan tertulis ing, dan &:'
standar kualitas dan erifikasi. Aurnal yang mempublikasikan metodologi kualitatif makalah
dan studi penelitian kualitatif di pendidikan tion termasuk Penelitian Kualitatif,
KualitatifPermintaan, Lapangan Metode, Amerika PendidikanJurnal Penelitian, Peneliti
Pendidikan,danInternational Journal of Studies kualitatif diPendidikan.+ontoh penggunaan
kualitatif
desain penelitian yang disediakan oleh !ahap dan Maple &011:' yang menggunakan desain
narasi untuk menggambarkan pengalaman perempuan yang meraih bache- sebuah lor atau
gelar master di bidang matematika dan memilih untuk mendapatkan gelar doktor dalam
pendidikan, Gaines &566>' yang menjelajahi proses menafsirkan wawancara dan media yang
dikumpulkan selama penulis kunjungan ke India dengan cara yang memperhitungkan nya
identitas, 9arry #turges dan lingner &566>' yang menggunakan metode grounded theory
untuk mengembangkan teori memberikan perspektif baru pada representasi etnis di
pendidikan khusus, +oklat &5661' yang mempelajari perspektif uniersitas siswa
diidentifikasi sebagai pembelajaran dinonaktifkan, dan +hubbuck dan Bembylas &5662' yang
diperiksa perspektif dan pengajaran praktek emosional seorang guru pemula Putih di sekolahperkotaan. #tudi-studi ini mencerminkan beberapa-ciri penting membangun struktur dari
penelitian kualitatif termasuk fokus pada menemukan dan memahami eksperimen yang
ences perspektif dan pengalaman peserta melalui berbagai strategi penyelidikan. -Penelitian
yang ies juga dilakukan dalam pengaturan naturalistik di yang in%uiry adalah fleksibel dan
dipandu oleh par-komentar ticipants C yang dalam beberapa kasus digunakan untuk
membangun penjelasan dari mereka pandangan dan perspektif. #ebuah fitur penting dari
beberapa dari studi ini adalah mereka menggunakan unsur-unsur strategi yang berbeda
penyelidikan.
Kuantitati Metode Penelitian
Metode penelitian kuantitatif berusaha memaksimalkan objektiitas peniruan dangeneralisasi i;ibility temuan dan biasanya tertarik ramalan. !erpisahkan untuk pendekatan ini
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adalah eDpec- yang tasi yang peneliti akan menyisihkan nya pengalaman persepsi dan bias
untuk memastikan objektiitas dalam melakukan studi dan kesimpulan yang ditarik. *itur
utama dari banyak studi kuantitatif adalah penggunaan instrumen seperti tes atau surei untuk
mengumpulkan data dan-agama 8nce pada teori probabilitas untuk menguji statistik
hipotesis yang sesuai dengan pertanyaan penelitian bunga. Metode kuantitatif sering
digambarkan sebagai deduktif di alam dalam arti bahwa kesimpulan dari uji hipotesisstatistik memimpin untuk kesimpulan umum tentang karakteristik dari populasi. Metode
kuantitatif juga fre- %uently dicirikan sebagai asumsi bahwa ada single "kebenaran" yang ada
independen dari manusia Persepsi &=incoln < Guba 012>'. !rochim dan !anah &0125'
didefinisikan kuantitatif desain penelitian sebagai lem yang memegang proyek penelitian
bersama-sama. #()89 desain digunakan untuk struktur penelitian menunjukkan
bagaimana semua bagian utama dari penelitian Proyek-sampel atau kelompok tindakan
Halaman 4
#%$
Section aku aku aku.HaippoRtunities danchallenges diDesigning danconDuctingsaya
nQuiRy
perawatan atau program dan metode tugas-bekerja sama untuk mencoba untuk mengatasi
pertanyaan penelitian pusat. &p. 0' $efinisi desain penelitian kuantitatif yang rumit oleh fakta
bahwa istilah ini sering digunakan untuk mengidentifikasi desain reflect- eksperimental ing
penataan independen dan dependen penyok ariabel yang terkait dengan pengumpulan data.
ategorisasi yang lebih tua dari desain eksperimental cenderung menggunakan bahasa
analisis arians di menggambarkan ini layout-misalnya sebuah single *aktor benar-antara
subyek fiDed-efek desain atau desain split-petak faktorial dengan antara- dan dalam subjek
efek &empthorne 01>5, Einer 01:5'. $eskripsi ini adalah typi- +ally terkait dengan desain
eksperimental yang subyek secara acak ditugaskan untuk pengobatan kondisi desain
meskipun kuasi-eksperimental di mana kelompok-kelompok utuh &misalnya 8frika 8merikadan siswa Putih' dibandingkan dan korelasi nasional desain di mana ada kelompok
didefinisikan adalah ini juga mendapat perhatian &misalnya +ampbell
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erlinger &01:@', )alnaes dan +aputi &5660', Gay Mills dan 8irasian &566>', dan Metode
Penelitian )ase &!rochim 566:' pengetahuan. ada juga beberapa jurnal yang
mempublikasikan-metodologi kuantitatif makalah ology dan studi penelitian kuantitatif
dalam pendidikan termasuk Metode psikologis,Jurnal Pendidikan dan Perilaku
Statistik,Britis Journal of Matematika dan statisti! Psikologi, Amerika Pendidikan Jurnal
Penelitian Ameri!an Journal of "valuasi, dan Pendidikan"valuasi dan AnalisisKe#i$akan.+ontoh desain penelitian kuantitatif di literatur pendidikan disediakan oleh
9owell Eolf +ampbell dan Peterson &5665' yang menggunakan rancangan acak untuk
mempelajari efektiitas oucher sekolah dalam meningkatkan prestasi, Fakub dan =efgren
&566@' yang menggunakan &disconti- regresi kuasi-eksperimental nuity' desain untuk
mempelajari hubungan antara menerima perbaikan pendidikan dan prestasi ment, dan Garner
dan Raudenbush &0110' yang menggunakan desain korelasional untuk memeriksa relatiitas
yang tionship antara karakteristik lingkungan dan prestasi. #tudi-studi ini mencerminkan
beberapa fitur penting dari penelitian kuantitatif termasuk asumsi bahwa peneliti menetapkan
selain mereka pengalaman persepsi dan bias dalam melakukan penelitian dan menggambar
conclu- aksesi pengumpulan data yang tidak memperlakukan Peneliti sebagai instrumen
pengumpulan data dan penggunaan pengujian hipotesis untuk membuat deduktif kesimpulantentang karakteristik populasi. #ingkatnya desain penelitian dalam pendidikan memiliki
pindah dari ketergantungan hampir eksklusif pada %uantum metode titatie untuk pendekatan
yang lebih berariasi yang termasuk metode penelitian kualitatif. #ebagai =incoln dan Guba
&012>' menunjukkan baik kualitatif dan metode penelitian kuantitatif menekankan
kebenaran konsistensi penerapan dan netralitas saat mengambil pendekatan prosedural yang
berbeda untuk menjamin kualitas. $engan demikian mungkin akan membayangkan bahwa
metode kualitatif dan kuantitatif telah
Halaman 5
!a" #$. Desain Penelitian Kualitati di / Kuantitati / Mixed Metode
#%#
dipromosikan menjadi peneliti pendidikan di semangat "Gunakan metodologi atau
methodolo- gies yang &yang' yang paling tepat dan membantu untuk tujuan 8nda "tapi itu
tidak cukup kasus. #ebaliknya penelitian pendidikan dalam terakhir dua dekade telah
menjadi rumah bagi cukup onflik dipicu oleh pendukung masing-masing methodol-
kelemahan ogy yang telah menekankan dari lain dalam hal epistemologi penting untuk
bidang kesimpulan diperbolehkan dan sebagainya &lihat misalnya )erkenkotter 0110,
$en;in < =incoln 566>, Gage 0121, 9owe 5661, MaDwell 566@, Morse 566:, Pegues
5667'. )anyak perdebatan telah berguna dalam mendorong peneliti untuk berpikir tentang
fitur metodologi ini penting untuk pekerjaan mereka dan untuk lapangan &misalnya Moss et
al. 5661' namun kadang berkepanjangan dan kali alam sengit telah mungkin diminta banyakpeneliti untuk hanya duduk itu.
Metode ca&puran
ualitatif s kuantitatif memiliki perdebatan bertepatan dengan pesatnya perkembangan
campuran metode yang menggabungkan kualitatif dan kuantitas produk metode tatie
dengan cara yang seolah-olah menjembatani mereka perbedaan dalam pelayanan menangani
penelitian pertanyaan. 8kar metode campuran yang typi- +ally ditelusuri ke multi-sifat
multi-metode Pendekatan dari +ampbell dan *iske &01>1 dikutip dalam !eddlie , C+athain Murphy < /icoll 5667, 8pa Pekerjaan
+learinghouse 5662'. Meskipun popularitas mereka tidak ada kesepakatan luas pada apa
consti- tutes metode penelitian campuran &Morse 5606'. ntuk
Halaman 6
#%'Sectionaku aku aku.HaippoRtunities danchallenges diDesigning danconDuctingsaya
nQuiRy
Misalnya beberapa penulis bersikeras bahwa meth- campuran Penelitian ods adalah setiap
studi dengan baik kualitatif dan data kuantitatif sedangkan penulis lain mengatakan metode
campuran studi harus memiliki meth- campuran Pertanyaan ods baik kualitatif dan
kuantitatif analisis dan kesimpulan yang terintegrasi &!ashakkori 5661'. 8da juga perbedaan
pendapat tentang berbagai aspek metode campuran seperti ketika pencampuran harus terjadi
&misalnya pada titik desain- ing studi selama pengumpulan data selama data yang analisis
dan 4 atau pada titik interpretasi'. Masih penulis lain telah mengkritik seluruh Ide metode
campuran &$en;in 566:, #ale =ohfeld < )ra;il 5665, #mith < 9odkinson 566>' kritikyang kadang-kadang dibingkai dalam hal respon pendukung khususnya untuk para a lar
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"sikap" argumen untuk mencampur metode3 sikap murni sikap pragmatis dan sikap dialektis
&Greene < +aracelli 0117, Aohnson < nwuegbu;ie 566@, =awren;
keprihatinan bahwa metode campuran desain meninggalkan kualitatif metode dalam posisi
yang sekunder metode kuantitatif &$en;in 566:, Giddings 566:, Fin 566:'. Para peneliti
yang mengambil sikap pragmatis berpendapat bahwa perbedaan paradigma independen dari
dan karenanya dapat digunakan bersama dengan satu sama lain dalam pelayanan mengatasi-
pertanyaan yang tion &Aohnson < nwuegbu;ie 566@, Morgan 5667'. Eheeldon &5606'
merangkum pandangan ini3 )ukan mengandalkan penalaran deduktif dan tempat umum untuk
mencapai kesimpulan tertentu atau pendekatan induktif yang berusaha umum kesimpulan
berdasarkan tempat tertentu pragmatisme memungkinkan untuk abduktif lebih fleksibel
pendekatan. $engan berfokus pada pemecahan praktis masalah perdebatan tentang
keberadaan obyektif "kebenaran" atau nilai subjektif persepsi dapat bergunamengesampingkan. $engan demikian pragmatis tidak punya masalah dengan menegaskan
kedua bahwa ada satu "dunia nyata" dan bahwa semua indiidu memiliki interpretasi mereka
sendiri yang unik dunia itu. &p. 22' /amun sikap pragmatis juga memiliki crit- nya ics
&Mertens 566?,. #ale et al 5665'. $ialektis peneliti berpendapat bahwa beberapa paradigma
yang kompatibel dan harus digunakan tetapi mereka berbeda- ences dan implikasi untuk
penelitian harus dibuat jelas &Greene < +aracelli 0117' .Ini adalah impor- tant untuk
menekankan bahwa seorang peneliti yang mengadopsi sikap dialektika akan hal lain
dianggap sama menggambar pada prosedur yang sama untuk mencampur sebagai salah satu
mengadopsi sikap pragmatis. Masalah sikap tentu tidak diselesaikan dan pembangunan
tambahan 8#I9 tentang topik ini terus muncul di metode campuran literatur &misalnya
desain sikap dari +reswell < Plano +lark 5667'. Metode campuran desain tampak terutama
tegas berakar dalam literatur ealuasi. 8wal kertas penting di daerah ini adalah Greene
+aracelli dan Graham &0121' yang menyoroti lima besar tujuan &atau pembenaran untuk'
suatu campuran meth- ods ealuation.ne adalah triangulasi yang-contoh ines konsistensi
temuan seperti yang diperoleh melalui instrumen yang berbeda dan yang mungkin termasuk
wawancara dan surei. Menurut Green et al. !riangulasi meningkatkan kemungkinan bahwa
ancaman terhadap kesimpulan akan con- dikendalikan. !ujuan kedua adalah saling
melengkapi yang menggunakan data kualitatif dan kuantitatif 9asil untuk menilai tumpang
tindih tetapi aspek yang berbeda dari fenomena yang diteliti &misalnya kelas di pengamatan
surei' dan ketiga adalah pembangunan ment di mana hasil dari satu metode influ- (nce
metode berikutnya atau langkah-langkah dalam penelitian, misalnya wawancara dengan gurumungkin nyarankan- gest bahwa tambahan end-of-tahun menjadi penilaian menambahkan.
#ebuah tujuan keempat dari metode campuran ealuasi inisiasi di mana hasil dari satu
Metode tantangan hasil lain atau merangsang baru arah untuk penelitian, misalnya guru
wawancara mungkin menantang hasil yang diberikan oleh administrator di distrik sekolah.
elima dan !ujuan terakhir adalah ekspansi yang dapat memperjelas hasil atau menambah
kekayaan dengan temuan. #ejumlah kerangka kerja untuk campuran meth- ods telah muncul
dalam literatur ini banyak yang telah dibangun pada karya Greene et al. &0121' &+aracelli ' to the process of how academic counselors make deci- sions and used this model and a
case study approach &+reswell 0112'. /orman purposiely sampled : counselors and 5@
students and col- lected data ia in-depth interiews with the counselors and students that
included their obserations of the adising process and high school and college records of
studentsC mathe- matics course taking and grades. /orman reported that the counselorsgenerally misinter- preted the mathematics portions of high school transcripts which had
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important implications for adising a student on which college mathe- matics course to begin
with.*or eDamplea student whose transcript indicated that his or her highest completed high
school mathematics course was JIntegrated Mathematics IKL a standards-based course was
generally adised to start with a precalculus mathematics course een though Integrated
Mathematics IK is a precalculus course and the student should hae been adised to enroll in
+alculus I. /orman also reported that counselors who looked at transcripts of students whocompleted a traditional high school mathematics curriculum in which the highest
mathematics course completed was listed as precalculus were more likely to recom- mend
that a student enroll in +alculus I./orman suggested that counselor iews toward standards-
based curricula may be related to working in a mathematics department because mathematics
departments hae generally been %uite critical of standards-based curricula &Roitman 0111,
#choenfeld 566@'. /orman &5662' also collected and analy;ed %uantitatie data for a sample
of more than 0666 college freshmen that included informa- tion on the high school
mathematics curricu- lum they completed, their score on a college mathematics placement
eDam, and the difficulty of their first college mathematics course which was captured using a
@-point =ikert ariable &0 a course that should hae been completed in high school which
is sometimes referred to as a deelopmental course, @ a course whose dif- ficulty eDceededthat of +alculus I'. 9asil of these analyses suggested that the curriculum a student completed
was related to his or her mathematics placement score and the difficulty leel of the studentCs
first college mathematics !entu saja. In particular students who completed a standards-based
high school mathematics curric- ulum were more likely to enroll in a less difficult
Halaman 9
*hapter #$. Research Design in Qualitative/Quantitative/Mixed Methods
#%%
college mathematics course compared to students who completed a traditional curriculum.
/ormanCs &5662' study reflects seeral eDem- plary features of miDed methods
researchinclud- ing using a case study approach that focused on discoering andunderstanding the eDperiences perspecties and thoughts of counselors and stu- dents and
the presence of %uantitatie data high- lighting the possible conse%uences of counselorsC
misunderstanding the information on a studentNs high school transcript. Ehile the eDact
timing of the %uantitatie and %ualitatie data collection in /ormanCs study was unclear it
appears the data were collected relatiely close in time suggesting that the results of one data
collection did not influence the other data collection. /amun main %uestion focused on
counselors and col- lecting and analy;ing data for counselors first intentionally using this
information to guide the collection and analysis of %uantitatie data for students and
integrating the two sets of findings suggest that a se%uential eDploratory design would hae
been of alue. *or eDample informa- tion obtained from the %ualitatie data about
counselorsC misunderstanding of high school mathematics course taking could hae been usedin deeloping %uestions for a student sureysuch as on whether students thought their
counselor misunderstood their high school course taking. 8 third miDed methods approach is
these%uential transformative design,in which either %ualitatie or %uantitatie data may be
collected pertama. 9ere the theoretical perspectie underly- ing the methodology is critical
to the conduct of the study and the chosen methods should sere the theoretical perspectie.
nce again %ualita- tie and %uantitatie data are analy;ed sepa- rately and the findings are
integrated during the interpretation phase. !his approach is often used to ensure that the
iews and perspecties of a dierse range of participants are represented or when a deeper
understanding of a process that is changing as a result of being studied is sought. Its strengths
and weaknesses are similar to those of the se%uential eDplanatory design. *or eDample the
decision-making model used by /orman &5662' suggested that collecting data for studentswho are affected &sometimes adersely' by the recommendations proided by counselors is
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important in ealuating and improing the adising process. /orman commented that most
students follow the recommendation of which mathematics course to take een if they
disagree dengan itu. 9ere the study could focus on discoer- ing and understanding
studentsCeDperiences with the adising process and its implications for their college
eDperience.8 case study approachusing a purposiely chosen sample of students who began
their college mathematics course taking at different difficulty leels would be appropriate.Information obtained from interiews and stu- dent academic records could be used to inform
the construction of a surey to be sent to a repre- sentatie sample of students. !he surey
results could be used to improe decision making by counselors and to enhance
generali;ability. 8 fourth miDed methods approach is the !on&!urrent triangulation design,
which is used when the focus is on confirming cross-alidating or corroborating findings
from a single study. Hualitatie and %uantitatie data are collected concurrentlysuch that
weaknesses of one kind of data are ideally offset by strengths of the other kind. !ypically
e%ual weight is gien to the two kinds of data in miDing the findings although one kind of
data can be weighted more heaily. !he %ualitatie and %uantitatie data are analy;ed
separately and miDing takes place when the find- ings are interpreted. Important strengths of
this approach are the ability to maDimi;e the infor- mation proided by a single study foreDample when interest is in cross-alidation and a shorter data collection period compared
to the se%uential data collection approaches. Important weak- nesses include the additional
compleDity associ- ated with collecting %ualitatie and %uantitatie data at the same time and
the eDpertise needed to usefully apply both methods. $iscrepancies between the %ualitatie
and %uantitatie findings may also be difficult to reconcile. In the 9owell et al. &5665' study
the primary finding was that the achieement of 8frican 8merican students who receied a
oucher to attend priate school was on aerage higher than that of 8frican 8merican
students who did not receie a oucher and that this difference did not emerge for other
student groups.8dopting a con- current triangulation design could proide an eDplanation for
these findings by collecting %uali- tatie data in the form of interiews with parents of
students who did and did not receie a oucher and %uantitatie data in the form of student
test scores and background information. Ini akan offer an opportunity to corroborate findings
from this study with respect to the improed achieement of 8frican 8merican students but
Halaman 10
#%+ Section aku aku aku. HaippoRtunities anDchallenges inDesigning
anDconDuctingsaya nQuiRy
not other students. *or eDample a plausible out- come of concurrent data collection is that the
%ualitatie data suggest that parents of 8frican 8merican students appeared to be more
commit- ted to and enthusiastic about their studentsC education in general and the oucherprogram in particular than parents of other students and that this enthusiasm persisted
throughout the school year &8chieement tests used in this study were gien at the end of the
school year.'. $idalam instance the %ualitatie and %uantitatie infor- mation would proide
corroborating eidence that the improed achieement of 8frican 8merican students could be
attributed in part to receiing a oucher and enrolling in a priate school and in part to the
support encourage- ment and motiation of studentsC parents. !he fifth approach is the
!on!urrent nesteddesign,in which %ualitatie and %uantitatie data are collected concurrently
and analy;ed together during the analysis phase. =ebih besar weight is gien to one kind of
data in the sense that one kind of data is typically embedded in yang lain. 9oweer there
may or may not be a guiding theoretical perspectie.8 popular appli- cation of this approach
is with multileel struc- tures &!ashakkori < !eddlie 566?' in which different leels or unitsof an organi;ation are dipelajari. #trengths of this approach include the shorter data collection
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)ryk5665'.!hese analyses could eDplore the impact of nesting and the impact of counselor
ariables on student data and proide a powerful eDplanation of how and potentially why
students enrolled in a particular college mathe- matics course. !he siDth miDed methods
approach is the !on&!urrent transformative design.8s with the se%uen- tial transformatie
designthere is a clearly defined theoretical perspectie that guides the methodol- ogy. In this
approach %ualitatie and %uantitatie data are collected concurrently and can be weightede%ually or une%ually during the integration of !emuan. Hualitatie and %uantitatie data are
typically miDed during the analysis phase.#trengths include a shorter data collection period
whereas weaknesses include the need to transform data so that it can be miDed in the analysis
phase and dif- ficulties in reconciling conflicting results using %ualitatie and %uantitatie
data. 8s an eDample of applying a concurrent transformatie design /orman &5662' reported
eidence that some students were unhappy with the recommendations they receied but felt
pow- erless to change the process. #uppose that the goal of the study was to deelop a theory
eDplain- ing this sense of powerlessness in ways that could improe the adising process.
/ormanCs adapta- tion of the Miller and Miller &566>' decision- making model includes a
component that calls for students who are concerned about their rec- ommendation to be
heard. !his could take the form of collecting %ualitatie information from students reflectingtheir eDperiences with the adising process and their iew of its impact on their mathematics
course taking and simultane- ously collecting %ualitatie data for a group of konselor.
$eeloping a theory eDplaining the studentCs feelings of powerlessness would re%uire that
student and counselor responses be carefully eDamined and categori;ed to suggest themes to
guide and inform the construction of the theory. !his information could then be used to
inform the construction of a surey that would proide %uantitatie information for a
representatie sam- ple of newly admitted college students to enhance generalisasi. !he
strengths and weaknesses of this approach are similar to those of the other concurrent
approaches. ther eDamples of miDed methods studies include )uck +ook Huigley
(astwood and =ucas &5661', $ay #ammons and Gu &5662', nwuegbu;ie )ustamante and
/elson &5606', and nwuegbu;ie et al. &5667'. Good descrip- tions of miDed methods can be
found in )a;eley &5661' +reswell &566?' +reswell and Plano +lark &5667' Greene &5667'
Reichardt and Rallis &011@' and !ashakkori and !eddlie &566?'. !he relatie newness of
miDed methods means that journals that concentrate on pub- lishing miDed methods
methodology papers and miDed methods studies in education are berkembang. !hey currently
include theJournal ofMi'ed Metods (esear!, International Journalof Multiple (esear!
Approa!es, )ualitative (esear! Journal,Ameri!an "du!ational
(esear!Journal,"du!ational (esear!er,and"du!ational "valuation and Poli!y Analysis.In
sum the miDed methods approach offers a collection of fleDible research designs that seem
well suited to support rigorous eDaminations of promising ideas. !he siD designs of +reswell
&566?' draw on the strengths of %ualitatie and %uantitatie methods to enhance in%uiry inways unlikely to occur with singular applications of these methods. #till it is important to
emphasi;e that miDed methods design continues to face a number of significant challenges
&)ryman 5667, +reswell 5661, =awren; < 9uffman 5665, !ashakkori 5661'. ne
important challenge is resoling out- standing disagreements oer appropriate para- digms.
!he miDed methods literature contains a number of Jmission accomplishedLstatements
implying that important philosophical differ- ences hae been resoled primarily by adopting
a pragmatic stance &eg +arey 011?, +reswell < Plano +lark 5667, 9aase < Meyers 0122,
!ashakkori < !eddlie 566?'. Fet it is clear that important differences remain andelowski
5660, Fin 566:'. 8 related challenge is achie- ing better agreement on what characteri;es a
miDed methods study and its components. ntuk eDample *atare the components of a
miDed methods study &research %uestions design
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Halaman 12
#%-
data collection data analyses interpretation' *enshould the components be miDed and
o*&and how much' should they be miDed to justify the label miDed methods &see eg
)a;eley 5661, )ryman 5667, Aohnson < nwuegbu;ie 566@, Morse 5606, !ashakkori
gular use of %ualitatie or %uantitatie methods in a study in faor of a miDed methods
approach. Part of the challenge of embracing more fleD- ibility in research designs is
technical to the eDtent that it re%uires additional eDpertise on the part of a researcher orsuggests the need to deelop new research designs. #ebagai contoh researcher may plan to
conduct a %uantitatie study to compare learning outcomes of a treat- ment group whose
members receie a promising interention against those of a control group using longitudinal
data. 9oweer in the serice of deeloping a better understanding of the interention the
researcher may decide to add a preliminary component to the study in which single-subject
methods &ratochwill < =ein 0115' will be used to eDamine the learning tra- jectories of a
small number of purposiely sam- pled participants. !his would re%uire eDpertise in single-
subject methodology that a researcher may or may not possess. #imilar eDamples can be
constructed for %ualitatie and miDed meth- ods studies. #till the greater challenge for many
research- ers is likely to be modifying personal norms defining scholarship and the ade%uacy
of a contribution to the field. !his may re%uire a researcher to step outside the methodologicalboundaries he or she has been trained to honor and in some cases enforce and to embrace
research designs the researcher may hae been taught and hae taught others are inferior.
(mbracing other methodologies in ways that cross disciplinary funding and publication
lines for eDample sering as a member of an multidisciplinary research team that includes
&and alues' indiiduals with eDpertise in %uali- tatie or %uantitatie methods will re%uire a
certain amount of risk taking but will help to moe the field toward more fleDible designs.
Se!ond,researchers can work &or continue to work' to modify professional norms in their
roles as authors manuscript reiewers journal editors panel members ealuating grant pro-
posals and so forth to allow a greater range of studies and findings to be supported. Ini akan
re%uire an artful balancing between encourag- ing risk taking &eg studies employing innoa-
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tie interentions or emerging methods of %ualitatie in%uiry' and the need to satisfy
standards of research design and reporting that help to ensure the integrity of study results.
Interestingly there is growing eidence of sup- port for doing just this. #ome of this eidence
appears in studies published in journals such as theAmeri!an "du!ational (esear! Journal,
"du!ational "valuation and Poli!y Analysis,and theJournal of Mi'ed Metods (esear!,
that rely on multidisciplinary research teams. ther ei- dence is in the form of new fundingprograms at the # $epartment of (ducation &primarily
Halaman 13
*hapter #$. Research Design in Qualitative/Quantitative/Mixed Methods
#%
supporting %uantitatie research' such as the Race to the !op and Inesting in Innoation
which focus on innoatie and ambitious approaches to educational change that draw on
multiple disciplines. 8n especially important challenge for modi- fying professional norms
lies in the practices of educational research journals that typically pub- lish %uantitatie
studies. !he filters enforced by the editorial process of these journals often rein- force
eDisting and narrow professional norms. (idence of their success can be found in many
%uantitatie meta-analyses. In a typical %uantita- tie meta-analysis a sample of published
and unpublished studies of a common phenomenon are collected eDamined and combinedO
for eDample studies that hae introduced interen- tions &ouchers increased teacher
professional deelopment' designed to reduce the achiee- ment gap between 8frican
8merican and Ehite students.Kariables capturing key features of each study such as sample
si;e percentage of the sample that was 8frican 8merican and charac- teristics of the
interentions are deeloped and each study is coded using these ariables &+ooper 9edges
< Kalentine 5661'. Huantitatie analy- ses of the resulting data typically proide ei- dence
of the impact of editorial practices. *or eDamplelimiting the analyses to published studies
will typically reeal that all &or irtually all' reported at least one statistically significantresult &see eg )orman 9ewes erman < )rown 566?, *ukkink < de Glopper 0112,
Purdie 9attie < +arroll 5665' a reflection of the well- documented practice of publishing
studies with statistically significant findings &)o;arth < Roberts 0175, 9ewitt Mitchell 1' !hese are important and intriguing %uestions and it seems clear that fleDible
research designs that aggressiely support the study of promising ideas are needed to help
answer them. +ampur aduk methods designs seem especially well suited for this task.
Ehether miDed methods will someday enjoy an e%ual partnership with %ualitatie and
%uantitatie research in education or supplant these methodologies is unclear and in many
ways unimportant.Ehat is important is eDpanding the catalog of research designs aailable to
support rigorous in%uiry. #till change that leads to more researchers embracing more fleDible
research designs more conspicuously depends on modify- ing norms in ways that broaden therange of stud- ies and findings supported in education. )ahwa change is underway is
undeniable, what is less clear is the scope and pace of the change. In sum miDed methods
research offers an especially promising path toward using research design in ways that
support rigorous eDaminations of promising educational ideas. !he time to fully embrace
miDed methods designs has come.
ReeRences
8lise M8 < !eddlie +. &5606'. 8 continuation of the paradigm wars !ingkat prealensi
methodological approaches across the social4 behaioral sciences. Journal of Mi'ed
Metods(esear!, -,06?05:. )alnaes M. < +aputi P. &5660'.Introdu!tion to%uantitative
resear! metods An investigative approa!.!housand aks +83 #age. )a;eley P. &5661'.MiDed methods data analysis. $i (. 9alcomb < #. 8ndrew &(ds.' Mi'ed metods resear!
for nursing and te ealt s!ien!es &pp. 2@002'. =ondon3 Eiley-)lackwell. )erkenkotter +.
&0110'. Paradigm debates turf wars and the conduct of sociocognitie in%uiry in
composition. /ollege /omposition and /ommuni!ation, -0, 0>00:1. )ogdan R+ '. !he practice and politics of funded penelitian kualitatif. In / $en;in
< F# =incoln &(ds.' !he SA7" and#ook of %ualitative resear!&?rd ed. pp. ?27@61'.
+hubbuck #M < Bembylas M. &5662'. Itu emotional ambialence of socially just teaching3
8 case study of a noice urban schoolteacher. Ameri!an "du!ational (esear! Journal, -4,57@?02. +ochran EG < +oD GM &01>6'. "'perimental designs. /ew Fork3 Eiley.
+ooper 9. 9edges =K < Kalentine A+ &5661'. e and#ook of resear! syntesis and
Halaman 15
*hapter #$. Research Design in Qualitative/Quantitative/Mixed Methods
#+#
meta&analysis &5nd ed.'. /ew Fork3 Russell #age $asar. +reswell AE &0112'. )ualitative
in%uiry and resear! design /oosing among five traditions. !housand aks +83 #age.
+reswell AE &566?'. )ualitative, %uantitative, and mi'ed metods approa!es &5nd ed.'.
Ribu aks +83 #age. +reswell AE &5661'. Mapping the field of miDed methods research.
Journal of Mi'ed Metods (esear!, 2,1>062. +reswell AE < Plano +lark K= &5667'.8esigning and !ondu!ting mi'ed metods resear!. !housand aks +83 #age. +rotty M.
&0112'. e foundations of so!ial resear! Meaning and perspe!tive in te resear! pro!ess.
=ondon3 #age. $ay +. #ammons P. < Gu H. &5662'. Menggabungkan %ualitatie and
%uantitatie methodologies in research on teachersC lies work and effectieness3 *rom
integration to synergy. "du!ational (esear!er, 21, ??6?@5. $en;in / &566:'. !he
elephant in the liing room3 r eDtending the conersation about the politics of eidence.
)ualitative (esear!, 9,0?10:6. $en;in / < =incoln F# &566>'. Pengantar. In /
$en;in < F# =incoln &(ds.' e SA7" and#ook of %ualitative resear!&?rd ed. pp. 051'.
!housand aks +83 #age. *reeman M. de Marrais . Preissle A. Roulston . '. Interpreting India identity and media from the field3 (Dploring
the communicatie nature of the eDotic other. )ualitativeIn%uiry, 33,>02>?@. Garner +.
< Raudenbush #A &0110'. =ingkungan effects on educational attainment3 8 multileel
analysis of the influence of pupil ability family school and neighborhood. So!iology of
"du!ation, :-,5>05:5. Gay =R Mills G. < 8irasian PE &566>'. "du!ational resear!
/ompeten!ies for analysis and appli!ations &2th ed.'. pper #addle Rier /A3 Merrill.
Giddings =# &566:'. MiDed-methods research3 Positiism dressed in drag Journal of
(esear! in 5ursing, 33&?' 01>56?. Greene A+ &5667'.Mi'ed metods in so!ial in%uiry./ew Fork3 Eiley. Greene A+ < +aracelli KA &0117'. Advan!es in mi'ed&metod
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evaluation e !allenges and #enefits of integrating diverse paradigms.Baru dire!tions for
evaluation&/o. 7@ pp. 01?5'. #an *rancisco3 Aossey-)ass. Greene A+ +aracelli KA . 9iatt A* &012:'.
#pirituality medicine and healing. Soutern Medi!al Journal, 19, 7?:7@?. 9owe R
&5661'. Positiist dogmas rhetoric and the education science %uestion. "du!ational
(esear!er, 2;,@52@@6. 9owell EG Eolf PA +ampbell $( < Peterson P( &5665'.
#chool ouchers and academic performance3 Results from three randomi;ed field trials.
Journal of Poli!y Analysis and Management, 03,010507. Aacob )8 < =efgren =. &566@'.
Remedial education and student achieement3 8 regression discontinuity analysis.(evie* of
"!onomi!s and Statisti!s, ;:,55:5@@. Aohnson R) < nwuegbu;ie 8A &566@'. +ampuraduk methods research3 8 research paradigm whose time has come. "du!ational (esear!er,
22,0@5:. Aohnson R) < !urner =8 &566?'. $ata collection strategies in miDed methods
research. In 8. !ashakkori < +. !eddlie &(ds.'6and#ook of mi'ed metods in so!ial and
#eavioral resear! &pp. 517?01'. !housand aks +83 #age. empthorne . &01>5'.
8esign and analysis of e'periments./ew Fork3 Eiley. erlinger *. &01:@'. +oundations of
#eavioral resear!. /ew Fork3 9olt. ratochwill !R < =ein AR &0115'. Single&!ase
resear! design and analysis 5e* dire!tions for psy!ology and edu!ation.9illsdale /A3
=awrence (rlbaum.
Halaman 16
#+'
=awren; *. < 9uffman $. &5665'. !he archipelago approach to miDed method ealuation.
Ameri!an Journal of "valuation, 02,??0??2. =eech /= Morgan G8 Eang A. < Gliner
A8 &5606'. #tatistical significance and eidence- based approach3 Implications of non-
significant results.Journal of 5on- signifi!ant (esults in "du!ation, 3,005. =eech /= @6@. Morse AM &5606'. #imultan dan sekuensial %ualitatie miDed
-
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method designs. )ualitative In%uiry, 3:,@2?@10. Moss P8 Phillips $+ (rickson *$
*loden R( =ather P8 < #chneider )= &5661'. =earning from our differences3 8 dialogue
across perspecties on %uality in education research."du!ational (esear!er, 2;,>60>07.
$ewan Riset /asional. &5665'. S!ientifi! resear! in edu!ation&RA #haelson < =. !owne
(ds.'. +ommittee on #cientific Principles for (ducation Research. Eashington $+3 /ational
8kademi Press. $ewan Riset /asional. &566>'.Advan!ing s!ientifi! resear! in edu!ation&=.!owne == Eise < !M Einters (ds.'. omite on Research in (ducation. Eashington $+3
8kademi Pers /asional. /ewman I. Ridenour +# /ewman +. < $eMarco GMP &566?'.
8 typology of research purposes and its relationship to miDed metode. In 8. !ashakkori < +.
!eddlie &(ds.'6and#ook of mi'ed metods in so!ial and #eavioral resear!&pp. 0:7022'.
Ribu aks +83 #age. /orman . &5662'.6ig s!ool matemati!s
!urri!ulum and te pro!ess and a!!ura!y of initial matemati!s pla!ement for students *o
are admitted into one of te S"M programs at a resear! institution. npublished
dissertation niersity of Minnesota !win +ities. C+athain 8. &5661'. MiDed methods
research in the health sciences3 8 %uiet reolution.Journal of Mi'ed Metods (esear!, 2,?
:. C+athain 8. Murphy (. < /icoll A. &5667'. Mengapa and how miDed methods
research is undertaken in health serices research in (ngland3 8 miDed methods study. BM/6ealt Servi!es (esear!, 1. 8ailable at http344www.biomedcentral .com40@75-:1:?4742>
nwuegbu;ie 8A )ustamante RM < /elson A8 &5606'. MiDed research as a tool for
deeloping %uantitatie instruments. Journal of Mi'ed Metods (esear!, -, >:72.
nwuegbu;ie 8A Eitcher 8( +ollins M! *iler A$ Eiedmaier +$ < Moore +E
&5667'. #tudentsC perceptions of characteristics of effectie college teachers3 8 alidity study
of a teaching ealuation form using a miDed- methods analysis. Ameri!an "du!ational
(esear! Journal, --, 00?0:6. Patton MH &5665'. )ualitative resear! and evaluation
metods &?rd ed.'. !housand aks +83 #age. Pedha;ur (A < #chmelkin =P &0110'.
Measurement, design, and analysis An integrated approa!. 9illsdale /A3 =awrence
(rlbaum. Pegues 9. &5667'. f paradigm wars3 +onstructiism objectiism and postmodern
stratagem. "du!ational +orum, 13, ?0:??6. Plano +lark K= &5606'. !he adoption and
practice of miDed methods3 # trends in federally funded health-related research. )ualitative
In%uiry, 3:,@52@@6. Purdie /. 9attie A. < +arroll 8. &5665'. lasan 8 of the research on
interentions for attention deficit hyperactiity disorder3 Ehat works
Halaman 17
*hapter #$. Research Design in Qualitative/Quantitative/Mixed Methods
#+(
best (evie* of "du!ational (esear!, 10, :011. Raudenbush #E < )ryk 8# &5665'.
6ierar!i!al linear models Appli!ations and data analysis metods&5nd ed'. /ewbury Park
+83 #age. Reichardt +# < Rallis #* &(ds.'. &011@'. Itu %ualitatie%uantitatie debate3/ew perspecties. 5e* 8ire!tions for Program "valuation&no. :0'. #an *rancisco3 Aossey-
)ass. Roitman A. &0111'. )eyond the math wars. /ontemporary Issues in Matemati!s
"du!ation, 2:,05?0?@. Rosenthal R. &0171'. !he Jfile drawer problemL and tolerance for
null results. Psy!ologi!al Bulletin, ;:,:?2:@0. #ale A(M =ohfeld =9 < )ra;il .
&5665'. Reisiting the %uantitatie%ualitatie debate3 Implications for miDed methods
research. )uality > )uantity, 2:, @?>?. #andelowski M. &5660'. Real %ualitatie
researchers do not count3 !he use of numbers in %ualitatie research.(esear! in 5ursing >
6ealt, 0-,5?65@6. #andelowski M.Koils +I < nafl G. &5661'. Pada %uantiti;ing.
Journal of Mi'ed Metods (esear!, 2,562555. #chneider ). +arnoy M. ilpatrick A.
#chmidt E9 < #haelson RA &5667'. "stimating !ausal effe!ts using e'perimental and
o#servational designs.Eashington $+3 8merican (ducational 8sosiasi Riset. #choenfeld89 &566@'. !he math wars."du!ational Poli!y, 3;,5>?52:. #hadish ER +ook !$
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+ampbell $! &5665'."'perimental and %uasi&e'perimental designs for generali?ed !ausal
inferen!e &5nd ed'. )oston3 9oughton Mifflin. #mith A < 9odkinson P. &566>'.
Relatiism criteria and politics. In / $en;in < F# =incoln &(ds.' e SA7" and#ook of
%ualitative resear!&?rd ed. pp. 10>1?5'. !housand aks +83 #age. #tage * < Maple
#8 &011:'. ompatibel goals3 /arraties of graduate women in the mathematics pipeline.
Ameri!an "du!ational (esear! Journal, 22,5?>0. !ashakkori 8. &5661'. 8pakah kitasudah sampai !he state of the miDed methods community. Journal of Mi'ed Metods
(esear!, 2,527510. !ashakkori 8. < !eddlie +. &566?'.Mi'ed metodology /om#ining
%ualitative and %uantitative approa!es. !housand aks +83 #age. !aylor #A >' writes that the purpose of science is theory and that by
eDtension the purpose of research is to contrib ute theories or refinements of eDisting theories
to science. !heory is a kind of abstraction a simplification of reality that applies in similar
circumstances and not just to the specific case at tangan. *or researchers theories focus
attention limit choices and proide eDplanationsO characteristics that gie good theories a
central role in research design. *or actors in the educa tional enironment they are practical
for the same reasons. !heories about social behaior hae inherent batas. !hese are identifiedby !horngate &017:' and elaborated on by Eeick &0171'. !horngate deeloped a postulate of
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commensurate com pleDity in which there are tradeoffs among a theory being general, a
theory being a!!urate,and a theory beingsimple.8 theory cannot be all three simultaneously,
general accurate theories are not simple accurate simple theories are not general and simple
general theories are not tepat. Eeick proides eDamples of each. $i deeloping a research
design the theory used or the one the researcher is trying to deelop has more important
effects on research design than does anything eDcept the topic chosen for the penelitian.!heory dries hypotheses. !he choice of a theory to use or deelop reflects the researcherCs
interest in being general simple or accurate and shapes the study accordingly. $ari my
obserations I would suggest that educa tional research errs on the side of being simple and
with luck accurate. !heory is emphasi;ed in research because it proides eDplanation.
Eithout meaningful descriptions of the situationOthat is without identifying new ideas to be
understood and related to each other by theoriesOresearch would not moe forward.
$esigning research that identifies the ways in which people in a gien situation iew their
worlds is a sensible starting place for meaningful research. !anpa important things to be
studied no theories would need to be deeloped and a rigorous methodology to estimate
relationships based on theory would not be necessary.
Topics and 3deas
9ow does one go about selecting substantie issues connected by a theory !eDts coering
research in education or the behaioral sciences
Halaman 21
*hapter ##. 3ntellect0 1ight0 and Shado2 in Research Design
#+,
hae tended to either be mute on the %uestion or proide only minimal adice &Gall )org
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educational research while the others hae receied little study or hae been the proince of
speciali;ed fields &eg music'. !he topics we choose reflect a worldiew of educational
research3 study the specific rather than the general emphasi;e topics related to linguistic and
logical cognitie deelopment and use methods that faor such studies. ami also faor
topics that reflect social justice cog nitie deelopment that leads students into economically
productie lies and those topics that fit within predetermined disciplinary spe cialties. Ifeducation deals with the whole stu dent as )owen &0177' suggests it would behooe
researchers to look for topics that consider more kinds of intelligence than those associated
with linguistic and mathematical pemikiran. 9aing become obsessed with cer tainty in our
research we hae eschewed broad research topics that re%uire integrating arious
components of human intelligence in faor of being able to say with great certainty some
thing of diminutie importance. 9ighly spe ciali;ed methodologies re%uire highly refined
topics which proide little opportunity for transformational outcomes and the deelop ment
of big ideas.
*hoosing Topics
Identifying a resear! pro#lemis the starting place for research. Research problems inoleunresoled realworld conditions or situations and it is the research problem that is nested
between the topic and the purpose. !heoretical research problems deal with Jwe donCt know
whyL descriptie research problems deal with Jwe donCt know whatL and practical research
problems deal with Jwe donCt know how.L !he best researchers are attracted to uncertainty
paradoDesanomaliescontradictionsand ambi guities in the field. !he significance of a prob
lem is often based on the way in which it inter sects with theoretical uncertainty and practical
pentingnya. Probably the best way of finding a problem to study is to do eDtensie reading in
an important topical area and find out what is poorly under berdiri. Many articles contain
sections that gie suggestions for future research and many hae
Halaman 22
#+-
Section aku aku aku. HaippoRtunities anDchallenges inDesigning anDconDuctingsaya
nQuiRy
glaring shortcomings that suggest a problem should be reeDamined from a different perspec
tie. #ome researchers choose a methodology and then try to find a problem to match it. Ini
approach creates an unnecessary constraint on what is to be studied and the foolishness of
this se%uence cannot be emphasi;ed enough. Itu cart does not pull the horse. ther
researchers are told what to study by a superior such as an adisor a proider of resources
an admired scholar in the field or a coinestigator. #o long as the relationship is noteDploitatie joining an ongoing research agenda has the clear adantage of the person being
clear about what he or she will study. It has the disad antage of not learning how to define
oneCs own masalah penelitian. !ypically a study inoles the following iteratie process3
8pproach a topic of interest read in the area write a brief statement of purpose discuss this
statement with others reflect read write talk and so on until a com pelling problem with a
realistic scope has been identified and clearly eDpressed. 8 hot topic is one where there is a
lot of interest and a great likelihood of getting a project funded finding others to participate
in the study and publishing the results. )aik topics allow young scholars to demonstrate their
research skills and increase the likeli hood of getting further support for their research and
publications in their fields. ntuk better or worse it usually means becoming more
speciali;ed. Eith luck a good topic is one the researcher loes. 9ere loveis a pas sionateattachment to the research and an enjoyment of the research process. !his attach ment should
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not be confused with a lack of objectiity but it inoles caring about an increased
understanding of a topic and a will ingness to put forward the effort that results in influential
research. 8fter deciding what to study and why such a study is worthwhile the final part of
designing research is to decide on the processes by which the research is to be accomplished.
Many people in thinking about research design think that they need only be concerned with
research methodology &erlinger 017? cited in $aniel 011:'. !he following three %uestionsalways affect research design3 &0' Ehat will the researcher study &5' Ehy is the research
penting &?' 9ow will the researcher carry out the research nly the third %uestion is related
to methodology.
Dierent 6pproaches to Research
!here are many ways in which to study the same topic and these produce different results.
Mitroff and ilmann &0172' describe four approaches to research based on a Aungian analysis
of our predispositions to approach deci sion making and obtain information similar to the
Myers)riggs !ype Indicator tests &Myers )riggs 01:5'. !he four approaches include the
following3 the scientist the conceptual theorist the conceptual humanist and the indiidual
humanist. Gien the topic !ollege student reten&tion, consider the way in which eachmethodol ogy is chosen based on the researcherCs interests is different from the other
methods and pro duces different results. $escriptie phrases below are taken from tables in
Mitroff and ilmann on the pages indicated. *or the s!ientist, the approach should be
objectie causal cumulatie and progressie emphasi;ing reliability and eDternal alidity
and separating the scientist from the obsered. #aya t aims at precise unambiguous empirical
knowl edge using strict logic &Mitroff < ilmann0172 p. ?@'. !he norms of this approach
are known as the +$#3 * ommunism indicating that scientific knowledge is common
property, 5niersalism indicating that scientific knowledge should be independent of the
personality of the indiidual scientist, D isinterestedness such that the scientist should
obsere what happens and not adocate a theory or eDperimental outcome, dan 7rgani;ed S
kepticism where scientists should be critical of their own and othersC ideas. &Merton
01@54017? p. 5:1' 8n eDample of the scientific study of reten tion would be an
organi;ational eDperiment based on the hypothesis that higherachieing students are more
likely to remain enrolled in perguruan tinggi. #tudents would be randomly assigned to a
treatment group or a control group. $alam treatment group students would participate in a
Halaman 23
*hapter ##. 3ntellect0 1ight0 and Shado2 in Research Design
#+
retention program such as deeloping study skills but otherwise would hae eDperiences no
different from those of the control group. #etelah a gien time period the researcher wouldfind out whether the retention rate for students who participated in the retention program was
sig nificantly different from that for students who tidak. !his information would be used to
sup port or negate the hypothesis. !he !on!eptual teoristis inoled with research that is
impersonal aluefree disinter ested imaginatie and problematic inoling multiple
causation purposeful ambiguity and ketidakpastian. !he theorist is interested in the conflict
between antithetical imaginatie theo ries comprehensie holistic theories and eer
eDpanding research programs to produce con flicting schemas using dialectical and indetermi
nate logics &Mitroff < ilmann 0172 p. >:'. #()89 theorist conducting retention
research would proide at least two theoretical eDplanations of retention behaioruse surey
methods to gather information analy;e the data using statistics find out whether the data
supported one theory more than the otherand use that information to make more theories.Much of the empirical research reported in educational journals is a combination of the
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scientist and theoristO theory guiding social science in%uiry into educational structures and
processes. !he !on!eptual umanist&although I findso!ial umanistto be a more accurate
descrip tion' approaches research as a alueconstituted interested actiity that is holistic
political and imaginatie, where multiple causations are pres ent in an uncertain and
problematic social eni ronment, and with a deep concern for humanity. !his approach
recogni;es the importance of the relationship between the in%uirer and the subject and has theaim of promoting human deelopment on the widest possible scale. Itu normatie outcomes
of such research would be economic plenty aesthetic beauty and human kesejahteraan.
#imilar to an action researcher the social humanist prefers smallgroup dynamics where both
the in%uirer and the participants learn to know themseles better and work together to
improe the situation &Mitroff
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dapat diterapkan. !o do good research the meth odology used should be appropriate for the
problem addressed. !his is a necessary condi tion but not a sufficient one. 8n elegantly ana
ly;ed data set that was composed of ambiguously measured data that addressed a %uestion of
tri ial importance is not likely to enter the annals of great research. (ducational research is
part of the social sci ence research tradition a tradition that was influenced by research in the
natural sciences. !he natural sciences use the scientific method to sole research problems orsupport a perspec tie. !he method contains a series of se%uential steps similar to the
following3 Identify a prob lem gather information from the literature about this %uestion
deelop a hypothesis in the conteDt of a theory collect data related to the hypothesis analy;e
the data and draw a conclu sion related to the truthfulness of the hypothesis and correctness
of the theory. #cientists as logical purists build argu ments onfalsifia#ilityand the la* of te
e'!luded middle.!his law states thatAand not&Acannot eDist simultaneously. )ut ifA stands
for Jthis program helps students to learnL and not&Astands for Jthis program does nothelp
students to learnL then both can be true as in the case of aptitudetreatment inter tindakan,
that is a treatment could be effectie for a highaptitude student but not effectie for a
lowaptitude student. If both are true then the law of the eDcluded middle is iolated and
falsifiability cannot be demonstrated. !his sit uation is problematic for scientific researchdalam pendidikan. (ducation is not a scientifically based process partly because the term
edu!ationis ideological and idiosyncratic much different from the term temperature.8t best
scientific research can shed light on narrowly defined educational behaiors and researchers
can hope forObut cannot guaranteeOa cumulatie effect. Ehen a goern ment policy
assumes that education is e%uialent to improing the score on a test the society will not
hae a moral compass and will not be educated. *eyerabend &011?' holds the iew that if we
do not separate scientific research and the state as we hae separated the church and the
state irreparable harm will be done. In the same way that social science research has imitated
the natural sciences educational research has imitated social science research. Research in
these areas may be separated more by the topic studied than by the rigor of the metodologi.
8s with social science research in general educational research might pre tend a leel of
control so as to carry out an percobaan. Researchers gie themseles sol ace that Jother
things are e%ualL or Jother effects are randomL or Jspuriousness is not a problemL and
proceed as if the social world were simple and understandable in the same way that the
traditional world of the pure sci ences can be.
6 Traditional 6pproach to Designing
4ducational Research
Graduate programs in education typically are arranged in departments that reflect academic
subspecialties such as history of education soci ology of education anthropology of
education counseling psychology eDperimental psychol ogy higher education schooladministration and curriculum and instruction. #ebagian besar programs re%uire a course in
research design appropriate for their field. My discussion reoles around %uantitatie and
%ualitatie approaches to research terms that reify catego ries that are themseles
oerlapping and arbi trary but are commonly used to describe research courses. 8 simple way
of looking at a proposal is to see how it answers the three %uestions posed earlier3 Ehat is
this study about Ehy is the study penting 9ow will the researcher conduct the belajar !he
study itself must coer these three %uestions and answer two additional %uestions3 Ehat did
the researcher find Ehat do the find ings mean Research designs reole around a limited
number of elements. !heir eDact use and eDposition ary depending on the particular
approach taken. !he purpose and promise of these elements hae been identified and dis
cussed by a number of teDtbooks such as those of Gall and colleagues &5665' and +reswell&5667'. !hese teDts identify many of the issues facing researchers especially those who are
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new to the process. 8lthough not suitable for all studies well designed %uantitatie research
usually ad dresses the areas presented in the following garis besar3
Halaman 25
*hapter ##. 3ntellect0 1ight0 and Shado2 in Research Design
#,#I. Introduction to the topic of the research #ebuah. )ackground and conteDt in which that
topic has been studied b. Importance of studying the topic termasuk c. Practical alue of the
study d. Research problem to be addressed e. !ujuan dari penelitian ini f. bjecties or
%uestions to be addressed g. $efinitions and related constructs h. 8ssumptions used in the
study saya. eterbatasan penelitian j. =ingkup penelitian II. sing the literature to build
conceptual argumen #ebuah. Releant theories to guide the study b. !he findings of other
researchers that identify important ariables related to the purpose c. Identification of the
dependent ariable independent ariables and theories linking these ariables 8 8
8. Methodology to be used in the study #ebuah. #ite sample or selection procedure for
respondents including b. 9ow the data will be gathered c. 9ow the data will be measured d.
9ow the data will be analy;ed e. Ehy these methods are appropriate. Q!his information
usually completes the design of a research proposal and appears as the first part of a finished
belajar. *inished studies also include the following. IK. !emuan #ebuah. 8 description of the
sample actually analy;ed in the study b. $escription of the data c. !reatment of missing cases
d. Possible or known biases e. $escription of how the researcher met the assumptions
re%uired to use the chosen statistics f. Presentation of the data g. #upport or lack of support
for the hypotheses or theories used h. $iscussion of the findings saya. esimpulan K.
#ummary of the study #ebuah. Practical implications of the study b. 8reas for future research
Hualitatie research can inole using the fie research traditions identified by +reswell
&0112'Obiography ethnography grounded the ory case study and phenomenologyOwhich
can be used singly or in combination. General head ings appropriate for %ualitatie studiesinclude the topic focus and purpose significance related liter
aturemethodologypresentation of the datainter pretation of the data and conclusions.
!erperinci headings would be similar to the following3 I. !opic to be studied #ebuah. !he
oerall interest focusing on what will be eDplained or described b. rgani;ing metaphor &like
grounded theory'
c. !he mystery and the detectie
d. 9ermeneutic elements
e. !he significance of the study
f. Ehy the reader should be interested.
II. Getting information away from the source
#ebuah. Releant literatureb. !eori
c. *indings for content area themes foci
or analogous situations
8 8 8. !he selected %ualitatie method
#ebuah. 9ow information is obtained
b. 9ow sense is made from it
c. #ite selection
d. Informant selection
e. Pengumpulan data
f. 8nalisis data
g. $ata ealuation
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Q!he methodology can be in a separate chapter part of the first chapter in an appendiD or
woen into the chapters that present respondent information. !his section is followed by one
or more chapters which does the following.
IK. Present the teDt as natural answers to natural %uestions. #ebuah. Presentation formats
include stories tables interiews documents narraties photographs ideotapes ignettesteDts of arious kinds descriptions and routines &see #chwart;man Q011? from which some
of these headings were taken'. b. Raw data can be presented without comment presented and
interpreted simultaneously or presented and interpreted in a later section. K. *indings
#ebuah. esimpulan b. Recommendations for others
Halaman 26
#,'
!he structure of %ualitatie studies is more idiosyncratic than the more formal structure of
traditional %uantitatie studies. In %ualitatie research the sample is the study and the
reasons for selecting the sample need to be emphasi;ed. Most researchers when approaching
a topic they care about hae tentatie hypotheses about what causes what or predispositions
to thinking that the world operates according to certain principles that also apply in this area.
Masyarakat bias their obserations based on their eDperi ence. 8ll of us know that we hae
certain biases and we can try to counter those biases in our research by looking for eidence
that directly contradicts what we eDpect. In the unconscious there is a second set of biases of
whichby defini tion we are not aware. #ometimes peer readers can help the researcher to
discoer what is miss ing or what is inappropriately under or oer emphasi;ed in the study.
8fter analy;ing the data in a %uantitatie study the researcher presents the findings.
!ypically it is rather straightforward because the data to be gathered and the analyses pro
posed for the data were specified in the proposal untuk penelitian. *or %ualitatie researchers
the data the findings and the method might not be berbeda. !he narratie that presentsselected %uestions and answers can represent findings based on data that came from the
method by which %uestions were deeloped. 8s the prei ous sentence suggests it is a
conoluted process. !he presentation might reole around respon dentsC eDperiences and
understandings a chro nology of eents or themes supported by respondentsC statements. In
ethnographic stud ies the descriptions of lies in conteDt can stand on their own
&=awrence=ightfoot 011>'. !hick descriptions &Geert; 017?' might pro ide greater insight
into the education of a stu dent in a school than would an analysis of ariabel. In most
studies some analysis of the descriptions is eDpected. !his predisposition is part of the legacy
of pragmatism, peneliti in education are eDpected to identify how knowledge gained from the
study can improe professional practice. In designing a study the background con teDt
importance of the topic and presumed practical alue of the study come from the lit eraturewritten about the topic or analogous literatures in similar fields.*or eDamplethe study of
college student retention can be considered to be analogous to the study of turnoer in work
organi;ations and the literature in one area can be used to reinforce the literature in the other
area &)ean 0126'. !he use of literature in %uan titatie studies howeer can differ
substantially from the use of literature in %ualitatie studies. In a %uantitatie study the
literature is used to identify the importance of the dependent ariable releant independent
ariables and theories that bind these factors together to jus tify the use of statistical
procedures and to pro ide a conteDt for the discussion. In %ualitatie studies a premium is
placed on the ability to see what is before the researcher. ur ability to obsere is both
heightened and diminished by our prior knowledge and eDpectations &)ean 0117'. It is
heightened by making ourseles aware of important details to obsere and it is diminishedbecause we focus only on those rincian. $ue to the preconceied notions of the researcher
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those factors actually influencing the respondentsC world might not be identified. Ehen the
literature shapes the way in which we iew the world what is actually before us is replaced
by what we eDpect to see. 8 reiew of the literature as a standalone section summari;ing
research in the topical area makes little sense. !he literature as a com pendium of related
information should be used to adance arguments related to the importance of the subject. It
should identify topical areas that are either well or poorly understood iden tify and describereleant theories identify and describe appropriate methodologies to study the topic describe
dependent and independent ariables if releant proide definitions and proide a conteDt to
discuss the findings from pembelajaran. Google #cholar $issertation 8bstracts International
(RI+ $ocuments the I#I Eeb of nowledge and the proceedings of releant professional
organi;ations all can be used to access current research. 8 condemning retort is that the
literature in a study is dated.!his phrase has some interesting subteDts. !he first assump tion
is that the most recent research is the best research and that preious research is irreleant. 8
second assumption is that all research is of limited generali;ability oer time so that if it is
older than say > years it is irreleant. In either case dated research is of marginal alue.
leh eDtension the research that a person is currently conducting is also of marginal alue
because it
Halaman 27
*hapter ##. 3ntellect0 1ight0 and Shado2 in Research Design
#,(
will be useful for only > years. !his planned obsolescence of research becomes a justification
for a fren;ied increase in the rate of publication and is counterproductie in terms of
identifying important and durable ideas in the field. =iterature should not be weighed nor
consid ered dated after > years. In traditional %uantitatie research the topic contains the
dependent ariable and the factors associated with it identify the independent ari ables that
hae been found to hae important effects on the dependent ariable. In studies that are not
codificationsOthat is not eDtensie reiews of the literature for the heuristic pur pose of
organi;ing what is known about a topicOciting the literature should be done for the purpose
of building an argument not sim ply to show familiarity with the canon. #ince the 01:6s the
number of statistical analyses aailable for researchers to include in their designs has
increased dramatically. =ima commercial statistical packages bear the initials #8# #P##
)M$P G=IM and 9=M. !he deel opment of these statistical packages has allowed eer
more compleD analyses to be performed. /ational data sets from the /ational +enter for
(ducational #tatistics &/+(#' and other sources hae proided the opportunity to bring order
to ast amounts of data. *or the description of largescale phenom ena these data sets can be
ery aluable. ntuk analy;ing the causes of behaior howeer the attempt to gain a broad
ision masks indiidual or smallgroup differences. =ongitudinal studies almost always sufferfrom decay, that is mea sures may differ from year to year and respon dents drop out of the
study. #o the comparisons from year to year might not be the result of what people report,
rather they might be the result of changes in who is doing the reporting. !he aailability of
data and the means to analy;e them raised the leel of eDpectation in some journals that such
analyses should be the norm. Ehat is certain is that during the past >6 years the
sophistication of analyses has increased. !he literature shifted from normed sureys that
reported fre%uencies to chi s%uares to analyses of ariance &8/K8s' and simple
correlations to factor analysis and multiple regression to causal modeling with ordinary least
s%uares path analysis to maDi mum likelihood used in linear structural rela tions &=I#R(='
modeling and to generali;ed linear modeling &G=IM' and hierarchical linear modeling
&9=M'. !he increase in compleDity is associated with an increase in agitated eDchangesbetween statis ticians about whose method is correct. #ebuah improed methodology has not
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been matched by these studies becoming more influential in policy making or practice
&e;ar 5666'. Itu debate is sometimes inisible to the public tak ing place between the
author of a piece of research and the consulting editors who reiew the research and
sometimes it appears in jour nals such as the"du!ational (esear!er.
DataHuantitatie studies re%uire data that can be used in statistical analyses. !he sources of data
can ary widelyOhistorical documents goern mental records organi;ational records inter
iews standardi;ed sureys %uestionnaires deeloped as part of the research protocol for a
particular study unobtrusie measures obser ations participant obseration and so on. Itu
%uality of the research depends on the %uality of the data analy;ed, data analysis has only a
sec ondary influence. !he %uality of the data aries greatly. )aik research design re%uires that
the researcher understand the strengths and weaknesses of the data. 9istorical data can reflect
the biases and ideological preferences of those who recorded it. People who proide data can
intentionally dis tort it to put themseles in a better light for eDample reporting that they had
higher grades than they actually did. #urey data might come from a biased sample reflecting
only the eDperi ences of highsocioeconomic status respondents. Huestions in a surey mightbe ambiguously written or a single item might contain two %uestions with different answers
for eDample J9ow satisfied are you with your salary and fringe benefitsL #urey data that
re%uire a forcedchoice response might not represent the real interests of the respondent. 8
respondent might hae no opinion on most of the %uestions and refuse to answer them. ther
respondents might not want to reeal personal information and so might misrepresent their
actual incomes whether they hae eer plagiari;ed or how much they use drugs or alcohol.
walaupun %uestionnaire is not missing any data the data proided might be intentionally
inaccurate.
Halaman 28
#,)In other cases respondents might not under stand the %uestions might not care about the
answers gien or might become fatigued while filling out the %uestionnaire so that the
accuracy of the responses is different for the beginning and the end of the %uestionnaire. 8
wellwritten %uestion should reflect one bit of information about the respondent
unambiguously and reli ably and the answer to the %uestion should match obserable facts. It
is acceptable to use problematic data if the analyst understands and acknowledges the prob
lems that eDist in the data.*or eDamplea data set might not be random but might be
completely representatie of one subgroup in the population dipelajari. !he bias in this
sample can make con clusions drawn about the wellrepresented group accurate but the
conclusions would not apply to the whole population. 8lthough not representa tie the data
might be useful to see whether a hypothesi;ed relationship eDists at all that is as a test oftheory. $ata gathered from facetoface interiews for %ualitatie research hae the potential to
yield a gold mine of insights into the peopleCs lies and situations. !here is no substitute for
prolonged and focused conersations between trusted parties to discoer what is important to
the interiewees and how respondents under stand key elements in their own lies. apan
mishandled interiew data can reflect what the interiewees think the interiewers want to
hear normatiely appropriate responsesthe fears and biases of the interiewees and the fears
and biases of the interiewers. $ata flaws become limitations of the study for which the only
response is to caution the reader that the results are far from certain.
4thics and 3nstitutional Revie2 !oards
)efore proceeding with an eDamination of research methods there are some ethical and legalconsiderations that hae obtrusiely en tered the deelopment of a research protocol. $i line
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with designing research to be useful it should also be designed to be ethical. Paling obious
ethical problems arise when a research procedure causes harm to those who are asked or
forced to participate in the process. 8da seeral wellknown cases of abuse including
psychological studies where participants were put in unusually stressful situations
&)aumrind01:@, Milgram 017@' and medical research where participants were gien
diseases or intentionally denied treatment &Aones 011?'. !he bureaucratic response to theseethical iolations was to create rules that would include eerybody doing any kind of research
that inoled contact with liing people.)ureaucratic actors ealuating research they are not
conduct ing themseles become the gatekeepers of ethi cal behaior. !his responsibility is
misplaced, researchers themseles should be responsible for protecting the interests of
participants in their studi. I am not naSe enough to think that all researchers are ethical or
that institutional reiew boards &IR)s' or protection of human subjects committees will go
away. Masalah is that ethical judgments about research hae been made eDtrinsic to the
research process. Researchers need to design research that does just what the committees
wantOto protect the participants of a study from harm. If researchers are not sociali;ed to
proide these protections IR)s mi