biodiversitas & bioteknologi
TRANSCRIPT
BiodiversitasKeanekaragaman di antara makhluk hidup dari semua
sumber, termasuk dari daratan, lautan, dan ekosistem akuatik lain, serta kompleks-kompleks ekologi yang mereka menjadi bagiannya; mencakup keanekaragaman di dalam spesies (genetik), di antara spesies dan pada ekosistem (CBD, Pasal 2)
Totalitas komponen dan sistem kehidupan organisme dibumi (biosfer))
Biodiversitas & Bioteknologi
Biologi Umum
KEANEKARAGAMAN MAKHLUK HIDUP(BIODIVERSITAS)
Keanekaragaman hayati = kehati = biological diversity= biodiversity = biodiversitas.Kehati menjelaskan tentang jumlah (number) makhlukhidup, variasi/perbedaan-perbedaan (variety)antaramakhluk hidup yang satu dengan yang lain, dankeberagaman (variability) di antara makhluk hidup.Makhluk hidup dapat berupa : hewan (animalia); tumbuhan (plant), atau mikroorganisme (cendawan, bakteri, dll.)
Budaya?
Biodiversitas dapat ditinjau dari tingkat :
Gen = keanekaragaman genetikSpesies = kenakeragaman spesies/jenisEkosistem = keanekaragaman ekosistem
Keanekaragaman genetik
Keanekaragaman genetik mengacu pada keanekaragaman/variasi yang ada dalam suatu organisme sejenis.Ditunjukkan dengan adanya perbedaan urutan 4 pasangbasa yang merupakan komponen penyusun asam nukleat(DNA).Adenin (A) A=T Thimin (T)Guanin (G) G=CCytosin (C)
Keanekaragaman genetik…
Keanekaragaman genetik yang baru timbul karenaadanya :
Mutasi di tingkat genMutasi di tingkat kromosomrekombinasi
Keanekaragaman genetik dapat dihitung berdasarkan :Jumlah DNA per selJumlah kromosomStruktur kromosom
Biodiversitas genetikFrekuensi dan keragaman gen di dalam dan di antara populasi spesies yang sama.
Biodiversitas genetik tampak pada perbedaan tinggi tanaman padi, rasa dari berbagai varietas shorgum, padi, jagung dan lain-lain.
Keanekaragaman gen
Keanekaragaman spesies
Keanekaragaman spesies mengacu padakeanekaragaman /variasi jenis makhluk hidup.Jenis = spesiesDi seluruh dunia ada sekitar 1,7 juta jenis makhlukhidup yang sudah di data.Secara keseluruhan jumlah spesies m.h. yang adadi bumi sampai saat ini sekitar 12,5 juta.
Keanekaragaman spesies
M.h. yang memiliki keanekaragaman jenisterbesar adalah serangga danmikroorganisme.Perbedaan satu jenis m.h. dengan m.h. yang lain didasarkan pada klasifikasitaksonominya.
Klasifikasi taksonomi m.h.
Kingdom Plantae / AnimaliaPhylum (zoologi) / Divisio (botani)ClassOrdoFamilyGenusSpesiesSub spesiesVarietas (botani) / strain (zoologi)
Biodiversitas Tumbuhan
Biodiversitas Hewan
Biodiversitas spesies
Biodiversitas SpesiesGabungan jumlah spesies (kekayaan; richness) dan jumlah individu di dalam spesies (kemelimpahan; abundance).
Spesies adalah kelompok organisme yang dapat berkawin secara bebas, memiliki kesamaan ukuran dan struktur, dinamika populasi dan siklus reproduksi, pola perilaku, dan taksonomi.
Nepenthes spp.
Keanekaragaman Anggrek Jawa
Keanekaragaman spesies
Keanekaragaman Spesies Endemik Jawa
Keanekaragaman ekosistem
Keanekaragaman ekosistem mengacu padakeanekaragaman /variasi ekosistem yang adadi bumi.Ekosistem : kompleks komunitas tumbuhan, hewan, dan mikroorganisme dan lingkunganabiotiknya yang saling berinteraksi.
Biodiversitas ekosistem
Variasi di dalam dan di antara ekosistem yang berbeda.
Ekosistem adalah kompleks dinamis dari komunitas tumbuhan, hewan dan mikroorganisme dan lingkungan non-hayatinya, berinteraksi sebagai sebuah unit fungsional
Ekosistem sangat bervariasi :
Daerah gurunHutan hujan tropisSavana/padang rumputKutub / esEkosistem perairan laut (air asin)Ekosistem perairan darat (air tawar)Ekosistem mangrove (campuran/peralihan)
Keanekaragaman ekosistem
Degradasi Biodiversitas" Salah satu proses yang terus
berlanjut pada tahun 1990-an yang memerlukan waktu pemulihan selama jutaan tahun adalah hilangnya keanekaragaman genetik dan spesies karena rusaknya habitat alam. Inilah kebodohan kita yang sulit dimaafkan oleh anak cucu kita" (E.O. Wilson, Harvard University, Amerika Serikat, 1990).
Aktivitas perusakan lingkungan(degradasi biodiversitas)
Kebakaran
Pertanian
Pembalakan
Perburuan
Hilangnya biodiversitas. Bermacam sebab, yg paling fundamental dan irreversibel: extinction of species (kepunahan spesies).
Penyebab hilangnya diversitas biologi terutama oleh manusia:
Langsung: perburuan, koleksi, danpersekusi.Tidak langsung: perusakan danmodifikasi habitat
Dari segi total hilangnya biodiversitas, efek tdk langsung jauh lebih pentingdibanding pengaruh langsung.
Mekanisme hilangnya Biodiversitas1. Hilangnya/fragmentasi habitat2. Introduced spesies (spesies
pendatang)3. Pencemaran pada air, tanah dan
atmosfir.4. Perubahan iklim global5. Eksploitasi jenis hewan/ tanaman yg
berlebih/overeksploitasi6. Industrialisasi pertanian dan
kehutanan
Pengaruh perkembangan budaya:Jaman purba (nomaden)Jaman bercocok tanamJaman tumbuhnya permukiman (perkotaan)Jaman tumbuhnya industri (mulai diterapkannyapaham kapitalisme budidaya monokultur & monopoli)Jaman informasi/globalisasi ?What next ?
What is Biotechnology?
General DefinitionPenerapan teknologi untuk memperbaiki organisme/jasad hidup
Detailed DefinitionPenerapan teknologi untuk memodifikasi fungsibiologis dari organisme dengan menambahkangen/sel/koloni sel dari organisme lain
Peran/manfaat Bioteknologi
Biotechnology is a series of enabling technologies, which involves the manipulation of living organisms or their sub-cellular components to develop useful
Products (e.g. insulin) Processes (e.g. improved fermentation)Services (e.g. bioremediation)
Biotechnology encompasses a wide range of fields, including the life sciences, chemistry, agriculture, environmental science, medicine, veterinary medicine, engineering and computer science.
Akan tetapi tidak semua variasiyang tersedia di alamsesuai dengan kebutuhan manusia
• Contohnya: lihat berbagai variasi kulit bijibuncis berikut
•Alam memiliki kekayaan variasi kehidupan(BIODIVERSITY)
Mengapa bioteknologi diperlukan/Perlu dikembangkan ?:
Maunya manusia ?
•Pisang dengan vaksinnya
•Padi dengan nutrisi lengkap
> Dan lain-lain ??????
Bioteknologi klasik;Misal: penggunaan ragi
Bioteknologi modern;Misal: industri enzim/vaksin
Biotechnology Application:Food EnzymesRaw material conversion:
– Enzymes in food production with higher purity & specificity: chymosin, lactase, alpha-amylase,amyloglucosidase, aceto lactate ecarboxylase, xylanase, lipase, meniculllases , cyclomaltodextringlycoslytransferase.
– Conversion of plant or animal raw material substrates into foods (e.g. cheese, bread, beer).
– Bacteriocin preservatives / peptide antimicrobials (e.g.Nisin )
Food ProcessingImproved processing
– Increased yield, quality, consistency – Optimized cost– Reduced food loss / waste
Improved food ingredients– Organic acids: Lactic, citric, gluconic , proprionic– Amino acids: lysine, methionine, tocopherol– Vitamins– Gums– Sucrose– Non nutritive and semi -nutritive sweeteners– Processed starch products e.g. maltodextrins ,
oligosaccharides, sugars, high fructose corn syrups for health
– Carbohydrates such as arabinogalactans and inulins forprebiotic improved colonic microflora.
– Pectin processing yield and cooking properties
Industrial ProcessingBio-energy production
– Ethanol– Lubricants– Liquid Wax
Waste water treatment
Bio-catalysts
Detergent proteases
Bio-polymers
Specialty Chemicals
Fibers– Modified lignin from pulp– Silk– Cotton
Bio-ProcessingLivestock PerformanceFeed to gain improvements:
– High density, more completely balanced feed resulting in more meat per ton of feed
– Protein quantity and quality– Oil (caloric energy)– Amino acids– Fatty acids– Starch– Carbohydrate– Vitamin and mineral composition– Antioxidants– Improved performance of growth factors and
hormones to increase food yield
Feed digestibility – Derive greater nutritional value from feed– Ruminant animals (corn silage lignin)– Increase oligosaccharides to reduce non -digestable
compounds is soybeans (stachyose , galactose, raffinose)– Reducing phytate content for increased bioavailability of
amino acids, chelation of mineral ions for less P & N waste
Carcass quality– Meat composition: efficient delivery of micro / macro
nutrients in human diet– Meat texture, appearance, taste– Protein, Oil and Amino Acids– Vitamin and mineral composition– Antioxidants
Animal HealthAnimal fertility and genetics
Plant based animal vaccines – Gastroenteritis virus
Pathogen resistance– Reduced infestations from infectious disease that are
human health risks eg Salmonella
AquacultureSustainable production
– Salomon– Talapia– Trout– Flounder– Catfish– Shrimp
Animal ProductionPharmaceutical ProteinsProduction of complex proteins
– Abundant, cost effective production of therapeutic proteins with improved safety and specificity. Eg Hirudin
Efficient drug delivery vehicle– Edible vaccines for the management of:
- Dental caries- Gastroenteritis virus- Hepatitis B- Measles- Genital herpes- Rotavirus- Enterogenic Escherichia coli– Norwalk virsus– Pseudomonas,– Staphylococcus– non Hodgkin's B -cell lymphoma– Insulin -dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM), an
auto immune disease
Drug Discovery andScreeningBio-active molecules
– Mode of action– Novel chemistry
Natural products – Identification and synthesis of phytochemicals from
plants with medicinal and cosmetic properties.
OrganolepticsSensory quality:
– Improved taste, texture and appearance (proteins, lipids, carbohydrates)
NutritionMicronutrients
– Bio -availability and preservation of vitamins & minerals: Iron, Folic Acid, Vitamins A, C, E
Fiber content
Protein - Quantity, composition and quality- Amino acids methionine, lysine, tryptophan
Vegetable oils– Nutritional quality, cooking stability, shelf life
- Low saturated fats- High oleic acid - Increased stearate- Increased laurate– Essential fatty acids (PUFA balance)
Carbohydrates / Starch– Resistant starch – slowly digested to improve colonic
health, generation of short chain FA, slow energy release for diabetics and athletes
– Increased starch potatoes (reduce oil absorption during processing
– Fructan producing sugar beets (sweetness equal to sucrose without the calories)
Probiotics– Gastro intestinal health: colonic microflora Lactobacillus
and Bifidobacterium stimulate mucosal immune system, increase resistance to food borne illness & chronic disease
Phytochemicals– Disease prevention (cardiovascular, cancer, diabetes,
obesity, osteoporosis, arthritis)- Bioactive peptides- Isoflavones- Phytosterols– Anti-oxidants: flavanol, lycopene, tocopherol
Shelf life– Controlled plant ripening and post harvest shelf life – Enhanced package goods shelf life eg Bread- Reduce browning from bruising, polypheno oxidase
Allergens and Safety– Reduced allergens: Glycoalkaloids, trypsin inhibitors,
cyanogenic glycosides, proteins– Reduced Mycotoxin: Fumonisin, Aflatoxin– Detection methods for pathogens, toxins
Crop YieldOutput: grain and biomass
- Photosynthesis, enzymatic regulation, plant structure, flowering, ripening, sprouting
Grain quality– Composition specifications and grade
Selective breeding – Reducing the time it takes to develop improved crops
Abiotic stress tolerance:– Increase the ability of crops to grow in a geography by
increasing tolerance to:– Moisture and Drought- Heat and Cold - Saline- Heavy Metals Al, Se, Mn and Ozone
Pest ManagementDisease resistance
- Fungus: verticillium, fusarium, sclerotinia, grey mould,botryrtis, powdery mildew, black sigatoka
- Bacteria: bacterial blight- Virus: BYDV, mosaics, leaf curl, spotted wilt, ring spot,
feathery mottle, necrotic yellow vein viruses
Insect & Nematode resistance- Foliar, Root, Fruit, Grain- Sucking, Chewing, Piercing
Herbicide tolerance- More environmentally benign e.g. Glyphosate, - Alternate mode of action e.g. IMI, SU, Glufosinate
Bio-pesticides
EnvironmentDecrease pesticides
– Substitute chemicals for gene traits
Improve production practices– Reduced soil erosion, Improved ground and surface
water, Less fuel, Less land
Reduce fertilizer dependence - Improved plant extraction, transport and utilization
decreases demand for synthetic fertilizers (Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potash)
Increase plant biodiversity - Expand crop gene pool and reduce risk of crop failures.
80,000 species of edible plants, cultivate 300, 12 are food staples.
MedicineFood & NutritionCrop ProductionFood EnzymesRaw material conversion:
– Enzymes in food production with higher purity & specificity: chymosin, lactase, alpha-amylase,amyloglucosidase, aceto lactate ecarboxylase, xylanase, lipase, meniculllases , cyclomaltodextringlycoslytransferase.
– Conversion of plant or animal raw material substrates into foods (e.g. cheese, bread, beer).
– Bacteriocin preservatives / peptide antimicrobials (e.g.Nisin )
Food ProcessingImproved processing
– Increased yield, quality, consistency – Optimized cost– Reduced food loss / waste
Improved food ingredients– Organic acids: Lactic, citric, gluconic , proprionic– Amino acids: lysine, methionine, tocopherol– Vitamins– Gums– Sucrose– Non nutritive and semi -nutritive sweeteners– Processed starch products e.g. maltodextrins ,
oligosaccharides, sugars, high fructose corn syrups for health
– Carbohydrates such as arabinogalactans and inulins forprebiotic improved colonic microflora.
– Pectin processing yield and cooking properties
Industrial ProcessingBio-energy production
– Ethanol– Lubricants– Liquid Wax
Waste water treatment
Bio-catalysts
Detergent proteases
Bio-polymers
Specialty Chemicals
Fibers– Modified lignin from pulp– Silk– Cotton
Bio-ProcessingLivestock PerformanceFeed to gain improvements:
– High density, more completely balanced feed resulting in more meat per ton of feed
– Protein quantity and quality– Oil (caloric energy)– Amino acids– Fatty acids– Starch– Carbohydrate– Vitamin and mineral composition– Antioxidants– Improved performance of growth factors and
hormones to increase food yield
Feed digestibility – Derive greater nutritional value from feed– Ruminant animals (corn silage lignin)– Increase oligosaccharides to reduce non -digestable
compounds is soybeans (stachyose , galactose, raffinose)– Reducing phytate content for increased bioavailability of
amino acids, chelation of mineral ions for less P & N waste
Carcass quality– Meat composition: efficient delivery of micro / macro
nutrients in human diet– Meat texture, appearance, taste– Protein, Oil and Amino Acids– Vitamin and mineral composition– Antioxidants
Animal HealthAnimal fertility and genetics
Plant based animal vaccines – Gastroenteritis virus
Pathogen resistance– Reduced infestations from infectious disease that are
human health risks eg Salmonella
AquacultureSustainable production
– Salomon– Talapia– Trout– Flounder– Catfish– Shrimp
Animal ProductionPharmaceutical ProteinsProduction of complex proteins
– Abundant, cost effective production of therapeutic proteins with improved safety and specificity. Eg Hirudin
Efficient drug delivery vehicle– Edible vaccines for the management of:
- Dental caries- Gastroenteritis virus- Hepatitis B- Measles- Genital herpes- Rotavirus- Enterogenic Escherichia coli– Norwalk virsus– Pseudomonas,– Staphylococcus– non Hodgkin's B -cell lymphoma– Insulin -dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM), an
auto immune disease
Drug Discovery andScreeningBio-active molecules
– Mode of action– Novel chemistry
Natural products – Identification and synthesis of phytochemicals from
plants with medicinal and cosmetic properties.
OrganolepticsSensory quality:
– Improved taste, texture and appearance (proteins, lipids, carbohydrates)
NutritionMicronutrients
– Bio -availability and preservation of vitamins & minerals: Iron, Folic Acid, Vitamins A, C, E
Fiber content
Protein - Quantity, composition and quality- Amino acids methionine, lysine, tryptophan
Vegetable oils– Nutritional quality, cooking stability, shelf life
- Low saturated fats- High oleic acid - Increased stearate- Increased laurate– Essential fatty acids (PUFA balance)
Carbohydrates / Starch– Resistant starch – slowly digested to improve colonic
health, generation of short chain FA, slow energy release for diabetics and athletes
– Increased starch potatoes (reduce oil absorption during processing
– Fructan producing sugar beets (sweetness equal to sucrose without the calories)
Probiotics– Gastro intestinal health: colonic microflora Lactobacillus
and Bifidobacterium stimulate mucosal immune system, increase resistance to food borne illness & chronic disease
Phytochemicals– Disease prevention (cardiovascular, cancer, diabetes,
obesity, osteoporosis, arthritis)- Bioactive peptides- Isoflavones- Phytosterols– Anti-oxidants: flavanol, lycopene, tocopherol
Shelf life– Controlled plant ripening and post harvest shelf life – Enhanced package goods shelf life eg Bread- Reduce browning from bruising, polypheno oxidase
Allergens and Safety– Reduced allergens: Glycoalkaloids, trypsin inhibitors,
cyanogenic glycosides, proteins– Reduced Mycotoxin: Fumonisin, Aflatoxin– Detection methods for pathogens, toxins
Crop YieldOutput: grain and biomass
- Photosynthesis, enzymatic regulation, plant structure, flowering, ripening, sprouting
Grain quality– Composition specifications and grade
Selective breeding – Reducing the time it takes to develop improved crops
Abiotic stress tolerance:– Increase the ability of crops to grow in a geography by
increasing tolerance to:– Moisture and Drought- Heat and Cold - Saline- Heavy Metals Al, Se, Mn and Ozone
Pest ManagementDisease resistance
- Fungus: verticillium, fusarium, sclerotinia, grey mould,botryrtis, powdery mildew, black sigatoka
- Bacteria: bacterial blight- Virus: BYDV, mosaics, leaf curl, spotted wilt, ring spot,
feathery mottle, necrotic yellow vein viruses
Insect & Nematode resistance- Foliar, Root, Fruit, Grain- Sucking, Chewing, Piercing
Herbicide tolerance- More environmentally benign e.g. Glyphosate, - Alternate mode of action e.g. IMI, SU, Glufosinate
Bio-pesticides
EnvironmentDecrease pesticides
– Substitute chemicals for gene traits
Improve production practices– Reduced soil erosion, Improved ground and surface
water, Less fuel, Less land
Reduce fertilizer dependence - Improved plant extraction, transport and utilization
decreases demand for synthetic fertilizers (Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potash)
Increase plant biodiversity - Expand crop gene pool and reduce risk of crop failures.
80,000 species of edible plants, cultivate 300, 12 are food staples.
MedicineFood & NutritionCrop Production
Protein Enzim
DNA
Bagaimana prinsip-prinsip bioteknologi modern?
DNA disisipkan
Substrat Gen
Produk(contoh: Penicillin)
Enzim
S CBA D
G
F
Fungsi sel
E1
E7
E5
E2 E3
E6
E8
E4
P
MetabolitProtein
E
Faktor lingkungan
Organel sel
Organel sel+/-
+/-
Dogma utama genetika molekuler
DNA(gen)
RNA
Protein Fenotipe
Transcripsi
Translasi
Tinggi tanaman
Bentuk biji
Dibedakan 2 pendekatanteknik rekayasa genetik
• Identifikasi gen dari spesies lain dengan fenotipeyang diinginkan• atau memodifikasi gen yang ada (membuat alelbaru)
Manipulasi gen
• Menyisipkan gen baru pada organismemelalui teknik transformasi
• Organisme baru disebut Organisme transgenik
Introduksi gen
The Golden Rice Story
• Vitamin A deficiency is a major health problem• Causes blindness• Influences severity of diarrhea, measles
• >100 million children suffer from the problem
• For many countries, the infrastructure doesn’t existto deliver vitamin pills
• Improved vitamin A content in widely consumed cropsan attractive alternative
β-Carotene Pathway in Plants
IPP
Geranylgeranyl diphosphate
Phytoene
Lycopene
β -carotene(vitamin A precursor)
Phytoene synthase
Phytoene desaturase
Lycopene-beta-cyclase
ξ-carotene desaturase
Problem:Rice lacks
these enzymes
NormalVitamin A
“Deficient”Rice
The Golden Rice Solution
IPP
Geranylgeranyl diphosphate
Phytoene
Lycopene
β -carotene(vitamin A precursor)
Phytoene synthase
Phytoene desaturase
Lycopene-beta-cyclase
ξ-carotene desaturase
Daffodil gene
Single bacterial gene;performs both functions
Daffodil gene
β-Carotene Pathway Genes Added
Vitamin APathway
is completeand functional
GoldenRice
Introducing the Gene orDeveloping Transgenics
Steps
1. Create transformation cassette
2. Introduce and select for transformants
Plant Tissue CultureA Requirement for Transgenic Development
A plant part Is cultured
Callusgrows
Shootsdevelop Shoots are rooted;
plant grows to maturity
AgrobacteriumA natural DNA delivery system
• A plant pathogen found in nature
• Hormone genes expressed and galls form at infection site
• Delivers DNA that encodes for plant hormones
• Infects many plant species
Gall onstem
Gall onleaf
• DNA incorporates into plant chromosome
Overview of creating transgenic plants using Agrobacterium tumefaciens.
Transformation Steps
Prepare tissue for transformation
Introduce DNA
Culture plant tissue• Develop shoots• Root the shoots
Field test the plants
• Leaf, germinating seed, immature embryos• Tissue must be capable of developing into normal plants
• Agrobacterium or gene gun
• Multiple sites, multiple years
The Lab Steps
Lab Testing The Transgenics
Insect Resistance
Transgene=Bt-toxin protein
Cold Tolerance
Transgene=CBF transcription factors
The Next Test Is The Field
Non-transgenics
Transgenics
Herbicide Resistance
Final TestConsumer Acceptance
RoundUp Ready Corn
Before After
Kontroversi Bioteknologi
• Should we develop transgenics?
• Should we release transgenics?
• Are transgenics safe?
• Are transgenics a threat to non-transgenicproduction systems?
• Are transgenics a threat to natural eco-systems?
Thank you!