" Pensar o passado para compreender o presente e idealizar o futuro" (Heródoto)

 Núbia é a região situada no vale do rio Nilo que atualmente é partilhada pelo Egito e pelo Sudão mas onde, na antiguidade se desenvolveu o que se pensa ser a mais antiga civilização negra de África (baseada na civilização anterior do Alto Egito, e tanto que Napata antes de ser a capital da Núbia independente da sua metropole colonial egipcia, era uma mera colonia egípcia ao sul de Assuã, anexada durante o Médio Império; aparentemente os Núbios eram filhos de colonos sul-egípcios com escravas nilóticas), que deu origem ao reino de Kush, que existiu entre o 3º milénio antes de Cristo e o século IV da nossa era. 

Os núbios ou cuchitas, adoravam divindades egipcias mas com o longo dos tempos começaram a possuir deuses próprios mas sem deixar de lado a influencia egipcia, primeiro começaram a adorar um deus felino de três cabeças e assim por diante, os cultos eram semelhantes ao feitos a deuses egipcios. Os Deuses do atual Sudão eram:

Anhur era o deus da guerra, que era adorado na área egípcia de Abidos, e particularmente em Thinis. Mitos dizem que tinha trazido sua esposa, Mehit, que era sua contraparte feminina, da Núbia, e seu nome reflete isso-que significa (aquele que) leva de volta a um distante.

Um de seus títulos era assassino de inimigos. Anhur foi descrito como um homem barbado usando um manto e um cocar com quatro penas, segurando uma lança, ocasionalmente como um deus com cabeça de leão (que representa força e poder). Em algumas representações, o manto era mais semelhante a um kilt.

Apedemak era um deus guerreiro com cabeça de leão,adorado na Núbia pelos povos Meroiticos. Um número de templos dedicados a  Apedemak são conhecidos da região Butana: Naqa, Meroe, e Musawwarat es-Sufra, o que parece ser o seu local de culto. No templo de Naqa construído pelos governantes de Meroe, ele foi descrito como um deus de três cabeças leoninas e com quatro braços, mas ele também é descrito como uma divindade única leonina cabeças.

Arensnuphis ("o bom companheiro") é uma divindade do Reino de Kush na antiga Núbia, primeiro atestado em Musawwarat el-Sufra no século 3 aC. Seu culto se espalhou para a parte egípcia controlada de Núbia no período ptolomaico (305-30 aC). Seu papel mitológico é desconhecido, ele foi descrito como um leão e como um ser humano com uma coroa de penas e às vezes uma lança.

Arensnuphis era adorado em Philae, onde foi chamado de "companheiro" da deusa egípcia Ísis, e no Dendur. Os egípcios sincretizado ele com seus deuses Anhur e Shu.

Dedun (ou Dedwen) foi um deus adorado Nubian durante tempos antigos em que parte da África e atestado tão cedo quanto 2400 aC. Há muita incerteza sobre sua natureza original, especialmente porque ele era retratado como um leão, um papel que normalmente foi designado para o filho de outra divindade. Nada se sabe da mitologia anteriormente Nubian a partir do qual esta divindade surgiu, no entanto. A primeira informação conhecida nos escritos egípcios sobre Dedun indica que ele já havia se tornado um deus do incenso pelo tempo dos escritos. Desde que neste momento histórico, o incenso era uma mercadoria de luxo extremamente caro e Núbia era a fonte de muito dele, ele era bem uma divindade importante. A riqueza que o comércio de incenso entregue a Núbia levou a ser identificado por eles como o deus da prosperidade e da riqueza, em particular.

Ele disse ter sido associado a um incêndio que ameaçou destruir as outras divindades, no entanto, levando Nubiologists muitos especulam que pode ter havido um grande incêndio em um complexo de templos compartilhada de diferentes divindades, que começou em um templo de Dedun , apesar de não existirem candidatos eventos conhecidos para isso.

Embora mencionado nos textos da pirâmide do Egito Antigo como sendo uma divindade Nubian , não há evidências de que Dedun era adorado pelos egípcios, nem que ele era adorado em qualquer lugar ao norte de Swenet (contemporâneo Aswan), que foi considerado o cidade mais ao sul do Egito Antigo. No entanto, no Reino Médio do Egito, durante o governo egípcio sobre Kush, Dedun foi dito pelos egípcios para ser o protetor dos falecidos governantes Núbia e seu Deus de incenso, assim, associada com ritos funerários.

Mandulis: O Templo de Kalabsha na Núbia foi dedicado a Mandulis que era uma forma Nubia de Horus. Um culto dedicado a Mandulis também pode ser encontrado no Egito, em Philae.

Mandulis foi frequentemente retratado vestindo um cocar elaborado de chifres de carneiro, cobras e plumas encimadas por discos solares. Ele foi mostrado às vezes na forma de um falcão, mas com uma cabeça humana.

Menhit era originalmente uma deusa da guerra na mitologia kush. Seu nome representa um status de guerreiro, porque significa que (ela quem) massacres.

Devido aos atributos agressivos possuídas por e métodos de caça utilizados por leoas, a maioria das coisas relacionadas à guerra no Egito foram descritos como leonina, e Menhit não foi excepção, sendo descrita como uma deusa-leoa. Ela também foi acreditada para avançar à frente dos exércitos cuchitas e cortar seus inimigos com flechas de fogo, semelhante a outras divindades de guerra. Ela foi  a deidade menos conhecida do povo dita como Deusa da Coroa.

No terceiro Nome do Alto Egito, particularmente em Esna, Menhit se dizia ser a esposa de Khnum e mãe de Heka. Como o centro de seu culto foi em direção à fronteira sul do Egito, no Alto Egito, tornou-se fortemente identificado com Sekhmet, que era originalmente a deusa leão-de-guerra para Alto Egito, após a unificação dos dois reinos egípcio, esta deusa começou a ser considerado simplesmente outro aspecto Sekhmet.

A civilização egípcia  que se manteve ativa por mais de três mil anos. Foi responsável pela criação de um império religioso-científico eminente. Criadores de alguns princípios da matemática, da astronomia, da medicina e da agrimensura, os egípcios também foram desenvolvedores de um código linguístico incrivelmente complexo e  rico, os hieróglifos, a que demos uma rápida atenção no último post.

Permeada em uma atmosfera de fascínio e de mistério, e amparada sobre intensa efervescência cultural, principalmente promovida pelas lendas, floresceu a mitologia egípcia.

A mitologia dos egípcios agasalha as mais diversas divindades, as quais comumente podemos relacionar, em grau de similaridade, com outros panteões. O grego, por exemplo, apresenta variadas expressões mitológicas semelhantes às do Egito.  Preferimos, contudo, relembrar apenas as deidades consideradas “principais”, as mais significativas. Além disso, como dissemos, existem inúmeros deuses que foram criados e cultuados pelo povo. Muitas destas entidades cósmicas, porém, apresentam forças, virtudes ou falhas, arquétipos, enfim, semelhantes.

Há especulações que mencionam os atlantes como os criadores da mitologia do Egito (sabendo que a sua grande ilha iria sucumbir, os sábios deste povo, conhecido pelo mistério de seu desaparecimento e de sua possível super-tecnologia, enviaram a outra região entidades especiais, que, por sua vez, maravilhadas com o povo que vivia ao entorno do Nilo, decidiram lá se estabecer e ensinar a agricultura).

Outros, pensam se tratar os deuses do Egito Antigo, dos faraós da era pré-dinástica. Eles teriam governado com justiça, estabelecendo os limites do país e ensinando a civilização e a agricultura ao povo. Dessa crença, advém a ideia de  que é comum e correta a prática dos casamentos entre e os faraós e as rainhas ocorrerem muitas vezes entre irmãos. O  laço consanguíneo próximo, acreditava-se, purificava mais a união nobre e, os deuses também se casam entre irmãos. O casamento, portanto, elevava a condição humana.

Amon – deus sol: o deus-carneiro de Tebas, rei dos deuses e patrono dos faraós. É o senhor dos templos de Luxor e Karnac. Tem por esposa Mut e por filho Khonsu. Seu culto data de 2000 a.C. Sob o nome de Amon-Rá é criador da ordem divina. Ele é o sol que dá vida ao país. Amon tornou-se um título monárquico, mesmo título que Ptah e Rá.

Shu (deus do ar e da luz) e Tefnut (deusa da umidade e da graça): este casal constitui a sístole e a diástole universais e a atmosfera. Shu é a personificação da atmosfera diurna que sustenta o céu. Tem a tarefa de trazer o deus Sol, seu pai, bem como o faraó à vida ao alvorecer. É a essência da condição seca, do gênero masculino, calor, luz e perfeição. É representado como o homem que segura Nut, a deusa do céu, para separá-la de Geb, o deus da Terra (seus filhos). Já Tefnut espera o sol libertar-se do oriente para recebê-lo. A deusa é irmã e mulher de Shu. É o símbolo das dádivas e da generosidade, também conhecida por afastar a fome. Este casal representa o “ritmo do universo”.

Get é o suporte físico do mundo material, sempre deitado sob corpo da esposa. Ele é o responsável pela fertilidade e pelo sucesso nas colheitas, estimulando o mundo material dos indivíduos e lhes promovendo enterro no solo após a morte. Este deus umedece o corpo humano na terra e o sela para a eternidade. Nas pinturas é sempre representado com um ganso acima de sua fronte. Nut é deusa do céu que acolhe os mortos no seu reino. Com o seu corpo esbelto, ornamentado por estrelas, encarna a curvatura da abóbada celeste que se estende sobre o planeta. É como um carinhoso abraço da deusa do céu sobre Geb, o deus da Terra. Nut e Geb são pais de Osíris, Ísis, Seth, Néftis e Hathor. Osíris e Ísis já se amavam no ventre da mãe e a perversidade de Seth evidenciou-se, logo ao nascer,  rasgando o ventre materno. Note-se, agora, uma disparidade com o mito de criação grego: Gaia (Géia) é a personificação feminina do planeta, mantendo um relacionamento de passividade com Urano, o céu (masculino).

Osíris (o deus do julgamento, dos mortos, pai e senhor de todo o Egito): sua gênese consta nos relatos da criação do mundo, sua geração é a ultima a acontecer e não representa mais os elementos materiais (como o céu, a terra, etc.). Há um mito que narra a ressurreição da vida relacionada com a cheia do Nilo, que mantém relacionamento com este deus. Osíris é morto, destruído e ressuscitado, relembrando, assim, a morte e a vida da vegetação e de todos os seres. Desta maneira, ele é o deus dos mortos e da ressurreição, rei e juiz supremo do mundo dos mortos. Acredita-se que ele tenha sido o primeiro Faraó e que ensinou aos homens  a civilização e a agricultura ao entorno do rio sagrado. Pensa-se ainda que seu mito teria similaridade com a história de Cristo.

Ísis (deusa mãe, protetora do Egito): resultado da união do material e do espiritual, é a mais popular de todas as deusas egípcias, considerada a deusa da família, o modelo de esposa e mãe, invencível e protetora. Usa os poderes da magia para ajudar os necessitados. Ela criou o rio Nilo com as suas lágrimas. Reza a lenda que, após a morte de seu amado esposo, ela transforma-se em um milhafre para chorá-lo, reúne os seus despojos, empenhando em trazê-lo de volta à vida. De sua pura união com ele, concebe um filho, Hórus.  Perfeita esposa e mãe ela é um dos pilares da tessitura sócio-religiosa egípcia. Sua coroa memora um assento com espaldar (trono) que é o hieróglifo correspondente a seu nome nome. É importante dizer que o conceito da “imaculada concepção”  e de beleza exemplar advém de seu mito. Além de haver possível conexão entre o seu mito e o de Deméter (divindade grega).

Néftis (mãe terra e senhora dos mundos infernais): sempre acompanha Ísis no processo post mortem. Mesmo sendo esposa de Seth, ela permanece solidária à Ísis, ajudando-a a reunir os membros espalhados do esposo defunto da irmã, por quem era apaixonada, e também toma a forma de um milhafre para velá-lo. Como Ísis, ela protege os mortos e os sarcófagos. É ainda na acompanha a Mãe do Egito e o sol nascente,  defendendo-o contra a terrível deusa serpente Apófis.

Seth (deus da maldade e da guerra): foi considerado Senhor do Alto Egito durante o domínio dos Hicsos. Embora inicialmente fosse um deus de índole benfazeja, com o passar do tempo tornou-se a personificação do mal e da inveja. Era representado por um homem com a cabeça de Tífon, um animal imaginário formado por partes de diferentes seres, com a cabeça de um bode, orelhas grandes, como um burro. Associavam-no ao deserto aos trovões e às tempestades. A pugna entre Osíris e Seth é  a representação da terra fértil contra a aridez do deserto.  Tinha apreço por alguns crocodilos do Nilo que personificavam os defeitos humanos, assim como os nossos medos. Em suma, Seth é o par antitético de seu irmão Osíris.

Abstract (Document Summary)

Ancient Egypt is the first major civilization in Africa for which records are abundant. It was not, however, Africa's first kingdom. On 1 Mar 1, 1979, Boyce Rensberger of The New York Times wrote that evidence of the oldest recognizable monarchy in human history, preceding the rise of the earliest Egyptian kings by several generations, has been discovered in artifacts from

cient Nubia. This anci

t kingdom, generally called Ta-Seti, encompasse

the territory of the northern Sudan and the southern portion of Egypt.Full Text (268 words) Copyright International Communications Oct 2006 Ancient Egypt is the first major civilisation in Africa for which records are abundant. It was not, however, Africa's first kingdom. On 1 March 1979, The New York Times carried an article on its front page, written by Boyce Rensberger, with the headline: Nubian Monarchy called Oldest. In the article, Rensberger told the world that: "Evidence of the oldest recognisable monarchy in human history, preceding the rise of the earliest Egyptian kings by several generations, has been discovered in artifacts from ancient Nubia... The discovery is expected to stimulate a new appraisal of the origins of civi

sations in Africa, raising the question of 'to what extent later Egyptian culture derived its advanced political structure from the Nubians?'."This ancient kingdom, generally called Ta-Seti, encompassed the territory of the northern Sudan and the southern portion of Egypt. It has sometimes been referred to as Ancient Ethiopia in some of the literature, and as Cush (or Kush) in other literature. The first kings f Ta-Seti may well have ruled about 590

BC. During the time of the fifth generation of their rulers, Upper (ie, southern) Egypt may have united and became a greater threat to Ta-Seti.In Kush (or Ta-Seti), a number of women had the title Kentake, which means Queen Mother, and was recorded in Roman sources as Candace. Some of the women were heads of state. Kentake Qalhata (c.639 BC) had her own pyramid built at Al Kurru, as other Kushite kings did (above photo). Pseudo-Calli

"The middle east" is a fictitious historical entity.

It was invented by the British, with the esoteric geopolitical purpose of preventing Iran from claiming the rights to its own oil.

It is meant to describe and legitimize a zone of European political influence.

Before the British invented this term in the early 20th century - there is no reference to "The middle east" anywhere in the world.

Nor is there an equivalent term, or conception.

The term is completely non-native, unnatural, and superimposed upon non European people for the primary purposes of sublimating there native identities and interest.

Therefore, to speak of the "racial" history of the middle east is to surrender to Eurocentric brainwashing.

It is a discourse rooted in nonsense, and bounded by the constructs of Eurocentric racists.

The consequence of Africanists who repeat this conception is to serve the interest of Eurocentrist.

As long as we remained pinned down discussing the world in terms of a Eurocentric ideology of "race" and "The Middle east", then Eurocentrist prevail because they keep the conversation stalemated.

A stalemate always serves the interest of protectors of the status quo.

For a territory to be distinctive from the others, it must have some meaningful particularities or at least some common characteristics.

When considered on the basis of these criteria, there is no region called the Middle East. The term has a function and considered from this point, the region called the "Middle East", in fact, meant Britain's, and now American's Zone of Interest.

"The Middle East" is the only ad hoc term listed.

Ad hoc means -> Existing to serve a singular, specific and often ulterior purpose.

"The Middle East" is not a Nation-State from 10,100,1000, 10,000 years ago, so your comment is non-sequitur. __________________The conqueror is always a lover of peace; he would prefer to take over our country unopposedIntroducing Semitic Speakers:

Semitic languages are presently accepted as one of the branches of Afro-Asiatic languages. Together with other language sub-groupings such as Chadic, Berber, Nilotic, Omotic etc, the Semitic groups of languages are definitely African in origin. It used to be accepted that all the branches of the Afro-Asiatic language were clearly developed in Africa with the exception of Semitic over which there had been some dubious contention. But not any more as scholarly studies have dovetailed with common sense and logic in placing the original homeland of the Semitic speakers in Africa.

These Semitic speakers definitely were not white Africans.

The term Semites as an expression is applied to a group of peoples closely related in language, whose habitat is Africa extending into Asia. The expression is derived from the Biblical table of nations (Genesis 10), in which most of these peoples are recorded as descendants of Noah’s son Shem; although some who are designated as Semites in the modern times belong to peoples originally recorded as the children of Ham, the brother of Shem (i.e. the Phoenicians).

The term Semite was first proposed for the languages related to the Hebrew by Ludwig Schlözer, in Eichhorn’s Repertorium, vol. VIII (Leipzig, 1781), p. 161. Through Eichhorn the name then came into general usage (cf. his Einleitung in das Alte Testament (Leipzig, 1787), I, p. 45. He also used it in his Gesch. der neuen Sprachenkunde, pt. I (Göttingen, 1807).

Schlozer assumed that Abraham the eponymous Hebrew ancestor was of Semitic origin based upon the information in the Bible. He wrongly reasoned that since Abraham spoke Hebrew (a language which unknown to Schlozer was indigenous to Canaan) Hebrew should be a Semitic language. His work laid the grounds for the automatic but uncorroborated association of ancient Hebrews with the Caucasian family of nation. The flimsy foundation of this entire argument has run into problems with

wider distributed access to source works that underlie scholarly research.

Proto-Semitic:

Proto-Semitic is the hypothetical proto-language of the Semitic languages. Proto-Semitic probably originated in Ethiopia or Central Sahara and was one of the first languages to branch off the Afro-Asiatic phylum.

In the hey days of racist scholarship when it was considered erudite to routinely erase the role of Africa in the development of world history, it used to be considered with arrogant irrationality that the most probable Proto-Semitic language was Urheimat, which probably developed in the Arabian peninsula. This hypothesis was based on fact that the Canaanite, Aramaic, and Arab nomadic tribes are recorded to have emerged from Arabia.

However this thesis is not supported by a plausible theory of geographical dispersion of Afro-Asiatic languages. It must be stressed that Semitic is but a sub group of the African language group Afro-Asiatic.

The distribution of the related Afro-Asiatic languages such as Berber, Hausa, Omotic, and especially the Egyptian branch which is most closely related to Semitic, suggest an Ethiopian language as the original Proto-Semitic language. It has been demonstrated beyond reasonable doubts that there were several waves of immigration of the Proto-Semites from the Horn of Africa to the Arabian Peninsula.

Current Authorities:

Alan Gardiner in his book Egyptian Grammar, (1950, p.2) argued that ancient Egyptian had structural similarity to Canaanite and various African languages like Galla, Somali and Berber. Moustapha Gadalla in his book The Essence of Hispania denoted the very close linkages between ancient Egyptian and classical Arabic.

In linguistic terms, Ehret has presented a phylogenetic history for Afro-asiatic languages, based on shared phonological innovations. His scheme makes a primary division between the Omotic languages of Ethiopia and an Erythraean (Red Sea) subgroup that includes all other Afro-Asiatic languages (including Semitic and Ancient Egyptian). His thesis, thus, suggests an African origin for the Semitic language family. See, C. Ehret, Reconstructing Proto-Afro-Asiatic (University of California Press,

Berkeley, C.A.,1995).

According to Christopher Ehert, world renowned linguist, “the early Semites were just a few Africans arriving to find … other people already in the area.”

Christopher Edens and T.J. Wilikinson in a 1998 article published in the Journal of World Prehistory (South west Arabia During the Holocene: Recent Archaeological Developments), by the Bronze Age, there was a well-attested cultural ferment in Southwest Arabia exemplified by village and town settlements occupied by sedentary farmers.

Edens and Wilikinson argue that a continuous archaeological record can now describe parts of Yemen. Evidence of literate culture goes back to between 3600 and 2800 B.C. and perhaps earlier. These societies relied on food production from large scale irrigation systems dependent upon the Wadi floods. They concluded that those Bronze Age settlements showed very strong linkages to the Horn of Africa.

Darfur-Kordorfan-Saharan:

Nicolas Faraclas, in his book They Came Before the Egyptians: Linguistic Evidence for the African Roots of Semitic Languages suggests that the roots of Semitic languages, which are classified as part of the Afro-Asiatic language family, lie in the Darfur-Kordofan region on the eastern edge of the Chad-Sudan border. He uses linguistic, archaeological, and climatic evidence to trace the routes by which Afro-Asiatic languages seem to have spread. The Niger-Congo, Nilo-Saharan, and Afro-Asiatic languages all seem to have diverged in a migration that commenced with the Last Major Wet Spell of the Sahara, which ran from 10,000 B.C. to 5,000 B.C.

Joseph H.Greenberg, one of the earliest European linguists to work in Africa was the first to identified five different branches of the Hamito-Semitic (now called Afro-Asiatic) group of the African languages: Cushitic, Egyptian, Berber, Chadic and Semitic. Given that those languages were so obviously interrelated it was assumed by colonial scholars of Europe that the relationship of these languages stemmed from Caucasian invaders into Africa from the Middle East. Greenberg’s research contradicted this assumption.

Greenberg realized that the Cushitic branch languages were far more differentiated from each other than were those of any

other branch. Such sharp differences indicated that the sub-branches of Cushitic had differentiated from each other at a very early date and had been evolving independently for much longer than any of the other branches.

The implication being that the Hamito-Semitic (Afro-Asiatic) language had evolved in Kush (Ethiopia) longer than anywhere else.

Consequently, Ethiopia (Africa) should be the original homeland of all Hamito-Semitic languages. Clearly the original Semites were Africans.

A developing consensus among scholars suggest that perhaps as early as 12,000-10,000BC, African proto-Cushitic speakers migrated from Ethiopia/Central Africa spreading out into the rest of Africa and the Near East. This proto-Cushitic tongue evolved not only into Cushitic, Egyptian, Berber, and Chadic tongues, but into the Semitic branch as well. This included Hebrew, Phoenician, Arabic and Assyrian.

Although some Semitic speakers, including the Hebrews speakers migrated from Africa to the Middle East, others like the Gurage group of language, Amharic language, Tigrinya language and a host of others continued to develop in Africa. Greenberg renamed this Cushitic derived family group of language and called it Afro-Asiatic. (Time Life World Maps, Black Spark, White Fire by Richard Poe, Languages of Africa by Joseph Greenberg)

A Bit of Genetics:

A critical reading of genetic data analyses, specifically those of Y chromosome phylogeography and TaqI 49a,f haplotypes, supports the hypothesis of populations moving from the Horn or southeastern Sahara northward to the Nile Valley, northwest Africa, the Levant, and Aegean. See S.O.Y. Keita, History in the Interpretation of the Pattern of p49a,f TaqI RFLP Y-Chromosome Variation in Egypt: A Consideration of Multiple Lines of Evidence, American Journal of Human Biology 17:559–567 (2005).

The geography of the M35/215 (or 215/M35) lineage, which is of Horn/East African origin, coincides with the range of Afro-Asiatic languages. Underhill speculated that this lineage might have been carried from Africa during the “Mesolithic”.

The distributions of the Afro-Asiatic branches and this lineage can best be explained by invoking movements that originated in Africa and occurred before the emergence of food production, as well as after. It is noteworthy that gene flow from Africa to Middle East occurred not only in the prehistoric time but continued through to historical times. See . P. Underhill et al., Am. J. Hum. Genet. 65, 43 (2001). See also G. Lucotte, G. Mercier, Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 121, 63 (2003). See O. Semino et al., Am. J. Hum. Genet. 74, 1023 (2004).

Jide Uwechia

March 13, 2006West Asia is another name for that region currently called the Middle East. Greek used to call it Mesopotamia. One thing that makes it special is the fact that it was the first outside Europe to be settled by the Europeans (currently the Arabs, Assyrians, Somalis, etc.) 10,000 years ago. And please, please, do not isolate your self from the Europeans. Arabs, your ethnic community is part of the greater white race known as the Caucasoid, a race which brings all those of the Europeans origin together.

The way the game is played is:

Force Africans into narrow stereotypes.

Imply that anything that does not match such stereotypes is not truly "African".

When confronted with the anthropological fact that Africans have never been constricted to morphological stereotype - simply imply that the original African population wasn't really African - and pretend to ignore the blatant contradiction implied.

The game is foolish, but is played because some still buy into it.

Your comments continue to reflect your inability to communicate at an intelligent level and the resultant need to resort to blatant class-clown trolling out of frustration.

The ancient Greeks had NO concept of a "Middle East", which encapsulated Western Asia, Central Asia, and North Africa.

"Mesopotamia" is simply a loosely defined region, named by Europeans [Greeks] who are not even native to the region.

I'll reiterate for the brain dead:

The "Middle East" is an utterly fake political construct created by the British in order to denote areas the British coveted and to avoid assigning those areas to native peoples.

The "Middle East" is the name given to a "zone of interest" and it implies an appetite which has no sense of getting full. The more the appetite grows, the larger the region becomes.

It's merely a ruse. __________________The way the game is played is:

Force Africans into narrow stereotypes.

Imply that anything that does not match such stereotypes is not truly "African".

When confronted with the anthropological fact that Africans have never been constricted to morphological stereotype - simply imply that the original African population wasn't really African - and pretend to ignore the blatant contradiction implied.

The game is foolish, but is played because some still buy into it.

Your comments continue to reflect your inability to communicate at an intelligent level and the resultant need to

resort to blatant class-clown trolling out of frustration.

The ancient Greeks had NO concept of a "Middle East", which encapsulated Western Asia, Central Asia, and North Africa.

"Mesopotamia" is simply a loosely defined region, named by Europeans [Greeks] who are not even native to the region.

I'll reiterate for the brain dead:

The "Middle East" is an utterly fake political construct created by the British in order to denote areas the British coveted and to avoid assigning those areas to native peoples.

The "Middle East" is the name given to a "zone of interest" and it implies an appetite which has no sense of getting full. The more the appetite grows, the larger the region becomes.

It's merely a ruse. New Research Confirms 'Out Of Africa' Theory Of Human Evolution

(May 10, 2007) — Researchers have produced new DNA evidence that almost certainly confirms the theory that all modern humans have a common ancestry. The genetic survey, produced by a collaborative team led by scholars at Cambridge and Anglia Ruskin Universities, shows that Australia's aboriginal population sprang from the same tiny group of colonists, along with their New Guinean neighbours.

The research confirms the “Out Of Africa” hypothesis that all modern humans stem from a single group of Homo sapiens who emigrated from Africa 2,000 generations ago and spread throughout Eurasia over thousands of years. These settlers replaced other early humans (such as Neanderthals), rather than interbreeding with them.

Academics analysed the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and Y chromosome DNA of Aboriginal Australians and Melanesians from New Guinea. This data was compared with the various DNA patterns associated with early humans. The research was an international effort, with researchers from Tartu in Estonia, Oxford, and Stanford in California all contributing key data and expertise.

The results showed that both the Aborigines and Melanesians share the genetic features that have been linked to the exodus of modern humans from Africa 50,000 years ago.

Until now, one of the main reasons for doubting the “Out Of Africa” theory was the existence of inconsistent evidence in Australia. The skeletal and tool remains that have been found there are strikingly different from those elsewhere on the "coastal expressway" – the route through South Asia taken by the early settlers.

Some scholars argue that these discrepancies exist either because the early colonists interbred with the local Homo erectus population, or because there was a subsequent, secondary migration from Africa. Both explanations would undermine the theory of a single, common origin for modern-day humans.

But in the latest research there was no evidence of a genetic inheritance from Homo erectus, indicating that the settlers did not mix and that these people therefore share the same direct ancestry as the other Eurasian peoples.

Geneticist Dr Peter Forster, who led the research, said: "Although it has been speculated that the populations of Australia and New Guinea came from the same ancestors, the fossil record differs so significantly it has been difficult to prove. For the first time, this evidence gives us a genetic link showing that the Australian Aboriginal and New Guinean populations are descended directly from the same specific group of people who emerged from the African migration."

At the time of the migration, 50,000 years ago, Australia and New Guinea were joined by a land bridge and the region was also only separated from the main Eurasian land mass by narrow straits such as Wallace's Line in Indonesia. The land bridge was submerged about 8,000 years ago.

The new study also explains why the fossil and archaeological record in Australia is so different to that found elsewhere even though the genetic record shows no evidence of interbreeding with Homo erectus, and indicates a single Palaeolithic colonisation event.

The DNA patterns of the Australian and Melanesian populations show that the population evolved in relative isolation. The two groups also share certain genetic characteristics that are not found beyond Melanesia. This would suggest that there was very little gene flow into Australia after the original migration.

Dr Toomas Kivisild, from the Cambridge University Department of Biological Anthropology, who co-authored the report, said: “The evidence points to relative isolation after the initial arrival, which would mean any significant developments in skeletal form and tool use were not influenced by outside sources.

"There was probably a minor secondary gene flow into Australia while the land bridge from New Guinea was still open, but once it was submerged the population was apparently isolated for thousands of years. The differences in the archaeological record are probably the result of this, rather than any secondary migration or interbreeding."

-----

New Research Proves Single Origin Of Humans In Africa

(July 19, 2007) — New research published in the journal Nature (19 July) has proved the single origin of humans theory by combining studies of global genetic variations in humans with skull measurements across the world. The research, at the University of Cambridge and funded by the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC), represents a final blow for supporters of a multiple origins of humans theory.

Competing theories on the origins of anatomically modern humans claim that either humans originated from a single point in Africa and migrated across the world, or different populations independently evolved from homo erectus to home sapiens in different areas.

The Cambridge researchers studied genetic diversity of human populations around the world and measurements of over 6,000 skulls from across the globe in academic collections. Their research knocks down one of the last arguments in favour of multiple origins. The new findings show that a loss in genetic diversity the further a population is from Africa is mirrored by a loss in variation in physical attributes.

Lead researcher, Dr Andrea Manica from the University's Department of Zoology, explained: "The origin of anatomically modern humans has been the focus of much heated debate. Our genetic research shows the further modern humans have migrated from Africa the more genetic diversity has been lost within a population.

"However, some have used skull data to argue that modern humans originated in multiple spots around the world. We have combined our genetic data with new measurements of a large sample of skulls to show definitively that modern humans originated from a single area in Sub-saharan Africa."

The research team found that genetic diversity decreased in populations the further away from Africa they were - a result of 'bottlenecks' or events that temporarily reduced populations during human migration. They then studied an exceptionally large sample of human skulls. Taking a set of measurements across all the skulls the team showed that not only was variation highest amongst the sample from south eastern Africa but that it did decrease at the same rate as the genetic data the further the skull was away from Africa.

To ensure the validity of their single origin evidence the researchers attempted to use their data to find non-African origins for modern humans. Research Dr Francois Balloux explains: "To test the alternative theory for the origin of modern humans we tried to find an additional, non-African origin. We found this just did not work. Our findings show that humans originated in a single area in Sub-Saharan Africa." ____________________________________

An

cient Egypt

 

Page by Anneke Bart

 

Kings and Queens

4th dynastySeneferu, Khufu, Khafre, Menkaure, Djedefre, etc.

11th dynasty

Amenemhat (II) Nubkaure

Kings named Mentuhotep and Intef

12th dynastyAmenemhet I - IV, Senusret I-III

18th dynastyAmenhotep I-IV, Tuthmosis I-IV, Akhenaten, Tutankhamen, Aye, Horemheb, etc.

19th dynastySety I-II, Ramesses I-II, Merenptah, Amenmesses, Tawosret.

20th dynastySethnakht, Ramesses IIIRamesses IV - XI

25th dynastyAlara, Kashta, Piye,Shabaka, Shabataka,Taharqa, Tanutamun, etc.

Cleopatra VII Philopator

Queens (D1-6)- Old KingdomQueens (D11-13) Middle Kingd.Queens (D16-20)- New Kingdom

  

(Image from Metmuseum)Ca. 1914-1879/76 BC

Horus name: HekenmaatNebty name: Hekenmaat

Golden Falcon name: MaakheruPrenomen: Nubkawre

Queens (D21-29)- Late Period

 

Officials, Priesthood etc.Viziers (New Kingdom)High Priests of AmunGod's Wives of AmunHigh Priests of PtahViceroys of NubiaWho's who of New Kingdom

Amarna PeriodAkhenatenQueen Nefertitiinscriptions Queen Nefertiti.Queen KiyaSmenkhareTutankhamenTombs at AmarnaHouses at Amarna

 Tombs:Valley of the Kings, Valley of the QueensTheban Tombs,Tombs at AbydosTombs at El Kab Tombs in AswanEarly dynastic SaqqaraNew Kingdom SaqqaraThe Unis Cemetary

Nomen: Amenemhat

Burial place: Pyramid at Dahshur

Parents:  Senwosret I and Neferu III

Wives: 

Senet: Likely a wife of Amenemhat II and the mother of  Senwosret II. Known from statues in the Delta.Titles: Hereditary Princess (iryt-p`t), King’s Mother (mwt-niswt), King’s Wife (hmt-nisw).

Keminub, Buried in tomb in her husband’s funerary complex in Dashur.Titles: King’s Wife (hmt-nisw).

Kanefru? Probably a wife of Amenemhat. Mentioned on a seal with Amenemhat. Had the title Mistress of all women.

Sons:  

Amenemhat-ankh? probably a son of Amenemhat. Senusret II, son and heir to the throne.

Daughters: 

Ita King's daughter. Owner of a Sphinx in Syria. Buried in double tomb with her sister Khnemet. Itakayet B? Probably a daughter of Amenemhat II. It is also possible she was his grand-daughter. Itaweret Daughter of Amenemhat II and probably wife of her brother Senusret II. Buried in a double tomb wit Sithathormeryet

in their father's pyramid complex. Khnemet Daughter of Amenemhat II and probably wife of her brother Senusret II. Buried in a double tomb wit Ita in their

father's pyramid complex. Neferet II Daughter of Amenemhat II and wife of her brother Senusret II. Known from two statues and possible owner of a

 Mastabas at the Giza PlateauGiza Mastabas 1000 cemetaryGiza Mastaba 2000 cemetary Giza Mataba 2300 cemetaryGiza Mastaba 4000 cemetary Giza Mastaba 5000 cemetary Giza Mastaba 6000 cemetary Giza Mastaba 7000 cemetary  

Mummy CachesTomb DB320Tomb KV35

Links

small pyramid in the funerary complex of Senusert II. Khnemetneferhedjet Daughter of Amenemhat II, and possibly identical with Khnemetneferhedjet I Weret, a wife of Senusret

II. Sithathormeryet A female relative of Amenemhat II (possibly his daughter?). Buried in a double tomb with Itaweret in their

father's pyramid complex.

Sphinx depicting Amenemhat II (Louvre)

Building program:

Dashur: Amenemhet II built the "White Pyramid" to the east of Sneferu's pyramids in central Dashur. The mortuary temple was almost completely destroyed. Its ruins are located in front of the pyramid's east wall. The Valley Temple has not been found. The mortuary temple and the pyramid were enclosed by a large wall. Within this enclosure the tomb of Prince Amenemhat-ankh was found, as well as the tombs of the princesses Ita, Khnemet, Itaweret, and Sithathormeryet. These tombs still contained some tomb furnishings. The most spectacular discovery was however the jewelry from the double tomb of Ita and Khnemet.The pyramid was named "Amenu-kherep" (Ymnw-khrp) according to inscriptions left by Sihathor. Sihathor was ordered to the pyramid to oversee the work on 16 statues.

El-Ashmunein (Hermopolis): Remains of a temple facade and entrance passage to a temple from the time of Amenemhat II survive.

Sinai (Serabit el-Khadim): A statue fragment depicting Amenemhat II was found in the Sinai. The Global Egyptian Museum mentions:"Lower part of a roughly sculpted figure of a king seated on a block throne, with hieroglyphic inscription on the (figure's) left side of the throne identifying him as 'the son of Re Amenemhat, beloved of Hathor lady of turquoise(-land)', and on the right side as '... Nubkaura, beloved of Hathor lady of turquoise(-land)'. Nubkaura is the throne name of Amenemhat II, and this is the only surviving statue inscribed with that king's name. The figure is now much eroded, and the feet as well as the torso and head are missing, but the right lower arm appears to have lain flat on the lap. The figure was found by Flinders Petrie at the shrine of Hathor on the Sinai plateau at Sarabit el-Khadim." (GEM) (Image - more can be found on the GEM website)

Sinai Inscription (from GEM): Son of Re Amenemhat beloved of Hathor lady of turquoise(-land).... Hathor ... Nubkaura beloved of Hathor lady of turquoise(-land).

Reign of Amenemhat II

Amenemhat II is known to have been co-regent with his father Senusert I for at least 3 years.

Expeditions to the Sinai and Nubia are recorded by several of his courtiers. In year 24 a new mine is opened in the Sinai as recorded by the captain of Sailors, named Men.

The nobleman Khentkhetwer mentions an expedition to the land of Punt in year 28.

In year 35 of Amenemhat II / year 3 of Senusret II the officer Hapu records an inspection of the fortresses in Wawat (Nubia).

 

GovernmentAmeni, Vizier.Djehutyhotep,  Nomarch of the Hare Nome. He lived during the reigns of Amenemhat II (1922-1878 BC), Senwosret II (1880-1874 BC) and Senwosret III (1874-1855 BC). The tomb of his physician Gua was also found (Info from British Museum). Djehutyhotep was the son of Key and Sat-kheper-ka (Teti?), and grand-son of Nehri (possibly the Vizier Nehri from an earlier period).His wife was named Hathor-hotep, a Priestess of Hathor. Children include the sons Shemsu-khau-ef, Sesostris-ankh and Nehri. Daughters include Nub-unut, Sat-kheper-ka and Sat-hedj-hotep.

Djehutyhotep

His tomb in el-Berseh was described by Lepsius.Colossus being pulled on a sled and other images Lepsius Abt II, Band 4, Bl 134Images includeing the one above: Lepsius Abt II, Band 4, Bl 135

Kay, Sealer (Treasurer), Stela from Abydos (now in British Museum) – Yr 3.Kheti, the eldest daughter of the Prince of the Jackal Nome. They had sons named Nakht (B) and Khnumhotep III.Khnumhotep II, Son of the Vizier Nehri and Beket (daughter of Khnumhotep I). His tomb in Beni Hasan is described by Lepsius.entry door is decribed in Lepsius Abt II, Band 4, Bl 123  The rest of the tomb inscriptions can be found at:Inscriptions: Lepsius Abt II, Band 4, Bl 124, Inscriptions Lepsius Abt II, Band 4, Bl 125, Scenes showing boatbuilding, boats and other industry: Lepsius Abt II, Band 4, Bl 126, People working the land and boats: Lepsius Abt II, Band 4, Bl 127, Offerings and the depiction of a lady (wife?): Lepsius Abt II, Band 4, Bl 128, Khnumhotep before an offering table: Lepsius Abt II, Band 4, Bl 129, Fishing and hunticg duck in the marshes: Lepsius Abt II, Band 4, Bl 130, Foreigners paying tribute?: Lepsius Abt II, Band 4, Bl 131, Rounding up fowl and cattle: Lepsius Abt II, Band 4, Bl 131, Color scenes depicting some of the foreigners: Lepsius Abt II, Band 4, Bl 133

Scene from the tomb of Khnumhotep, Lepsius Abt II, Band 4, Bl 129

<>Sarenput II, also called Nub-kau-ra-nakht, (#31 Aswan) Chancellor of lower Egypt, Overseer of the prophets of Khnum, etc.

Mother: Hetepet, Son: Ankhu;  Sarenput II was a grand-son of Sarenput I.Senusret, Vizier (Senusret I - Amenemhat II). Stela dated to year 8 from Abydos is now in the Louvre.<> Si-Hathor,  Assistant Treasurer. Stela from Abydos (now in British Museum). Sihathor left records of expeditions to Nubia and the Sinai. He records the trip to Sinai as having taken place during his youth. Wepwaweta-a, Nomarch of the Thinite Nome (Which has Abydos as it’s Capital)  From a Stela at Abydos. The text mentions both Sesostris I and Amenemhet II. Some titles: Hereditary Prince, Count, Sealbearer of the King, Sole Companion, Priest of Maat, High Priest of Osiris, Overseer of the Priests.

A beautiful colored image of Khnumhotep's tomb in Beni Hasan.For a better quality image, please see Lepsius Abt II, Band 4, Bl 130

Palace OfficialsKhent-em-semeti: real favorite servant, master of the secret things of the King's Wardrobe. Khent-em-sementi leaves a record at

Abydos of a journey of inspection among the temples of Egypt. He apparently visited Elephantine and then returned to Abydos. Khent-em-sementi lists several honors on his stela. He mentions being priest of the Southern Crown, (of) the Northern Crown, (of) Khnum, servant of the royal toilet, adjusting (the crown called) "Great-in-Magic", supporting the White Crown in the "Great House" (etc. Khent-khetwer, Hereditary prince, count, wearer of the royal seal, the master of the judgement hall. Records arriving safely from Punt in year 28.Men, born of Mut: the real king's confidant, the captain of sailors. Records the opening of a new mine in the Sinai in year 24.Simontu,  Hereditary Prince, Count, Wearer of the Royal Seal, Royal Scribe, etc.

PriesthoodHetep-Khuy, The Master of the Secrets of the Seal of the Divine Offering, Scribe of the God; From a Stela from Abydos (in Leiden). Also mentioned on the stela are: his wife Hapy – daughter of Aye, his brother Sobek-hotep, his sister Satwosret, his mother Du, his son Ameny, and his nephew also named Ameny (son of Sobekhotep)Khu, “Overseer of the Tomb”, from a Stela at Abydos (in Leiden). Shown with his wife Senet, his brother Montuwesi, and his mother who is also named Senet.Wepwaweta-a, Nomarch of the Thinite Nome (Which has Abydos as it’s Capital)  From a Stela at Abydos. The text mentions both Sesostris I and Amenemhet II. Some titles: Hereditary Prince, Count, Sealbearer of the King, Sole Companion, Priest of Maat, High Priest of Osiris, Overseer of the Priests.

Bibliography / Suggested Reading

1. Breasted, J.H., Ancient Records of Egypt, Vol I, The First through the Seventeenth Dynasties, 2001 (originally appeared in 1906)

2. Dodson, A., Hilton, D., The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson, 2004.

3. Wilkinson R.H., The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson, 2000.4. http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/chronology/amenemhatII.html