bab ii solar angga

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 4  Kimmk Rlskj k ^lrdkik Tlgiog Gofok&\I TORTK BKB OO TOI@K\KI ^\STKGK 2); Foiykg Marlim Blgks Foiykg flr|~k gki tromjoslrodk yk im tlrs|s|i ktks tomk |iot kskf jl fkg blr}|`|d ckor ~kdk tlf~lrkt|r gkfkr (2<¾C/ dki jlboh bkiykg flimkid |im kskf jlfkg todkg `li|h slhoimmk f|dkh fl imkjkfo agsodkso) Foiykg y kim blrbl it|g ~kdkt b oksk dosl b|t dlimk i jlfkg) Foiykg dk ~kt blrs|fblr dkro tkikfk i foskjiyk foiykg pkot|i foiykg `km|im foiyk g gljk~k dki foiykg b|imk fktkhkro) Foiy kg dk~k t `|mk bl rs|fblr dk ro hl}ki foskjiyk foiykg ogki skrdoi foiyk g ogki ~k|s dki jkoi&jkoi (Gltkrli ;?8 5/) Foiykg marlim flr|~kgki skjkh skt| glb|t|hki ~aga g fki|sok sl bkmko kjkt ~limajkh bkhki   bkhki fkgkiki) Foiykg marlim blre|imso slbkmko fldok ~limmarlim skimkt ~litoim dki glb|t|hkiiyk slfkgoi flioimgkt) Do Oidailsok foiykg marlim do~rad|gso dkro foiykg gljk~k sk}ot dkjkf sgkjk blskr) Hoimmk tkh|i 2>;> do~lrgorkgki ~rad|gso foiykg sk}ot flick~ko jlboh dkro 3 `|tk tai ~lr tkh|i) (Dlraf Bkim|i ;??8/) ^limm|ikki foiykg marlim blr|jkim gkjo skimkt flfbkhkykgki glslhktki) Hkj oio dogkrlikgki sljkoi slfkgoi bkiykgiyk gatarki ykim tlrgkid|im dkjkf foiykg marlim kgobkt ~limmarlimki bkhki fkgkiki slblj|fiyk dki slfkgoi bkiykgiyk sliyk}k&sliyk}k kskf gkrbagsojkt blbks do dkjkf foiykg slrtk }krik foiykg marlim ykim slfkgoi todkg `lrioh `ogk do~kgko blr|jkim gkjo) Sljkfk ~rasls ~limmarlim ki ~lfkikski flfb|kt foiykg blr|bkh fli`kdo blr}krik mljk~ gkrlik tlr`kdoiyk rlkgso gofok ykim dk~kt flimhksojgki slgotkr 4>> sliyk}k gofok ykim |f|fiyk blrsoekt gkrsoiamliog (Bayd dki Fkrmkrlt ;??5/) ^lr|bkhki soekt oio fli`kdogki foiykg marlim tlrslb|t todkg jkykg jkmo dom|ikgki slbkmko bkhki ~limajkh fkgkiki) @ogk foiykg marlim blgks tlrslb|t fksoh tltk~ dom|ikgki fkgk dk~kt fliofb|jgki ~lrfkskjkhki ykim slro|s sl~lrto flimkgobktgki glrkc|iki dkjkf t|b|h dki blrbkmko fkckf

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BAB II Tugas Akhir, Teknik Kimia Untirta, Produksi biosolar dari minyak goreng bekas

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Page 1: BAB II Solar Angga

5/10/2018 BAB II Solar Angga - slidepdf.com

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bab-ii-solar-angga 1/19

 

4

 Kimmk Rlskjk ^lrdkik Tlgiog Gofok&\ITORTK 

BKB OO

TOI@K\KI ^\STKGK

2); Foiykg Marlim Blgks

Foiykg flr|~kgki tromjoslrodk ykim tlrs|s|i ktks tomk |iot kskf jlfkg

blr}|`|d ckor ~kdk tlf~lrkt|r gkfkr (2<¾C/ dki jlboh bkiykg flimkid|im kskf

jlfkg todkg `li|h slhoimmk f|dkh flimkjkfo agsodkso) Foiykg ykim blrblit|g 

~kdkt boksk doslb|t dlimki jlfkg) Foiykg dk~kt blrs|fblr dkro tkikfki

foskjiyk foiykg pkot|i foiykg `km|im foiykg gljk~k dki foiykg b|imk

fktkhkro) Foiykg dk~kt `|mk blrs|fblr dkro hl}ki foskjiyk foiykg ogki

skrdoi foiykg ogki ~k|s dki jkoi&jkoi (Gltkrli ;?85/)

Foiykg marlim flr|~kgki skjkh skt| glb|t|hki ~agag fki|sok slbkmko

kjkt ~limajkh bkhki – bkhki fkgkiki) Foiykg marlim blre|imso slbkmko fldok

~limmarlim skimkt ~litoim dki glb|t|hkiiyk slfkgoi flioimgkt) Do Oidailsok

foiykg marlim do~rad|gso dkro foiykg gljk~k sk}ot dkjkf sgkjk blskr) Hoimmk

tkh|i 2>;> do~lrgorkgki ~rad|gso foiykg sk}ot flick~ko jlboh dkro 3 `|tk tai ~lrtkh|i) (Dlraf Bkim|i ;??8/)

^limm|ikki foiykg marlim blr|jkim gkjo skimkt flfbkhkykgki

glslhktki) Hkj oio dogkrlikgki sljkoi slfkgoi bkiykgiyk gatarki ykim

tlrgkid|im dkjkf foiykg marlim kgobkt ~limmarlimki bkhki fkgkiki

slblj|fiyk dki slfkgoi bkiykgiyk sliyk}k&sliyk}k kskf gkrbagsojkt blbks do

dkjkf foiykg slrtk }krik foiykg marlim ykim slfkgoi todkg `lrioh `ogk do~kgko

blr|jkim gkjo) Sljkfk ~rasls ~limmarlimki ~lfkikski flfb|kt foiykg blr|bkh

fli`kdo blr}krik mljk~ gkrlik tlr`kdoiyk rlkgso gofok ykim dk~kt flimhksojgki

slgotkr 4>> sliyk}k gofok ykim |f|fiyk blrsoekt gkrsoiamliog (Bayd dki

Fkrmkrlt ;??5/) ^lr|bkhki soekt oio fli`kdogki foiykg marlim tlrslb|t todkg 

jkykg jkmo dom|ikgki slbkmko bkhki ~limajkh fkgkiki) @ogk foiykg marlim blgks

tlrslb|t fksoh tltk~ dom|ikgki fkgk dk~kt fliofb|jgki ~lrfkskjkhki ykim

slro|s sl~lrto flimkgobktgki glrkc|iki dkjkf t|b|h dki blrbkmko fkckf

Page 2: BAB II Solar Angga

5/10/2018 BAB II Solar Angga - slidepdf.com

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bab-ii-solar-angga 2/19

 

<

 Kimmk Rlskjk ^lrdkik Tlgiog Gofok&\ITORTK 

~liykgot foskjiyk dokrhlk ~limlidk~ki jlfkg dkjkf ~lfb|j|h dkrkh gkiglr

dki fli|r|igki iojko clrik jlfkg (Gltkrli ;?85/)

Foiykg marlim blgks ykot| t|r|iki dkro C^A ykim slbkmoki blskr tlrdoro

dkro tromjoslrodk flr|~kgki sliyk}k hodagkrbai rkitko ~ki`kim sl~lrto ~kdk

foiykg b|fo) Foiykg marlim blgks okjkh sosk dkro hksoj oid|stro ~limmarlimki

dki flfojogo soekt iai&ldoblj* slhoimmk ~limm|ikki foiykg marlim blgks todkg 

flimmkimm| glb|t|hki ~kimki sl~lrto C^A)

^lrbkidoimki gaf~asoso foiykg marlim blgks dki C^A dosk`ogki dkjkf

Tkblj 2); do bk}kh oio 0

Tkblj 2); ^lrbkidoimki Gkrkgtlrostog C^A dki Foiykg Marlim Blgks

Ektty KcodC^A

(M|botp Fottljbkch % Trkbo ;???/Foiykg Marlim Blgks

(Sod`kbkt 2>>4/

Forostoc >? – ;< &

^kjfotkt 3?2 – 4<8 ;4?3?

Tlkroc 3= – <; &

Krkchodoc > – >)>4 2<8<

Blhlioc IK &

^kjfotajloc > – >4 &

Ajlkt 3=4 – 44; 32;?2

Fkrmkrkt & 3?<?

Stlkrkt & ;3;2;

Joiajlkt 8= – ;2< <>22

Joiajlioc >   – >5 &

Dkro Tkblj 2); do ktks dk~kt dogltkh|o bkh}k gkid|imki kskf jlfkg ykim

tlrblskr ~kdk foiykg marlim blgks kdkjkh kskf Ajlkt dki kskf ^kjfotkt)

Blrdkskrgki ~liljotoki slblj|fiyk  ykim tljkh dojkg|gki ajlh Kiaidha

Page 3: BAB II Solar Angga

5/10/2018 BAB II Solar Angga - slidepdf.com

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bab-ii-solar-angga 3/19

 

5

 Kimmk Rlskjk ^lrdkik Tlgiog Gofok&\ITORTK 

]o`kikrga dgg (2>>5/ bkh}k C^A dlimki gkid|imki kskf jlfkg tlrblskr

kdkjkh kskf ^kjfotkt dki kskf Ajlkt dk~kt dorlimgkh fljkj|o ~rasls ~lrlimgkhki

gktkjotog flimhksojgki hodragkrbai sltkrk erkgso blisoi  slhoimmk ~rasls oio dk~kt

dojkg|gki ̀ |mk ~kdk foiykg marlim blgks)

^liljotoki oio flimm|ikgki foiykg marlim blgks slbkmko s|fblr

tromjoslrodk fljkj|o ~lrlimgkhki gktkjotog ykim gltlrsldokkiiyk slfkgoi

flioimgkt slhoimmk ~lioimgktki iojko m|ik foiykg marlim blgks oio dk~kt

fli`kdo s|fblr kjtlriktoe dkjkf ~lrkikiiyk slbkmko s|bstot|li foiykg b|fo)

Str|gt|r fajlg|j dkro tromjoslrodk kdkjkh slbkmko blrog|t 0

Mkfbkr 2);) Str|gt|r dkro tromjoslrodk

Rkitko gkrbai kskf jlfkg domkfbkrgki ajlh R; R2 dki R3) Kdk blblrk~k

to~l Kskf jlfkg dkjkf foiykg marlim blgks foskjiyk0

;5 gkrbai

tlrfks|g R (;50>/

;8 gkrbai > ogktki

rkimgk~ (;80>/

;8 gkrbai ; ogktki

rkimgk~ (;80;/

;8 gkrbai 2 ogktki

rkimgk~ (;802/

Mkfbkr 2)2) Blblrk~k to~l rkitko gkrbai dkjkf Foiykg marlim blgks

Page 4: BAB II Solar Angga

5/10/2018 BAB II Solar Angga - slidepdf.com

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bab-ii-solar-angga 4/19

 

=

 Kimmk Rlskjk ^lrdkik Tlgiog Gofok&\ITORTK 

2)2 Gktkjos Plajot Kjkf Bkykh

Ikfk plajot blrkskj dkro d|k gktk dkjkf Bkhksk _|ikio ykot|  pla 

(flidodoh/ dki jothas (bkt|/) Ikfk oio flimmkfbkrgki ~lrojkg| foilrkj oio ykim

dlimki cl~kt fljl~ksgki kor bojk do~kiksgki slhoimmk gljohktki slajkh&ajkh

flidodoh sl~lrto ~limkfktki Craistld khjo foilrkj S}ldok tlrhkdk~ foilrkj

stojbotl ykim dotlf|gkiiyk ~kdk tkh|i ;=<5 (Bkrrlr ;?82/)

Plajot blrblit|g grostkj kj|foiasojogkt tlrhodrkso ykim flimkid|im

f|ktki ~asotoe dkro oai&oai jamkf kjgkjo dki kjgkjo tkikh dkjkf glrkimgk grostkj

tomk dofliso (Hky ;?55/ dlimki sltok~ agsomli flfbktkso kitkrk d|ktltrkhldrkj)

Mkfbkr 2)3) Rkimgk plajot ykim tlrblit|g dkro ogktki 4 ktaf A dlimki ; ktaf So

Plajot Kjkf Bkykh oio flf~|iyko gaf~asoso foilrkj blrdkskrgki hksoj

kikjosk g|kitotktoe dkro doerkgso soikr&X (XRD/ do~lrajlh `lios foilrkj fardliot

(32=> ,/ gjo~ia~tajatot (3>8? ,/ foilrkj&foilrkj jkoiiyk tlrdoro dkro fogk

~jkmoagjks dki g|krsk) Sldkimgki gaf~asoso gofok dkro plajot kjkf Bkykh dk~kt

dojohkt dkjkf tkblj blrog|t0

Page 5: BAB II Solar Angga

5/10/2018 BAB II Solar Angga - slidepdf.com

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bab-ii-solar-angga 5/19

 

8

 Kimmk Rlskjk ^lrdkik Tlgiog Gofok&\ITORTK 

Tkblj 2)2) Gaf~asoso gofok plajot Bkykh (Kroeoi F) dki Hkrsada ;??;/

Kikjosk gofok @|fjkh (,/

SoA2 54<<

Kj2A ;283

El2A3 ;38

CkA ;54

FmA >=;

G2A 28;

Ik2A >33

To2A >22

Jkoiiyk ykim hojkim dobkgkr ;<;8

Mkfbkr 2)4) Str|gt|r plajot fardliot ykim tlrgkid|im ~kdk plajot Kjkf Bkykh

Tkblj 2)3) Gkid|imki foilrkj tlrblskr plajot Kjkf Bkykh

Ikfk Foilrkj R|f|s Gofok

Fardliot Ik8(Kj8So4>A?5/)24H2A

Gjo~ia~tajatot (Ik4G4/(Kj8So4A?5/)24H2A

Glfkf~|ki plajot slbkmko gktkjos blrgkotki dlimki tlrsldokiyk ~|skt&~|skt

kgtoe dkjkf skj|rki kitkr plajot) ^|skt&~|skt kgtoe tlrslb|t tlrblit|g gkrlik kdkiyk

m|m|s e|imso kskf to~l Braistld fk|~|i Jl}os) ^lrbkidoimki gld|k `lios kskf

oio tlrmkit|im ~kdk ~rasls kgtoukso plajot dki gaidoso rlkgso) ^|skt&~|skt kgtoe 

ykim blrsoekt kskf oio sljki`|tiyk dk~kt flimogkt fajlg|j&fajlg|j bksk slckrk

gofok}o)

Page 6: BAB II Solar Angga

5/10/2018 BAB II Solar Angga - slidepdf.com

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bab-ii-solar-angga 6/19

 

?

 Kimmk Rlskjk ^lrdkik Tlgiog Gofok&\ITORTK 

Soekt&soekt gktkjos plajotl 0

;/ Sljlgtouotks

Blrog|t oio kdkjkh ~lrbldkki sljlgtouotks gktkjos ykim do~limkr|ho blit|g 

ajlh Hkkm (;??4/ 0

;)  Sljlgtouotks do~limkr|ho doe|so 0 Sljlgtoeotks do~limkr|ho ajlh jk`| rljktoe 

doe|so ajlh rlkgtki ktk| ~rad|g dlimki gktk jkoi goiltog dkro trkiselr fkssk

~kdk rlkgso)

2)  Sljlgtoeotks do~limkr|ho ~liylrk~ki 0 ^roiso~ dkro gktkjos `lios oio kdkjkh

~lrbldkki gaistkitk glsltofbkimki ~liylrk~ki dkro rlkgtki&rlkgtki

bokskiyk slckrk thlrfadoikfog b|gki slckrk goiltog)

2/ Glkskfki

Blit|g kskf dkro plajot flr|~kgki ekgtar ~litoim dkro k~jogkso gktkjotog 

plajot) @ogk oai kj|f|io|f ykim troukjli dos|bstot|so slckrk osafar~ha|s

dlimki oai sojocai ykim {|kdroukjli dkjkf s|s|iki grostkj sojock ykim

flfblit|g tltrkhldrkj tatkj f|ktki ilmktoe ykim kdk ~lrj| dostkbojoskso

dlimki oai ~asotoe sl~lrto ~ratai) Oai ~asotoe oio dk~kt do~lrajlh dkro dosasokso

fajlg|j kor flfblit|g m|m|s hodragsoj ~kdk ktaf kj|f|io|f) Str|gt|r ykim

tlrblit|g dofkik oai kj|foio|f dki sojocai tlrgaardoikso slckrk tltrkhldrkj

flr|~kgki kskf braistld) @ogk str|gt|r oio do~kiksgki fajlg|j kor ~kdk

s|s|iki kgki hojkim dki jagkso kskf braistld kgki tlrgaiulrso fli`kdo kskf

jl}os)

Page 7: BAB II Solar Angga

5/10/2018 BAB II Solar Angga - slidepdf.com

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bab-ii-solar-angga 7/19

 

;>

 Kimmk Rlskjk ^lrdkik Tlgiog Gofok&\ITORTK 

Blrog|t oio kdkjkh caitah str|gt|r kskf braistld dki jl}os ~kdk plajot 0

Mkfbkr 2)<) Str|gt|r Kskf Braistlkd dki Kskf Jl}os (Skttlreoljd;??;/

^rasls ~limajkhki gktkjos plajot Kjkf Bkykh

^rasls gaflrsokj ykim ~lrtkfk dojkg|gki blrdkskr ktks soitlsos

jkbarktaro|f ykim ksjo flimm|ikgki hodramlj ykim kfare) ^limajkhki plajot

slckrk mkros blskr dk~kt dobkmo dkjkf d|k tkhk~ ykot| ~rl~krkso dki kgtoukso0

Tkhk~ki ~rl~krkso plajot do~lrjkg|gki sldlfogoki r|~k kmkr flidk~ktgki

plajot ykim sok~ ajkh) Tkhk~ oio blr|~k ~limlcojki |g|rki dki ~limkykgki)

Tkhk~ki oio dk~kt flimm|ikgki flsoi slckrk glslj|r|hki ktk| dlimki ckrk

sldogot gaiulisoaikj) Kgtoukso plajot dk~kt dojkg|gki dlimki ckrk ~lfkikski ktk|

~likfbkhki ~lrlkgso gofok bkog kskf fk|~|i bksk0

;)  Kgtoukso ~lfkikski dojkg|gki plajot dkjkf ~limlroim ~|tkr flimm|ikgki

bkhki |f~ki ykim flf~|iyko gkdkr kor slgotkr 4>, dlimki tlf~lrkt|r tltk~

23>¾C dki }kgt| ~lfkikski sljkfk tomk `kf)

2)  ^likfbkhki ~lrlkgso gofok dojkg|gki do dkjkf bkg ~limkgtoeki dlimki

IkAH dki H2SA4 dofkgs|dgki |it|g flf~lrajlh tlf~lrkt|r ykim

dob|t|hgki dkjkf kgtoukso) Plajot ykim tljkh dokgtoukso ~lrj| doglroimgki

tlrjlboh dkh|j| ~limlroimki oio dk~kt dojkg|gki dlimki ckrk fli`lf|riyk do

bk}kh soikr fktkhkro)

2)3 Flgkiosfl ^lrlimgkhki Gktkjotog

Dkjkf ojf| gofok ~lrlimgkhki kdkjkh ~rasls gaiulrso fajlg|j&fajlg|j

armkiog gaf~jlgs fli`kdo fajlg|j&fajlg|j ykim jlboh sldlrhkik dlimki

~|t|siyk ogktki gkbai&gkrbai dkjkf rkitko fajlg|j tlrslb|t) Jk`| ~lrlimgkhki

Page 8: BAB II Solar Angga

5/10/2018 BAB II Solar Angga - slidepdf.com

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;;

 Kimmk Rlskjk ^lrdkik Tlgiog Gofok&\ITORTK 

dki ~rad|g kghoriyk skimkt g|kt blrmkit|im tlrhkdk~ tlf~lrkt|r dki glblrkdkki

gktkjos)

^lrlimgkhki gktkjotog flr|~kgki ~rasls ~lf|t|ski rkitko hêdragkrbai

~ki`kim dlimki flimm|ikgki bkit|ki gktkjos (S~lomht ;??;/) Dkjkf 

glbkiykgki rlkgso ~lrlimgkhki  slb|kh ~krkeeoi rlkgso |tkfk kdkjkh rlkgso

dlkjgojkso sls|ko dlimki ~lrskfkki blrog|t0

Rlkgso ~lrlimgkhki flimkrkhgki tlrblit|giyk slb|kh ajleoi dki ~krkeoi

ykim jlboh ~lidlg) Dkjkf rlkgso ~lrlimgkhki ajleoi jlboh f|dkh |it|g 

dorlimgkh dkro ~kdk ~krkeoi dki `|mk jlboh cl~kt flimkjkfo osaflroskso dki

~lfblit|gki cagl) Doajleoi dki ajleoi krafktog bkhgki jlboh cl~kt flimkjkfo

~lrlimgkhki * ~li`li|hki tlr~ajoflroskso dki tlrgaiulrso fli`kdo cagl)

]kjk|~|i ~lrlimgkhki  dk~kt tlr`kdo gkrlik flgkiosfl rkdogkj blbks ~kdk

glikogki tlf~lrkt|r dki dk~kt dokgsljkrkso ajlh ~lrf|gkki iai kskf sl~lrto

krkim kgoeotks tlrbkog tki~k mks roimki dki cagl dk~kt tlr`kdo dlimki bkit|ki

gktkjos ykim flfojogo glfkf~|ki trkiselr ~ratai) ^limm|ikki gktkjos kgki

fli|r|igki lilrmo kgtoukso rlkgso slhoimmk lilrmo gkjar ykim dob|t|hgki jlboh

sldogot) ^lrlimgkhki slckrk gktkjotog dkro s|kt| ~krkeeoi dk~kt < skf~ko 5> gkjo

jlboh cl~kt dobkidoimgki dlimki ~lrlimgkhki slckrk thlrfkj) Hkj oio

fliylbkbgki rlkgso ~lrlimgkhki gktkjotog dk~kt dojkims|imgki ~kdk tlf~lrkt|r

a~lrkso jlboh rlidkh dobkidoimgki dlimki ~lrlimgkhki thlrfkj slhoimmk jlboh

lgaiafos dki kfki)

2)3);) ^rasls ^lrlimgkhki Foiykg B|fo

^lrlimgkhki foiykg b|fo flr|~kgki ~rasls ~lf|t|ski ogktki hodragkrbai

~ki`kim ykim tlr|tkfk blrt|`|ki |it|g flimhksojgki ~rad|g t|r|ikiiyk sl~lrto

blisoi dki sajkr) ^kdk ~raslsiyk dohksojgki ~|jk hodragkrbai roimki blr|~k erkgso

mks C; & C4 dki rlsod|) ^kdk dkskriyk ~rasls ~lrlimgkhki dk~kt dojkg|gki dlimki

fltadl ~lrlimgkhki tlrfkj ktk| ~lrlimgkhki gktkjotog (S~lomht ;??;/)

Page 9: BAB II Solar Angga

5/10/2018 BAB II Solar Angga - slidepdf.com

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;2

 Kimmk Rlskjk ^lrdkik Tlgiog Gofok&\ITORTK 

2)3););) ̂ lrlimgkhki Tlrfkj

^lrlimgkhki tlrfkj kdkjkh ~rasls ~lf|t|ski rkitko hodragkrbai ~ki`kim

dlimki flimm|ikgki lilrmo gkjar dkro ~rasls ~lfkikski) 

S|kt| ogktki dkjkf rkitko hodragkrbai ykim tljkh do~|t|sgki ajlh lilrmo

gkjar kgki flfblit|g d|k b|kh rkdogkj blbks ykim flr|~kgki slb|kh ktk|

slg|f~|jki ktaf dlimki ljlgtrai blbks ykim todkg blr~kskimki) Rkdogkj blbks

oio glf|doki kgki fliylrkim ktaf hodramli ~kdk hodragkrbai jkoi |it|g 

flfblit|g sliyk}k ykim jlboh stkboj) ^kdk rlkgso ~lrlimgkhki tlrfkj oio todkg 

tlrblit|g sliyk}k dlimki rkitko blrckbkim gkrlik rlkgso ykim fljobktgki rkdogkj

blbks todkg dk~kt flfblit|g sliyk}k osaflr ktk| todkg tlr`kdo osaflroskso rlkgso

~lrlimkgkhki tlrfkj ykim fljobktgki ~lfblit|gki rkdogkj blbks kdkjkh 0

CH3  – CH2  – CH2  – CH3  CH3  – CH2  –  •CH2 ' •CH3 

•CH3 ' CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH3  CH4 ' CH3 –  •CH2 – CH2 – CH3 

CH3 –  •CH2 – CH2 – CH3  CH26CH2 ' CH2  –  •CH2 

CH –  •CH2 ' •CH3  CH3 – CH3 – CH3

Gljlfkhki dkro ~rasls ~lrlimgkhki thlrfkj kdkjkh dob|t|hgkiiyk lilrmo

gkjar ykim blskr |it|g flf|t|sgki ogktki hodragkrbai) ^kdk ~lrlimgkhki

foiykg b|fo slidoro bokskiyk do~lrj|gki tlf~lrkt|r a~lrkso hoimmk 4<<&<4>¾C 

(S~lomht ;??;/) Sljkoi ot| ~lf|t|ski ogktki gkrbai todkg dk~kt dogaitraj

slhoimmk todkg dk~kt dotlit|gki `lios rlkgso ykim tlr`kdo dki ogktki fkik ykim

kgki do~|t|s) Oiojkh slbkbiyk todkg kdk jkmo gojkim foiykg ykim flimm|ikgki

fltadl ~lrlimgkhki thlrfkj) Skkt oio ~lrlimgkhki thlrfkj hkiyk dom|ikgki

~kdk oid|stro ~ltragofok ~kdk ~rasls ~lfb|ktki ltojli dki ~ra~ojli (Os}krk

2>>5/)

2)3);)2) ̂ lrlimgkhki Gktkjotog

^lrlimgkhki gktkjotog flr|~kgki ~rasls ~lf|t|ski rkitko hêdragkrbai

~ki`kim dlimki flimm|ikgki bkit|ki gktkjos (S~lomht ;??;/) ^limm|ikki

gktkjos kgki fli|r|igki lilrmo kgtoukso rlkgso slhoimmk lilrmo gkjar ykim

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;3

 Kimmk Rlskjk ^lrdkik Tlgiog Gofok&\ITORTK 

dob|t|hgki jlboh sldogot) Hkj oio fliylbkbgki rlkgso ~lrlimgkhki gktkjotog dk~kt

dojkims|imgki ~kdk tlf~lrkt|r a~lrkso jlboh rlidkh dobkidoimgki dlimki

~lrlimgkhki tlrfkj slhoimmk jlboh lgaiafos dki kfki)

^kdk ~lrlimgkhki gktkjotog dom|ikgki gktkjos kskf ykim kgki fliylbkbgki

~lfblit|gki gkrbagktoai) Gkrbagktoai flr|~kgki ktaf gkrbai ykim blrf|ktki

~asotoe ~kdk s|kt| rkitko hêdragkrbai) Gkrbagktoai oio glf|doki kgki flfblit|g 

sliyk}k ykim jlboh stkboj) ^rasls ~lfblit|gki gkrbagktoai dk~kt blrjkims|im

fljkj|o flgkiosfl slbkmko blrog|t (Os}krk 2>>5/ 0

k)  ^likfbkhki ~ratai (H'/ dkro gktkjos kskf sl~lrto rlkgso blrog|t 0

R – CH6CH – CH2 – R ' H'  R – CH2 – C

'H – R

^kdk rlkgso do ktks gktkjos kskf blrtoidkg slbkmko ~liy|fbkim ~ratai

gl~kdk hodragkrbai dki doslb|t slbkmkê kskf Braistld)

b)  ^limhojkimki oai hêdrodk (H&/ dkro hodragkrbai ajlh gktkjos kskf

CH3&CH2&CH2&CH2&CH2&CH2&R CH3&CH'&CH2&CH2&CH2&CH2&R

^kdk rlkgso do ktks gktkjos kskf blrtoidkg slbkmkê ~lilrofk ~ratai dkro

hodragkrbai dki doslb|t slbkmko kskf Jl}os)

Gkrbagktoai ykim tlrblit|g ~kdk ~lrlimgkhki gktkjotog fliylbkbgki

tlr`kdoiyk rlkgso osaflroskso (~lfblit|gki rkitko ckbkim/ dki ljofoikso

(~lfblit|gki ogktki rkimgk~/ slhoimmk ~rad|giyk jlboh blrukrokso dobkidoimgki

~kdk ~lrlimgkhki tlrfkj) Sljkoi ot| gljlbohki ~lrlimgkhki gktkjotog kdkjkh

~lf|t|ski ogktki hodragkrbai tlr`kdo ~kdk s|kt| jagkso tlrtlit| todkg slckrk kckg 

sl~lrto ~kdk ~lrlimgkhki tlrfkj (S~lomht ;??;/)

^kdk ~limajkhki rioiykg b|fo ~lrlimgkhki gktkjotog jlboh dos|gko gkrlik

flimhksojgki jlboh sldogot rlsod| dki jlboh bkiykg erkgso mksajoil dki erkgso

roimki C;  –  C4) ^kdk ~rasls ~lrlimgkhki gktkjotog foiykg b|fo gktkjos ykim

slroim dom|ikgki kdkjkh plajot ykim tljkh dofadoeogkso ykim dk~kt dokt|r toimgkt

glkskfkiiyk blrdkskrgki rksoa gkid|imki So!Kj) Toimgkt glkskfki gktkjos

blr~lrki ~litoim dkjkf flimaitraj rlkgso ykim tlr`kdo) ^limm|ikki gktkjos

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;4

 Kimmk Rlskjk ^lrdkik Tlgiog Gofok&\ITORTK 

dlimki glkskfki rlidkh kgki flimhksojgki rlkgso ~lf|t|ski ogktki tkg `li|h

ykim jlboh jlfkh) Sldkimgki ~limm|ikki gktkjos dlimki glkskfki toimmo kgki

fkf~| flf|t|sgki ogktki ̀ li|h hodragkrbai)

Dlimki blrdkskrgki ~kdk flgkiosfl ~lrlimgkhki ~kdk foiykg b|fo oio

f|jko doglfbkimgki lilrmo kjtlriktoe ykim blrbkhki dkskr foiykg ikbkto) Foiykg 

ikbkto do~ojoh gkrlik tlrs|s|i dkro tromjoslrodk ykim foro~ dlimki gaf~aili ~liy|s|i

foiykg b|fo) Skjkh skt| caitah dkro foiykg ikbkto kdkjkh foiykg gljk~k sk}ot

(C^A/ dki dkjkf ~liljotoki oio flimm|ikgki foiykg marlim blgks ykim flr|~kgki

t|r|iki dkro C^A) 

2)3)2 Flgkiosfl ^lrlimgkhki Gktkjotog ^kdk Foiykg Gljk~k Sk}ot 

Skjkh skt| foiykg ikbkto ykim slroim dom|ikgki slbkmko bkhki bkg|

~liljotoki kdkjkh foiykg gljk~k sk}ot gkrlik gkid|imki hodragkrbai ~ki`kim

dkjkf foiykg gljk~k sk}ot fliylr|~ko foiykg b|fo) Ajlh gkrlik ot| bkiykg 

~liljotoki dojkg|gki |it|g flimkdk~tkso ~rasls ~lrlimgkhki gktkjotog foiykg 

b|fo gl~kdk foiykg gljk~k sk}ot) Skfk hkjiyk sl~lrto ~kdk foiykg b|fo

~lrlimgkhki gktkjotog foiykg gljk~k sk}ot flr|~kgki ~rasls ~lfataimki ogktki

rkitko hodragkrbai ~ki`kim ~kdk kskf jlfkg ykim tlrogkt ~kdk str|gt|r tromjoslrodk

foiykg gljk~k sk}ot dlimki bkit|ki gktkjos)

Slckrk roimgks ~rasls ~lrlimgkhki foiykg gljk~k sk}ot oio tlrdoro ktks

blblrk~k tkhk~ (Hodkykt dgg 2>>=/ ykot|0

;)  ^limhojkimki m|m|s CA2 ~kdk tromjoslrodk dki ~lfblit|gki hodragkrbai

dlimki gk

 

tkjos kskf

Mkfbkr 2)5) Rlkgso ~limhojkimki CA2

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;<

 Kimmk Rlskjk ^lrdkik Tlgiog Gofok&\ITORTK 

Sl~lrto tlrjohkt ~kdk mkfbkr 2)5 oai H'

dkro gktkjos kgki fliylrkim

ktaf A ~kdk C6A slhoimmk tlrblit|g gkrbagktoai (sliyk}k gkrbai blrf|ktki

~asotoe/ dki flf|t|sgki rkitko ogktki CA2 – C ~kdk lstlr slhoimmk

flimhksojgki CA2 dki sliyk}k hodragkrbai ykim blrkskj dkro kskf jlfkg)

2)  Rlkgso ^lrlimgkhki dlimki gktkjos kskf 

Mkfbkr 2)=) Rlkgso ~lrlimgkhki Hodragkrbai

^kdk Mkfbkr 2)= tlrjohkt bkh}k ogktki ~kdk hodragkrbai kgki doslrkim

ajlh oai H'

~kdk gktkjos kskf slhoimmk ogktki gkrbai tlrlimgkh flfblit|g 

rkitko gkrbai ykim jlboh ~lidlg)

Blrdkskrgki ~lfk~krki do ktks dk~kt dosof~|jgki bkh}k erkgso boamksajoil

dk~kt dohksojgki dkro foiykg gljk~k sk}ot fljkj|o rlkgso ~lrlimgkhki gktkjotog)

^kdk ~liljotoki oio foiykg marlim blgks dom|ikgki slbkmko ~limmkito dkro

foiykg gljk~k sk}ot gkrlik gaf~asoso gld|kiyk ykim hkf~or skfk ykot|

slbkmoki blskr tlrdoro dkro tromjoslrodk) ^kdk rlkgso ~lrlimgkhki gktkjotog rkitko

lstlr ~kdk tromjoslrodk kgki tlrgaiulrso fli`kdo hodragkrbai dlimki rkitko ykim

jlboh ~lidlg)

2)4  Bkhki Bkgkr Flsoi Dolslj

Bkhki bkgkr flsoi dolslj ykim boksk dom|ikgki slgkrkim oio flr|~kgki ~rad|g 

dkro foiykg b|fo ykim flr|~kgki erkgso foiykg ykim rljktoe roimki ykim

do~lrajlh dkro erkgsoikso foiykg flitkh dofkik foiykg flitkh oio slbkmoki

blskr tlrdoro dkro sliyk}k hodragkrbai) Sliyk}k hodragkrbai ykim dk~kt

dotlf|gki dkjkf foiykg dolslj kdkjkh hodragkrbai ~krkeoiog iketliog ajleoiog 

dki krafktog) ^|tkrki flsoi ykim blrbldk fliylbkbgki bkhki bkgkr ykim

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;5

 Kimmk Rlskjk ^lrdkik Tlgiog Gofok&\ITORTK 

do~lrj|gki flfojogo gkrkgtlrostog tlrtlit| ~|jk) Kdk d|k majaimki bkhki bkgkr

dolslj bojk domajaimgki blrdkskrgki ̀ lios ~|tkrki flsoi dolslj ykot| 0

;)   Oid|strokj Dolslj Aoj(ODA/)

Bkhki bkgkr dolslj `lios oio dom|ikgki |it|g flsoi dolslj dlimki glcl~ktki

~|tkrki flsoi dobk}kh ;>>> r~f ktk| ja} s~lld dolslj ( JSD/ foskjiyk flsoi

oid|stro) Bkhki bkgkr dolslj oio boksk doslb|t foiykg dolslj)

2)   K|tafatoe Dolslj Aoj (KDA/

Bkhki bkgkr dolslj `lios oio dom|ikgki |it|g flsoi dolslj dlimki glcl~ktki

~|tkrki flsoi doktks ;>>> r~f ktk| Homh s~lld dolslj ( HSD/ foskjiyk flsoi

glidkrkki blrfatar) Bkhki bkgkr dolslj oio boksk doslb|t foiykg sajkr)

Gkrkgtlrostog bkhki bkgkr dolslj ykim do~lrj|gki blrdkskrgki ~|tkrki

flsoi blrh|b|imki dlimki k|ta omiotoai glf|dkhki bkhki bkgkr flimkjor

dkjkf skj|rki bkhki bkgkr glfkf~|ki |it|g tlrktafoskso)

Bkhki bkgkr dolslj f|t|iyk dotlit|gki ajlh kimgk cltkik) Fkgoi toimmo

kimgk cltkik fkgoi toimmo |i`|g glr`k ykim doblrogki ajlh bkhki bkgkr dolslj)

Kimgk cltkik kdkjkh blskriyk gkdkr uaj|fl cltkik dkjkf ckf~|rkiiyk dlimki

fltojik~htkjli) Cltki f|rio flf~|iyko kimgk cltkik 6 ;>> sldkim krafktog 

flf~|iyko kimgk cltkik 6 >) \i`|g glr`k kdkjkh ~lrslitksl rktk&rktk dkyk ykim

dk~kt do~lrajlh dkro flsoi dlimki bkhki bkgkr tlrtlit| dobkidoimgki dlimki

dkyk ykim do~lrajlh dkro bkhki bkgkr ykim flf~|iyko kimgk cltkik 6 ;>>)

^lrbldkki gkrkgtlrostog dkro gld|k majaimki bkhki bkgkr dlslj doktks dk~kt

dojohkt ~kdk Tkblj 2)4 dobk}kh oio0

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;=

 Kimmk Rlskjk ^lrdkik Tlgiog Gofok&\ITORTK 

Tkblj)2)4 ̂ lrbldkki Gkrkgtlrostog Foiykg Sajkr ( K|tafatoul Dolslj Aoj/ dki

foiykg dolslj

SoektFoiykg sajkr Foiykg Doslj

Foi Fkx Foi Fkx

S~lsoeog Mrkeoty 5>!5>aE >)82 >)8= >)84 >)?2

Caja|r KSTF 3)> 5)>

^a|r ~aoitaE 5< 5<

Ejksh ^aoitaE ;<> ;<>

S|je|rl Caitlit ,}t >)< ;)<

Uoscasoty ;)5

(goilfktog/

<)8

(cSt);>>aE/

3<

(Rld}aad/

4<

(cSt);>>aE/

Sldoflit ,}t >)>; >)>2

Ksh Caitlit ,}t >)>; >)>2

]ktlr Caitlit ,uaj >); ;)>

Carkdsai Ckrbai

Rlsod|l ,}t

>)>< >)2<

2)<) Gkrkgtlrostog Bkhki Bkgkr

Gkrkgtlrostog bkhki bkgkr ykim dk~kt flf~limkr|ho glr`k flsoi dolslj

slbkmko blrog|t0

2)<);) Dlisotks

Dlisotks flr|~kgki ~lrbkidoimki kitkrk fkssk ~lr skt|ki uaj|fl bkhki)

\it|g s|kt| foiykg dolslj dlisotks do|g|r dlimki flimm|ikgki fltadl KSTF

D 28= ktk| KSTF D ;2?8) Dlisotks s|kt| foiykg dolslj do|g|r gkrlik

gkrkgtlrostog oio blrh|b|imki lrkt dlimki iojko gkjar dki dkyk ykim dohksojgki

ajlh s|kt| flsoi dolslj ~lrskt|ki bkhki bkgkr ykim dom|ikgki)

2)<)2) Uosgasotks

Uosgasotks kdkjkh tkhkiki s|kt| ej|odk tlrhkdk~ ~limkjorki ykim |f|fiyk

fliyktkgki }kgt| ykim do~lrj|gki ajlh sl`|fjkh ej|odk tlrtlit| |it|g flimkjor

dkjkf ~limkr|h mkyk mrkuotkso b|fo ~kdk slb|kh ~o~k gk~ojlr) Fkgoi blskr

uoscasotks fkgk fkgoi blskr tkhkikiiyk |it|g flimkjor ykim blrkto fkgoi blskr

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;8

 Kimmk Rlskjk ^lrdkik Tlgiog Gofok&\ITORTK 

glglitkjkiiyk dki dlfogoki ~|jk slbkjogiyk) Glcl~ktki kjor bkhki bkgkr fljkj|o

oi`lgtar kgki flf~limkr|ho dlrk`kd ktafoskso bkhki bkgkr do dkjkf r|kim bkgkr)

\it|g bkhki bkgkr flsoi dolslj uosgasotks do|g|r dlimki flimm|ikgki fltadl

KSTF D 44< dlimki skt|ki cSt) Sljkoi ot| uosgasotks bkhki bkgkr `|mk

blr~limkr|h slckrk jkims|im tlrhkdk~ glfkf~|ki bkhki bkgkr tlrslb|t

blrckf~|r dlimki |dkrk) Dlimki dlfogoki uosgasotks bkhki bkgkr ykim toimmo

todkg dohkrk~gki ~kdk bkhki bkgkr flsoi dolslj)

2)<)3) Kimgk Sltkik (KSTF D 5;3&?</

Kimgk sltkil fli|i`|ggki slblrk~k cl~kt bkhki bkgkr flsoi dolslj ykim

dooi`lgsogki gl r|kim bkgkr bosk tlrbkgkr slckrk s~aitki (k|ta omiotoai/ ) Kimgk

sltkik ~kdk bkhki bkgkr flsoi dolslj flfojogo ~limlrtoki ykim blrglbkjogki

dlimki kimgk agtki ~kdk bkhki bkgkr flsoi blisoi gkrlik kimgk agtki

fli|i`|ggki glfkf~|ki ckf~|rki blisoi&|dkrk fli|imm| rkfbktki k~o dkro

b|so (s~krg omiotoai/)

Kimgk sltkik slfkgoi toimmo fli|i`|ggki bkh}k foiykg sajkr tlrslb|t

dk~kt fliykjk ~kdk tlf~lrkt|r ykim rljktoe rlidkh) ^lim|g|rki kimgk sltkil dkro

bkhki bkgkr flsoi dolslj flimm|ikgkiKSTF D 5;3&5< ktk| OSA <;5< stkidkrt

~lim|g|rki flimm|ikgki hlxkdlckil (C;5H34 ykim flfojogo ikfk jkoi cltkil/

slbkmko ~ktagki tlrtoimmo (kimgk sltkik CI6;>>/ dki 2244588

hl~tkflthyjiaikil (HFI ykim `|mk flfojogo gaf~asoso C;5H34 slbkmko ~ktagki

tlrlidkh (CI6;</) Dkro stkidkrd tlrslb|t bosk dojohkt bkh}k hodragkrbai dlimki

rkitko j|r|s (strkomht chkoi/ jlboh f|dkh tlrbkgkr dobkidoimgki dlimkihodragkrbai ykim flfojogo bkiykg ckbkim (brkich/)

2)5) Foiykg Sajkr

Sajkr slckrk r|f|s fajlg|j gkrbaiiyk blrkdk ~kdk rlitkim tlrtlit| ykot|

C;2&C3>) Sldkimgki |it|g gkrkgtlrostog dkro sajkr dk~kt dojohkt dkjkf tkblj blrog|t

oio)

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;?

 Kimmk Rlskjk ^lrdkik Tlgiog Gofok&\ITORTK 

Tkblj 2)<) Soekt Eosogk Foiykg Sajkr ( K|tafatoul Dolslj Aoj/

Ia Gkrkgtlrostog Skt|ki

Bktks

FltadlFoi Fkx

;)

2)

3)

4)

<)

5)

=)

8)

?)

;>)

;;)

;2)

;3)

;4)

;<)

;5)

;=)

;8)

;?)

2>)

Bojkimki Cltkik

Kimgk Sltkik ktk|

Oidlx Sltkik

Fkssk @lios ~kdk ;<aC

Uosc) goilfktog ~kdk tlf~lrkt|r 4>aC

Gkid|imki S|je|r

Dostojjks Tlf~)?<aC

Totog Iykjk

Totog T|kim

Rlsod| Gkrbai

Gkid|imki Kor

Boajamockj Mra} */

Gkid|imki EKFL */

Gkid|imki Fltkiaj dki Ltkiaj

Garaso Jlf~lim Jamkf

Gkid|imki Kb|

Gkid|imki Sldofli

Bojkimki Kskf G|kt

Bojkimki Kskf Tatkj

^krtog|jkt

^likf~ojki Uos|kj

]krik

&

&

Gm!f3 

ff2 !slc

,f!f

aC

aC

aC

,f!f

fm!Gm

&

,u!u

,u!u

Flrot

,u!u

,f!f

fm GAH!mr

fm GAH!mr

fm!jt

&

Ia)KSTF

48

4<

8;<

2)>

&

&

5>

&

&

&

&

&

&

&

&

&

&

&

&

&

8=>

<)>

>)3<;/ 

3=>

&

;8

>);

<>>

;>

Gljks ;

>)>;

>)>;

>

>)5

&

3)>

D 5;3&?<

D 4=3=&?5k

D ;2?8

D44<&?=

D 2522&?8

D ?3&??c

D ?=

D 4<3>&?3

D ;=44&?2

D 48;<

D ;3>&?4

D 482&?<

D 4=3

D 554

D 554

D 22=5&??

D ;<>>

*/ Gh|s|s foiykg sajkr ykim flimkid|im boadlslj `lios dki s~lsoeogkso boadolsljiyk flimkc|

gl~kdk ~lflroitkh

;/ Bktkski >)3<, f!f sltkrk dlimki 3<>> ~~f 

 

Iohoj

Tkg tlrdltlgso

@lrioh % Tlrki

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2>

 Kimmk Rlskjk ^lrdkik Tlgiog Gofok&\ITORTK 

2)=) MC&FS

Grafktamrkeo Mks S~lgtrasga~o Fkssk (MC&FS/

MC&FS kdkjkh fltadl ykim flimmkb|imgki grafktamrkeo mks dki

s~lgtrasga~o fkssk |it|g flimodlitoeogkso pkt dkjkf skf~lj (gaf~aili

~liy|s|i/) Sglfk Kjkt MC&FS dk~kt dojohkt ~kdk Mkfbkr 2)8)

Mkfbkr 2)8) Sglfk Kjkt MC&FS 

^roiso~ glr`k MC&FS dof|jko dkro sliyk}k skf~lj ykim kgki dotlfbkg ajlh kr|s ljlgtrai dki fliylbkbgki sliyk}k tlr~oskh fli`kdo erkmfli) Erkmfli

oio dk~kt jlboh blskr ktk| jlboh glcoj dkro fajlg|j ksjoiyk) Erkmfli slblikriyk

kdkjkh f|ktki oai dlimki fkssk tlrtlit|) Fkssk erkmfli `ogk dobkmo f|ktki

doslb|t ~lrbkidoimki fkssk ~lr f|ktki (F!P/) F!P bokskiyk fl}kgojo blrkt

fajlg|j erkmfli) Lf~kt ljlgtrafkmilt ({|kdra~jl/ kgki flfeag|sgki erkmfli

fljl}kto cljkh fli|`| dltlgtar) [|kdra~ajl do~ramrkf ajlh gaf~|tlr |it|g 

hkiyk flimkrkhgki erkmfli F!P tlrtlit| ykim fljl}kto cljkh) Soskiyk kgki

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2;

 Kimmk Rlskjk ^lrdkik Tlgiog Gofok&\ITORTK 

tlr~litkj fli`k|h) Gaf~|tlr flfojogo sogj|s {|kdra~ajl |it|g F!P blrbldk

hoimmk slf|k dklrkh F!P tljkh tlrdltlgso) Sogj|s oio blrjkims|im blrgkjo&gkjo ~lr

dltog) Sltok~ sogj|s doslb|t scki) Gaf~|tlr flrlgkf mrkeog ~kdk sltok~ scki)

S|fb| x fl}kgojo rksoa ~lrbkidoimki F!P) S|fb| y fl}kgojo oitlisotks soiykj

|it|g sltok~ erkmfli tlrdltlgso sljkfk scki) Mrkeog oio doslb|t s~lgtr|f fkssk)

S~lgtr|f fkssk ykim dohksojgki ajlh sliyk}k gofok bokskiyk skfk |it|g sltok~

}kgt|) Ajlh gkrlik ot| s~lgtr|f fkssk skimkt ~litoim |it|g flimodlitoeogkso

sliyk}k) Gaf~|tlr MC&FS flfojogo jotlrkt|r s~lgtr|f ykim bosk dom|ikgki

|it|g flimodlitoeogkso sliyk}k gofok ykim todkg dogltkh|o) Jotlrkt|r kgki

flfbkidoimgki s~lgtr|f fkssk dkro gaf~aili skf~lj dki flfbkidoimgki

dlimki s~lgtr|f fkssk dkro jotlrkt|r) Hksojiyk blr|~k odlitoeogkso blrskfk

dlimki ~rabkbojotks glforo~ki slckrk stktostog)

2)8 BLT ( Br|ik|lr Lffltt Tljjlr/

J|ks ~lrf|gkki  (s|rekcl krlk/ flr|~kgki soekt ykim ~litoim dkjkf

k~jogkso gktkjos) Ostojkh tlgst|r (tlxt|rl/ flr|`|g ~kdk str|gt|r ~aro ~krtoglj slckrk

|f|f fljo~|to j|ks ~lrf|gkki dostrob|so |g|rki ~aro dki blit|g ~aro) Dkro

blblrk~k soekt gkotkiiyk dlimki tlgst|r tlrslb|t j|ks ~lrf|gkki (s|rekcl krlk

Sm f2m&;/ flr|~kgki ~krkfltlr ykim ~kjoim ~litoim gkotkiiyk dlimki

~lrf|gkki gktkjos do dkjkf doskoi gktkjos hltlramli) J|ks ~lrf|gkki tatkj

flr|~kgki grotlrok gr|sokj |it|g gktkjos ~kdkt gkrlik skimkt flilit|gki `|fjkh

sot|s kgtoe do dkjkf gktkjos gkotkiiyk dlimki kgtoeotks gktkjos)

^lim|g|rki j|ks ~lrf|gkki flimm|ikgki tlgiog kdsar~so eosog flimm|ikgki ~roiso~ mkyk uki dlr ]kkjs) Osatlrf glslofbkimki dk~kt

domkfbkrgki dofkik uaj|fl ykim tlrkdsar~so do~jatgki tlrhkdk~  ~ !  ~> ( ~0

tlgkiki  ~>0 tlgkiki `li|h ~kdk tlf~lrkt|rl ~lim|g|rki/) Fadlj tlarltos |it|g 

fliyktkgki osatlrf glslofbkimki dkjkf kdsar~so kdkjkh fadlj Br|ik|lr

Lffltt Tljjlr ykim jlboh doglikj dlimki ~lrskfkki BLT0

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22

 Kimmk Rlskjk ^lrdkik Tlgiog Gofok&\ITORTK 

Dkjkf h|b|imki oio UF kdkjkh uaj|fl jk~os t|immkj dki c kdkjkh

~kiks kdsar~so dki ~lickorki (jo{|lekctoai/ ykim gaistkit |it|g blblrk~k bkhki

dlimki iojko g|rkim dkro ;>>) ^lrskfkki (3)3/ kdkjkh ukjod hkiyk |it|g  ~ !  ~> ≤

>)3) Doktks hkrmk tlrslb|t gaidliskso ckorki tlr`kdo do fogra~aro hoimmk flsa~aro

hoimmk  ~ !  ~> flidlgkto skt|) Dkjkf ~lim|g|rkiiyk bokskiyk flimm|ikgki mks

iotramli slbkmko kdsarbktiyk) ^lrskfkki (3)3/ do|bkh sldlfogoki r|~k slhoimmkdk~kt dob|kt ~jat kitkrk  ~!~> us  ~! WU ( ~&~>/V ykim ~kdk kghoriyk UF  dki j|ks

~lrf|gkki (Sm/ bosk dotlit|gki0

Dostrob|so |g|rki ~aro  ( ~arl sopl dostrob|toai/ `|mk flr|~kgki ~krkfltlr

~litoim do dkjkf gk`oki gkrkgtlroskso gktkjos) Soekt&soekt ~aro dkjkf gktkjos ~kdk

gliyktkkiiyk skimkt flimlidkjogki eliaflik ~lr~oidkhki dki blrh|b|imki

slgkjo dlimki sljlgtoeotks do dkjkf rlkgso gktkjotog) Soekt&soekt ~aro sl~lrto uaj|fl

~aro dki dostrob|so |g|rki ~aro sljki`|tiyk fli`kdo ~krkfltlr ~litoim tlr|tkfk

|it|g gktkjos ykim blrsoekt sljlgtoe tlrhkdk~ blit|g dki |g|rki ~aro (shk~l

sljlctoul cktkjysos/)

Fltadl ~liylrk~ki mks bokskiyk dom|ikgki |it|g flimgkrkgtlroskso

fktlrokj blr~aro ykim blr|g|rki flsa~aro (dokfltlr 2&<> if/ dki fogra~aro

(dokfltlr :2 if/) ^lrsakjki flimliko tkhkiki doe|so ~aro dki dlkgtoekso gktkjos

dk~kt do~ljk`kro dkro blit|g dki |g|rki ~aroiyk) G|ruk osatlrf ykm do~lrajlh dkro

~lrcabkki ~li`lrk~ki eosog dk~kt fli`ljksgki `lios ~arasotks do dkjkf skf~lj

gktkjos)