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TransportationTowards an Efcient Economy

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2 Towards an Efficient Economy | Thesis Statement

Thesis Statement

Since the United Nations publication o OurCommon Future (Brundtland, 1987), sustain-able development has become a prominentconcept in creating a more economical, social

and environmentally riendly world. It wasalso in the 19th Century that the zoned plan-ning system was developed, which meant ar-eas were developed with single uses. Whilethe aim was to improve quality o lie, this ap-proach was successul in that it prevented so-cial injustices such as industry being adjacentto housing, but it has had other costly conse-quences on city developments. The largest owhich is the nature o urban sprawl, which de-

pends on automobiles to obtain most servic-es. This sort o city development was shapedby an era run by cheap oil. A system whichseemed to run eciently back then, is nowproblematic due to the growth o populationand private vehicle ownership over the pastew decades. Modern cities suer an endlesslist o problems because o urban sprawl, in-cluding loss o productive land, trac conges-tion and spiralling inrastructure cost among

others (Duany, Plater-Zyberk, & Speck, 2000)

Evolution o ChristchurchChristchurch, like most cities, has been pro-gressively shaped by the evolution o trans-port technologies rom walking to transit andautomobile. This had enabled cities to orm anew style o development, which resulted in apush outwards. This is coined by Newman asthe one hour wide city, which meant that cit-ies could easily spread up to ty kilometres aslong as the commute time stays within one hour(Newman & Jennings, 2008). This is a naturalevolution o cities and are understandablebut not wholly benecial(Coupland, 1996).

This change o city size via change in trans-port technology is noteworthy that, while eachadvancement allowed an expansion o the city,it also made the previous transport technology

less eective (Dravitzki & Lester, 2007). Forinstance, The existing transport network inChristchurch avours people to drive cars. It isperceived as the easiest, most convenient wayto travel. Thus the growth o private vehicle hasreached 0.8 vehicles per capita in 2008 (Min-istry o Transport, 2012) while consequentlyexerting stress on public transport patronage.

Public Transport in ChristchurchTo Christchurchs credit, they have a publicbus network, but because o the urban sprawlit is inecient and thereore has a relativelylow patronage. However in the wake o therecent earthquakes, now is the perect time torethink its transport network to uture proothe shortage o petroleum and energy as weconcede that crisis is oten the best catalystor change. The cordoned o city centre ur-ther accentuates the demand o a new trans-port solution as roadways suer rom conges-tions, adding to drivers rustrations. Whatwas then a mono-centric city is now gradu-ally transorming into a multi-nodal city asbusiness begins their shit outside o the citycentre. The recent drat plan proposed by theChristchurch City Council (CCC) in Decem-ber 2011 addressed the issues o public trans-portation by reintroducing light-rail back intothe city. However there is a constant lack oevidence provided by the CCC to persuade thegovernment to help und the $1.8 billion pack-age, especially knowing that mass rapid tran-sit will only be eective when provided withsucient population density (Jhumm, 2012).

Thereore the large investment unds intostate highways and road widening rom thegovernment has long been the short-term xto resolve road congestion. This thesis discuss-

es the notion that Christchurch is categoris-ing itsel in the City o Fear instead o Cityo Hope. (Newman, Beatley, & Boyer, 2009)

Cities of fear make decisions based on short-term,

even panicked, responses; cities of hope plan for the

long term, with each decision building towards that

vision, hopeful that some of the steps will be tipping

points that lead to fundamental change. Cities of

fear engage in competition as their only driving

force, while cities of hope build consensus around co-operation and partnership. Cities of fear see threats

everywhere while cities of hope see opportunities to

improve in every crisis. (Newman et al., 2009)

Public transportation services are pivotal tothe wellbeing o a nation. They provide mobil-ity, shape land use and development patterns,generate jobs and enable economic growth, andsupport public policies regarding energy use,

air quality and carbon emissions (Weisbrod& Reno, 2009). This thesis aims to dissect thecurrent conditions o Christchurchs transpor-tation network and its eects on the economy.

Where Retailers and Transport MergeIt is recognised that as oil becomes increas-ingly scarce, transport and commodity priceswill increase (Mitchell, 2008). The availabil-ity o cheap oil has a major contribution toChristchurchs low density living as peopleare prepared to travel arther to engage inactivities. The low travel costs have occurredsimultaneously with societal changes such asincreased household income, smaller amilies,

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3Che Wei Lee

more leisure time and the shit rom shop-ping as necessity to shopping as recreation(Rotem-Mindali & Salomon, 2007). It is or theaorementioned social changes and shit to

private transport that signicantly changedNew Zealand retail landscapes such as thedomination by malls, big box retail centresand supermarkets (Abigail, 2009). This thesiswill discuss the relationship between trans-portation and retail trends. Retailers havetaken advantage o commuting behavioursin land on the edges o cities where rents arecheaper. However as driving costs increase inthe near uture, there will be a corresponding

shit o retail to ocus back to central places.

The 5th Wave o Innovation:Inormation CityAs previously mentioned, transportationtechnology has been the main driver thatshapes the urban orm. It was the ve waveso innovation (Water power mechanisation,steam power rail, electricity, petroleum and

digital networks) that contributed to societalchanges or the last two centuries (Newmanet al., 2009). While we are already enteringthe sixth wave o innovation (sustainable de-velopment), Christchurchs urban orm , likemost cities around the world, remains at the4th wave. The innovation o digital networkshas created new opportunities such as E-retail, in which drew much attention or theshit rom traditional to virtual store ormat.

There is a growing body or research whichsuggests the eect o E-retail to vehiculartravel demand (Rotem-Mindali & Salomon,2007). This thesis raises the curiosity o howinnovation o inormation technology couldpotentially change the need or commute and

aect the uture urban abric o Christchurch.

Catalyst o Change via TechnologyWithin the New Zealand context Christchurchhas the highest vehicle ownership, with 0.8cars per capita and 2.5 cars per household. Itscar use pattern suggests that 95% o work trav-els to work are occupied by a single person,the driver (Ministry o Transport, 2012). Thisthesis aims to target the problem o single-oc-cupancy vehicles. Through inormation tech-nology we can undamentally change the waywe perceive our personal vehicles by turningempty seats into useul resources. The prob-lem is not the number o cars we own, but howwe travel makes a signicant dierence to thecommunity. Controlling car-use has multiplerippling eect such as the relie o stress onroad congestion, relie stress on road wideninginvestment, and consequently allowing moreunds or the improvement o public transport.

Cars also take up a lot o spaces, more thanwe like to think so. In act, the underestimatecalculations suggest that 32% o the CathedralSquare area unit is lled with car parks that canaccommodate at least 1,000 single detachedhouse units. My goal is thereore targetingthe adverse eects o the abundant amounto car parks Christchurch has, and utilisethem much more useully that contribute to ahopeul vision: A Multimodal Traveling City.

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Abigail, A. (2009). Big Box Retailing in NewZealand. Lower Hutt, New Zealand. http://www.successulcities.co.nz/publications/Busi-ness%20location%20decisions%20and%20re-

tail/Allan-2009-IssuesPaperBigBoxRetailing.pd

Brundtland, H. (1987). Our Common Future.Oxord University Press.

Coupland, A. (1996). Reclaiming the City:Routledge.

Dravitzki, V., & Lester, T. (2007). Can WeLive by Public Transport Alone? Paper pre-sented at the Transport: The Next 50 Years,Christchurch, New Zealand. http://www.suc-cessulcities.co.nz/publications/Public%20Transport/Dravitzki-Lester-2007-Canwelive-bypublictransportalone.pd

Duany, A., Plater-Zyberk, E., & Speck, J. (2000).Suburban nation : the rise o sprawl and the

decline o the American Dream (1st ed.). NewYork: North Point Press.

Jhumm. (2012). Busways Instead o Light RailLines? Retrieved rom http://chchtransport.wordpress.com/2012/04/26/busways-instead-o-light-rail-lines/

Ministry o Transport. (2012). Transport Vol-ume: Fleet Inormation Retrieved 14th March

2012, rom http://www.transport.govt.nz/our-work/TMIF/Pages/TV035.aspx

Mitchell, D. (2008). A Note on Rising FoodPrices Wold Bank Policy Research WorkingPaper.

Newman, P., Beatley, T., & Boyer, H. (2009). Re-silient cities : responding to peak oil and cli-mate change. Washington, DC: Island Press.

Newman, P., & Jennings, I. (2008). Cities assustainable ecosystems : principles and prac-tices. Washington, D.C.: Island Press.

Rotem-Mindali, O., & Salomon, I. (2007). The

impacts o e-retail on the Choice o ShoppingTrips and Delivery: Some Preliminary Find-ings Transport Research Part A, 41, (pp. 176 -186).

Weisbrod, G., & Reno, A. (2009). Economic Im-pact o Public Transport Investment: Ameri-can Public Transportation Association.

Bibliography

Towards an Efficient Economy | Thesis Statement Bibliography

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Since the emergence o cities several thou-sand years ago, their orm and patterns havechanged signicantly. The globalisation ocity economics has drawn in resources rom

across the biosphere, with consumption occur-ring ar rom the place o production.(Newman& Jennings, 2008) The concentration o energyhas always been evident. As the population ocities grow, decision making becomes invari-ably more complex. However, they are mostoten still shaped and structured by one unda-mental driver: personal mobility.

1.0 Catalyst or the UrbanForm.

1.1 Travel Time Budget

The average travel-time budget has alwaysbeen around one hour per day. This is alsoknown as the Marchetti constant throughoutthe urban history. This time-budget appears

to be the principle or how people live in cit-ies: the preerence o traveling on average halan hour or their main journey to and romhome (Newman & Jennings, 2008). Thus theMarchetti constant dictates that cites can beno more than one hour wide. This essentiallymeant that an average trip can be hal an hourand a maximum trip can be one hour.This understanding o an acceptable maxi-mum travel time provides insight and plan-

ning priorities or cities, as a city may becomedysunctional beyond a particular size andspread. Cities with high density can grow larg-er in population because they cover less area,thereore various modes o transportationcould still take people to most destinations un-der hal an hour. On the other hand, cities withlower density will reach their size limits soonerbecause a city with an average transit will be-gin to be dysunctional once its size spreads

greater than one hour wide(Newman & Jen-nings, 2008).

The other limit to the size o a city is the over-stretch o the cities bio-regional capacities.Cities can oten exceed the capacity o theirwatersheds, ood, energy, and materials to pro-vide sustainable consumption, orcing the cityto rely more on imports. It is thereore the hu-man ecology and systems which leads to the

shape and structure o cities.

For the argument o this thesis, I will begin byexamining how cities have changed throughhistory while keeping this major system char-

acteristic o the acceptable travel time budget.Understanding the way urban systems havehistorically been shaped by transport priori-ties will provide a better insight into how a

more sustainable city could be shaped into.

FIGURE 1: Travel time budget and the size o cities

Towards an Efficient Economy | Economic Research | Urban Form Catalyst

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1.2 Walking Cities

The traditional walking city embraced the ne-cessity o walking as the main mode o trans-port. It has determined the urban orm o cit-ies between 10,000 to 7,000 years ago until the

middle o nineteenth century. A highlightedeature o these walking cities is the highdensities o between 100 and 200 people perhectare, mixed land use, narrow street whichcould be walked at ve to eight kilometers perhour. Thus cities were usually small and com-pact, with no more than ve to eight kilome-ters across. It also allows close proximity toagricultural land and accessibility to all partso the city with an average hal-hour journey

there and back.

3.2 KM

The early settlement o Christchurch be-gan in November 1847. At the time townswould be like a community back in Eng-land, with landowners, small armers andworkers, and with churches, shops andschool. The plan o Christchurch at the

Source: christchurch city libraries, http://goo.gl/fFJS1

time consists o the characteristics o a walk-ing city, with longest distance spanning atmerely 3 kilometers. It has a mono-centricorm, like most walking cities.

FIGURE 2: Map o 1874 Christchurch

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1.3 Transit Cities

Due to the pressure rom population and in-dustrial growth and the invention o tramsand trains in the mid 1800s, the old walkingcity was slowly replaced by transit-based cit-

ies. These cities consisted o medium-density,mixed-use developments at the rail nodes andalong the tram routes. Consistent with thetravel-time budget, cities could now extend upto twenty to thirty kilometers. Walking villag-es based around train or tram routes were typi-cally ormed at various nodal points. Agricul-tural and natural areas still remained betweenthe corridors o linear development.

Due to the pressure rom population and in-dustrial growth and the invention o tramsand trains in the mid 1800s, the old walkingcity was slowly replaced by transit-based cit-

ies. These cities consisted o medium-density,mixed-use developments at the rail nodes andalong the tram routes. Consistent with thetravel-time budget, cities could now extend upto twenty to thirty kilometers. Walking villag-es based around train or tram routes were typi-cally ormed at various nodal points. Agricul-tural and natural areas still remained betweenthe corridors o linear development.

10 KM

Christchurchs introduction to rail datesback to 1863, the opening o Ferrymead toMoorhouse Avenue railway was New Zea-lands rst public steam railway. Steam andhorse trams launched rom 1882, replacingthe once walking city o Christchurch to

a transit city. This consequentially pushedthe boundaries o the cities urther out-wards, at approximately 10km wide.

Source: christchurch city libraries, http://goo.gl/fFJS1

FIGURE 3: Map o 1941 christchurch


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Since the 1950s, cities have been shaped bymotorized transportation, particularly inNorth America and Australia. Car-dependentcities have the characteristics o low densities

o between ten to twenty people per hectare.They are typically bigger in area than transitcities and much more spread out, given thatautomobiles can travel up to ty kilometerswithin the travel time budget. Other than ur-ban parks, there is generally little access toagricultural and natural lands because the ar-eas between linear corridors o the transit cityhave been lled with car-dependent suburbswhenever roads are established.

This orm o city gained great popularityamongst many developed cities. Coupling withmotorway inrastructure, it enabled cities to betraversed more quickly by car than by publictransport along corridors, or more quickly bycar than by cycling or walking or local trips.

The consequences o automobile cities arehigh ecological ootprints and high economic

costs. Automobile cities typically use morethan 1,000 liters o gasoline per person peryear on mobility; transit cities use around 300to 500 liters; and walking cities use less than100 liters per person per year. Car-dependentcities spends around 12 to 17 percent o theirhousehold expenditure on transportationcosts, compared to 5 to 8 percent in transit andwalking cities (Newman & Kenworthy, 1999).The high costs are due to the space require-

ments or cars and the expense o their pur-chase and use.

Car-dependent cities also create a numbero social problems. The sense o community

is undermined by precluding casual interac-tion that occur while walking and using pub-lic transport. Furthermore, the overwhelmingpresence o cars makes streets unsae or chil-

dren; urban vitality and public saety are com-promised as the public realm is increasinglyprivatized. Social capital is diminished in theprocess and health is undermined by the lacko walking.

1.4 Automobile Cities

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Christchurch today has most characteris-tics described above. The uptake o privateautomobiles in the 1950s has had severeimpact on existing trams, hence a dramat-ic all o public transportation which is tobe examined later in this thesis. CurrentlyChristchurch city spreads at roughly 30kmwide, which is in act an ideal size or thetransit city previously mentioned. However

despite having the advantage o a fat ty-pography, the existing transport network

avours people who drive cars. This isseen as one o the many contributing ac-tors to the lack o advancement in publictransportation advancement over the pastyears.

30 KM

FIGURE 4: Map o present christchurch To sum up, the dramatic rate o urbanizationtakes up more land and increases the impacton ecosystem patterns. The demands o urbanpopulation exerts greater pressure on the eco-

systems outside cities - all because o the needto accommodate peoples average one-hourtravel-time budget. The availability o cheappetroleum in conjunction with automobile-dependent urban orms has lead to sprawlingcities with high ecological ootprints and mul-tiple social issues.


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FIGURE 5: Cities wealth and car use

FIGURE 6: Workers using public transport vs private vehicle energy consumption per capita

1.5 Comparing Walking, Transit and Automobile Cities

Most cities today have a combination o all ur-ban orms, oten in rings around the center. Forinstance, Melbournes ringe areas has two tothree times more car use and three times less

public transport and walking than the wealthycore o the city. When comparing cities, thereis no correlation between car use and the av-erage per capita wealth (Newman, 2000) (Fig-ure. 5). However the two opposing commuting(cars and public transport) patterns are moreapparent in Figure 6.

The key to these dierent cities, and the eec-tiveness o its public transport inrastructure,

is the relative speed o transit to trac. MostU.S. and Australian cities have much highertrac speeds than transit speeds; thus with theconstraints o the travel-time budget, peoplewill tend to drive, allowing high speed trains tobe the only competition.

European cities and wealthy Asian cities usual-ly have higher transit than trac speeds, there-ore a much better public transport patronage,

however this will only remain so i they buildno high-speed reeways. Developing countriessuch as Bangkok, Kuala Lumpur, Manila havenot developed quality mass-transit systems,so buses are stuck in trac, despite having atransit-based urban orm. Hence city streetsare usually congested as people try to mini-mize their travel times. For instance in Bang-kok, where average speed or trac is 13 kph,the transit speed is at a non competitive 9 kph

due to the lack o trains or bus-lanes. Thesecities can overcome automobile dependencyeectively i they obtain sustainable rail sys-tems or bus rapid-transit schemes that bypassthe trac.

0

10000

20000

30000

40000

Ameri

can

Austr

alian

Europe

an

Wealth

yAsian

Develo

pingA

sian

0

2750

5500

8250

1100010870

6536

4519

1487 1611G

rossRegionalProduct(G

RP)US$

Caruse[km/perperson]

GRP Car use (KM

per capita)

Private passenger transport energy consumption per capita

Proportions of workers using public or non-motorised transport

MJ/person

Percent

ageofworkersusing

publictransport

0

15000

30000

45000

60000

Ameri

can

Austr

alian

Europe

an

Wealth

yAsian

Develo

pingA

sian

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

14%19%

57%

80%

56%

Source: Newman and Kenworthy, 1998

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TRADITIONAL PRE-MODERN

WALKING CITY

INDUSTRIAL TRANSIT CITY MODERN AUTOMOBILE CITY FUTURE CITY

ECONOMY (AND

TECHNOLOGY)

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

TRANSPORTATION

URBAN FORM

ENVIRONMENT /

RESOURCES / WASTES /

NATURE ORIENTATION

small household industries(local and small regionaleconomy

Larger Industries,Concentrated in parts ofcities (national and regionaleconomy)

Large scale industriesscattered through city.(National and regionaleconomy)

information and servicesoriented. (global economy),heavy industries to ruralareas and small towns

person to person,

community based

Bigger Cities losing person-to person contact but stillcommunity oriented in rail-

based suburbs Individualistic and isolated

Local community-based, but

globally linked

walking (and cycling later)Streetcars and trains (alsowalking and cycling) Cars (almost exclusively)

walking and cycling (local),transit (across city), cars(supplementary), air (forglobal)

walking city: small, dense,mixed, organic

Transit city: medium densitysuburbs, dense mixedcentre, corridors with greenwedges

auto city: high rise CBD, lowdensity suburban sprawlzone to further separatefunctions

Future city: Local urbanvillages (high density) linkedacross city by transit,medium and low densityareas around villages, No

Low resources Low wastesClose to rural areas(dependent)

Medium resources Mediumwastes some connectionthrough green wedges

high resources high wasteslittle nature orientation(independent)

Low-medium resources Low-medium wastes, close tonature.

FIGURE 7: Comparing walking, transit and automobile cities


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In 1984 American Public Transportation As-sociation (APTA) has carried out an analysiso the employment and business revenue im-pacts o investment in public transit. It dem-

onstrated that investment in public transitsupports signicant job creation and increasein business revenues at the national, state andlocal level, creating substantial economic ben-ets in addition to the more obvious mobilitybenets provided to riders and the travelingpublic (Cambridge Systematics Inc & Econom-ic Development Research Group, 1999). Thesame analytical techniques have been appliedin several major metropolitan areas and the

analyses showed that the economic return wasmany times greater than the initial investment,and that the long-term negative economic im-pacts o under-investing were severe.

2.0 Eects on the Economy

Direct spending reers to the capital invest-ment in public transportation that supportsthe purchase o equipment and acilities.These will also support associate jobs such asdrivers, maintenance workers and other trans-portation agency workers. Thus, investmentin public transportation projects and servicescan directly support short-term constructionjobs and longer term operations jobs (Weis-brod & Reno, 2009).

Indirect Efects: The above direct spend-ing can lead to sales and thus support jobsin supplier industries.

Induced Efects: The wages o construc-tion workers and public transportationoperation workers, as well as growth inwages at suppliers, can all lead to urtherretail sales or businesses that provideconsumer goods and services.

The long-term travel benets are undamentaljustications or public transportation invest-ment that can ultimately lead to greater andmore lasting impacts on an areas economy.

The direct benets or travellers alls into ourcategories:

In addition to the transportation and economic

benets above, which can be quantied or ex-pressed in dollar terms, it is also useul to rec-ognize broader qualitative benets. The valueo having the a choice o public transportationwhen typical mode o travel is unavailable isone o many impacts that should be includedor decision making. This also creates resil-iency or transportation under circumstancessuch as vehicle unavailability due to mainte-nance and repair, high gas prices or parking

costs, or short term disability or nancial con-straints (Weisbrod & Reno, 2009).

The most oten celebrated environmental ben-ets due to increased public transportation isthe reduction o air pollution, noise and a widevariety o automobile related health problems.

These impacts are illustrated below in Figure8.

To understand the ull scope o the economic

impact rom transportation investment, oneneeds to rstly distinguish the dierence be-tween economic impact and benet-cost anal-ysis:

Economic impact analysis ocuses specicallyon measurable changes in the fow o money(income) going to households and businesses,including both spending and productivity e-ects.

Benet-cost includes social, environmentaland quality o lie impacts.

Below are demonstrations o the economic im-pact o transportation:

2.1.1 Direct Spending

2.1.2 Indirect and Induced Eects

2.1.3 Travel Improvement Impacts

2.1.4 Non-Monetary Impacts

2.1 Economic Impact AnalysisV.S Beneft-Cost Analysis

1. Travel time savings

2. Travel cost savings

3. Reliability improvements

4. Saety improvements

These benets can all provide monetary sav-ings or passengers and travellers who keepusing other transportation modes.

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FIGURE 8: Transportation environmental linkages

Towards an Efficient Economy | Economic Research | Transit Investment benefits

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An increase o transit services will aect travelpatterns in a variety o ways. This in turn, haveconsequences or the economy. Vehicles thatare removed rom trac stream via transit use

produces travel time savings or both transitand highway users. Although these savingsmay be hard to pinpoint through quantitativeterms, it refects real improvements in mobilityand accessibility at a personal, neighborhoodand community level.

The driving act behind the understandingo economic impacts o transit investmentsare the act that businesses and workers have

a limited budget o time and dollars. A well-unctioning transit system saves time and re-duces travel related costs or the millions otransit and highway users daily. Business canbenet rom allocating less resources to logis-tic costs and gaining a larger workorce. Thisoers businesses to develop competitive prod-ucts and services in the long run in order to

2.2 Transit Investment Benefts

FIGURE 9: Relationship between transportation and economic impacts

benet themselves and supporting businesses.The ripple eect o transit investment are illus-trated in Figure 9.

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3.0 Rise and Decline o New Zealand Public Transport

The public transport in New Zealand has typi-cally sought to resolve two major transportproblems: trac congestion in the major citiesand generation o greenhouse gas emissions.

In 2009, New Zealands total greenhouse gasemission were 70.6 million tones o carbondioxide equivalent, which means it is 19.4%higher than the 1990 level. Ministry or theEnvironment states that this long-term trendis largely due to growth in energy emissions,particularly rom road transport and electricitygeneration.

When compared with reports rom Land

Transport NZ (Figure 10.), Road transportationaccounts or a vast majority o all transportCO2 emissions (Ministry or the Environment,2011). This is the result o a high preerenceo commuting via personal automobiles overpublic transport. Statistics rom the TravelSurvey rom 2008 - 2009 shows more than halo the sampling population did not use publictransport at all. One may easily question theeciency o New Zealands public transport

today without knowing its evolution over time.Thereore this thesis examines New Zealandspast to identiy the circumstances in whichpublic transport was a success.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Total emissions

Agriculture

Energy

Industrial processes

Waste

MtCO2equivalent

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

1999

1998

1997

1996

1995

1994

1993

1992

1991

1990

Source:

Ministryo

fthe

Env

ironment

Source:

Lan

dTran

sport

NZ

FIGURE 10: New Zealands total greenhouse gas emission rom 1990 to 2009

FIGURE 11: Co2 emissions rom all transport in New Zealand, by mode

Towards an Efficient Economy | Economic Research | Rise and Decline of Public Transport in New Zealand

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3.1 Electric Tram Growth

Most New Zealand early settlements in the late1800 had already transormed to the previous-ly mentioned transit city. Cities that spreadat approximately ten to twenty kilometers, al-

ready had steam or horse powered public tran-sit systems. However the period 1899 to 1916was the start o a new era in New Zealand trans-port with 12 electric tram systems introducedin various New Zealand cities and towns. Thiswas the rst time electricy was used as a sig-nicant source o transport energy.

The our main cities (Auckland, Wellington,Christchurch and Dunedin) had populations

ranging rom 50,000 to 180,000 whom sup-ported the public transport system. Tramsdominated the urban passenger travel untilthe early 1950s

3.2 Introduction o Buses andTrucks

The First World War had exposed many sol-diers to the uses o trucks, thus setting upsmall bus companies and trucking rms be-came popular amongst the post-war soldiers.

This is noticeable in the time line below (Fig-ure 12) where there is the initial decline o trampatronage (i).

Two actors signicantly impacted the long-term tram patronage between 1930 to 1950:rst, the 1930s Depression reduced economicactivity and decreased patronage (ii) and sec-ond, the Second World War restricted car useand petrol rationing, resulting in a steep boost

in patronage (iii). As a result, Tramway patron-age hit its peak in the war years (iv).

Source:

RiseandDeclineofPublicTransportinN

Z

(i)

(ii) (iii)

(iv)

Tram Passengers Carried

250,000,000

200,000,000

150,000,000

100,000,000

50,000,00

1910

1920

1915

1925

1930

1935

1940

1945

1950

1955

0

FIGURE 12: Tramway patronage 1900 to 1955

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FIGURE 13: New Zealand new cars registered rom 1926 to 2010

3.3 Entering the AutomobileEra

The 1950s were, according to Peter Newman,known as the automobile city. It was a typicalperiod where cities sprawled substantially dueto the uptake o private automobiles. New Zea-

land was no dierent, and the restrictions thatmay have constrained private car uptake romprevious two decades had disappeared. Cou-pling with the wealth New Zealand had dur-ing the 1950s, private car ownership and useincreased rapidly. By the end o the decade, thegoal o many British and U.S car makers or theWestern World - a car or every household -was close to being achieved in New Zealand.As New Zealands population grew, cities

began to expand but this time in a orm go-verened by private car rather than publictransportation. Moreover, there were large

changes to the public transport system. Withthe exception o Wellington, most trams werereplaced by motor-based bus systems. Becauseo the growing car industry coupled with a

now 50 years old tram system which neededsubstantial upgrading to meet the demandso the growing city, investment towards bus-based systems would have been a reasonablestep. Compared with reinvestment in the tramsystems, buses had lower operating cost andgreater route fexibility or increased coverage,thus appeared a better choice. Unortunatelythe implementation o this system was car-ried out carelessly hence the decline o public

transport patronage.

0

75000

150000

225000

300000

19 26 19 30 19 34 19 38 1 94 2 1 94 6 19 50 19 54 19 58 1 962 1 96 6 19 70 1 97 4 1 97 8 1 98 2 19 86 19 90 1 994 1 998 20 02 2 00 6 20 10

New Cars Registered

FIGURE 14: Cars per household in three major suburbs

Inner Suburb Outter Suburb

Auckland 0.71 0.85

Wellington 0.66 0.84Christchurch 0.75 0.95


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3.4 Decline

Throughout 1960s and 1970s New Zealand set-tlements remained largely mono-centric andthe CBD was the common central destinationor both private car and the bus. While tram

systems operated in dedicated spaces, busesshared the same road space with private cars,which lead to congestion and slower transittimes relative to personal car travel. In laterparts o the 1970s in noteworthy or the rapiddecline in public transport use. Given that pe-troleum prices rose steadily in price between1972 to 1979, so did the bus are. Thus someo the advantages held previously or publictransport was eroded, urthering the loss o

public transports appeal (Figure 14).

A key question this thesis aims to answer re-garding public transport is why people letit when it was at its best and strongest inthe 1950s? The public transport system thenwould have given the people great access towork, education and shopping; peoples dailylives were conducted around public transport.However, Figure 14 shows that car owner-

ship in three major cities was at about 0.9 perhousehold. Notably those in the outer suburbsseemed more car-dependent where publictransport services perormed poorly. Althoughthat may be one o the many reasons respon-sible or the decline o public transport, thecontention according to Rise and Decline othe Public Transport in New Zealand suggeststhat the demand or social-recreational travelare perhaps the principle actors responsible

due to the act that once a car is owned it isused, and generally replaces the use o othermodes o travel including public transport(Dravitzki & Lester, 2007).

FIGURE 15: The vicious circle o bus VS cars

This personal preerence o personal car travelhas inevitably raised high demand on roadwidening thus putting extra stress on govern-ment unding. According to Parliament docu-

ments, 80% o total unds are allocated to roadand state highways (NZ Parliamentary Library,2006). This has let only 14% o unds into the

pocket o passenger transport, which inevita-bly lead to poor services such as limited routescompounded by attitudes o public transportbeing a orm o welare. All o which contrib-

uted back towards the loss o appeal to thegeneral public and high preerence o personalcar travel (Figure 15).

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FIGURE 16: Graphical representation: rise and decline o New Zealand public transport

12 Electric trams intro-

duced in New Zealandcities and towns.First time electric-ity was used as sourceof transport energy,replacing horse / steampower

Tram Advancement

Stops

First World War

exposed soldiers tothe use of trucks.Many soldiers setup small bus com-panies and truckingfrms or motor

repair services.

Trams starts

ancillarybus servicesrunning tothose areasnot servicedby trams

Second World

WarRestrictionson car use andpetrol raion-ing boostedpatrongage.(Tramway pa-tronage peak)

Constraints

on private caruptake disap-pearsFuel and tyrerestrictionsease out

Great Wealth ofNew ZealandPrivate carownership anduse increasedrapidly

Cities Expand.

Entering theautomobilecity

Tram systemsreplaced by busbased systems

Great Depression

Reduced Economicactivity


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Cars per Houseold:

Auckland: 0.85

Christchurch: 0.95

Mono-centric urbanform:Heavy congestionsat CBD destinations

Buses share thesame congestions

Petro price rose

steadily (600%)Bus fare also rose,contribution to de-cline of patronage.

4 Ch i t h h T t ti

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4.0 Christchurch Transportation

Transport is Canterburys most signicant areao inrastructure provision, given its large pub-lic and private costs, contribution to the eco-nomic perormance o the region, infuence on

urban orm, and other social and environmen-tal eects. Transportation is undamental tothe quality o lie in Christchurch. It providesaccess to education, employment, services andrecreational opportunities. How people travelto work and how oten aects the physical en-vironment through emissions, noise, conges-tion and community severance. It aects andis aected by where people live, work and theother places they spend their time. Our uture

ability to und our transport methods and net-works is, however, about making smart choices(UDS Partnership, 2009)

Canterbury Regional Land Transport strategyacknowledges the many challenges acing theregion over the next thirty years, such as de-mographic, technological changes, oil supplysecurity and uel price volatility (CanterburyRegional Transport Commitee, 2012). Rex Wil-

liams (Commisioner o Transport Commitee)is certain that the Land Transport systemneeds to be able to adapt to meet our changingneeds while supporting the regions economyand improving access in an aordable way.This strategy seeks to transition over timetowards a multi-modal transport system thatgives people greater choices or commuting.

FIGURE 17: Canterbury regional land transport strategy 2012 - 2042

Towards an Efficient Economy | Economic Research | Looking at Christchurch

4 1 Ho sehold Tra el 4 1 1 Cars

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4.1 Household TravelPatterns

4.1.1 Cars

For the purpose o this thesis, examiningvarious statistics rom the Household TravelSurvey will provide a better insight into howpeople travel.

As o late 1950s, Christchurch continues to be-have like the Automobile City, (Newman &Jennings, 2008). Car travel is growing at about2.5% per annum. With the expected population

growth, trac volumes are expected to have in-creased by 27% by 2026 (GCTDM, 2009). Thuscars will be the initial ocus on this section.

The trends in car registration (Figure 18) illus-trates the car culture o the nation and conse-quently stimulated the existing transportationnetwork.

CHRISTCHURCH CAR TRAVELFACTS:

Cars are used 85% o all daily trips ingreater Christchurch area.

NZ had the 5th highest rate o vehicleownership amongst the OECD coun-tries (700 cars per 1,000 persons)

Christchurch in 2006: 709 cars per1,000 persons.

60% o residents drive to work.(Auckland is 57%, Wellington is 40%)

96% o those cars driven to work by

Christchurch residents have only a sin-gle occupant.

FIGURE 18: Population trend and new cars registered

4 1 2 Car Ownership

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4.1.2 Car Ownership

People in Christchurch, Selwyn and Waimak-ariri love using cars. 85% o all trips are madein private cars and 19 out o 20 cars travellingto work have only a single occupant. Cars acil-

itates peoples need to travel urther, aster, andmore requently than ever beore. Cars are nowcomparatively easy to buy with easier accessto loans and low-priced imports. Comparedwith public transport, they are oten perceivedto be convenient, with increased reedom ormost people and have lower operating costs(discussed in 4.1.4). Free parking within walk-ing distance o Christchurchs central businessdistricts or suburban employment areas con-

tributes to this perception o low costs.

Consequently, vehicle ownership increasedover the past years (Figure 19, Figure 20).

Source:Developmentandapplica-

tionofaNewZealandcarownership

andtrafcforecastingmodel

Source:MinistryofTransp

ort-

TransportMonitoringIndicator

Framework

FIGURE 19: Vehicle ownership per household

FIGURE 20: Vehicle ownership per capita


4 1 3 Household Car

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FIGURE 21: Number o households with access to nil, one, two or three motor vehicles by region

4.1.3 Household CarAccessibility

Comparing with past New Zealand CencusData (1996, 2001 and 2006), a trend or all re-gions suraces:

Households with access to zero vehiclesare decreasing

Household with access to one vehicle re-mains quite stagnant

Households with access to two vehiclesare growing

Households with access to three or morevehicles are growing

Source:NewZealandCencusfrom1

996,2001,2006

AUCKLAND

WELLINGTON

CANTERBURY

4.1.4 Analysis o GDP Trends

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4.1.4 Analysis o GDP Trends

An analysis was undertaken to investigate theextent to which car ownership levels might beaected by changes in real income (GDP perperson) and changes in real car prices (Cond-

er, 2009):

Figure 22. Shows the increasing trend inGDP per person

Figure 23. Shows the generally decreasingtrend in average real car prices.

The coupling o the two is the major con-tribution to the increase in car owndershipduring this period

FIGURE 22: Trends in GDP per person

FIGURE 23: Trends in average car prices 1970 - 2006


Conclusions:

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FIGURE 24: Three-year change in cars per person, GDP per person and car prices: 1973 - 2006 There appears to be a relationship be-tween growth rates in cars per person andin GDP per person. Times o increasingGDP per person and decreasing car prices

tend to correspond to increasing cars perperson. The cars per person growth ratesare less volatile than those or GDP perperson. There is no clear evidence that thecar per person trend either leads or lagsbehind the GDP per person trend.

The substantial reduction in car prices inthe period ater 1988 appears to be a ma-jor actor in infuencing the strong growth

in car ownership over the 1988 - 1991 pe-riod, when GDP growth was very weak (ornegative)

Conclusions:

4.2 Travel Modes

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4

The way we travel is aecting our quality olie, inrastructure costs, and the environment.

It is reported rom the survey that the pri-

vate car is used 86% o all journey to work nChristchurch. When compared with 74% orall trips, it is not hard to understand that mosthousehold work travels are not easily conduct-ed by car-sharing due to the various uncertain-ties o the workplaces. This may have been acontributing actor or the increase in averagecar ownership per capita (0.7 present, 0.64 in2002)

FIGURE 25: Mode share o all trips to work in Christchurch

Drive and Walk

Car /Van Driver

Car /Van Passenger

Pedestrian

Cyclist

Public Transport (bus/train/ferry)

Other Household Travel

MODE SHAREFOR ALL TRIPS 49%

25%

20%

2%1%3%

MODE SHAREJOURNEY TO WORK 76%

3%

7%

4%2%

4%


5.0 Mobile Application 5.2 Existing Car-sharing

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5 ppInitiative

5.1 Solution

5 g gOptions

Ater looking into the travel behavior, it is cer-tain that Christchurch is a very car-dependentcity. While cars are considered as a luxuriousmode o travel in some other cities o the world,

it is a necessity in Christchurch. There are noother convenient ways o getting around otherthan buses that have been proven to be ine-cient in previous chapters.

This thesis urther examines into the targetproblem o single-occupant drivers that cur-rently lls the road space with mostly emptyseats even though they are heading in similardestinations. The resultant o this particular

travel behaviour typically lead to road conges-tion.

We are on our way towards a dierent way oconsumption: Collaborative Consumption:

Dont Own, but Share (Botsman, 2010). Thebest example or this notion is the act thatwe all own a home power drill even though onaverage it is only used twelve to thirteen min-utes o its entire lietime. The question asked

The current car-sharing options are limiting,with mostly PC only interaces (Figure 28). Aswe are moving towards a Post-PC era, therewill be much interest in developing an easy

to use application to incentivize users or anyservice.

79%o work journeyare conducted throughpersonal vehicles

Out o those,95%othem have only a singleoccupant

Apple isnt just challengingperceptions o the PC --theyre saying that the ageo the PC is over

- Topolsky, 2011

Post-PC world representsa displacement ocomputing rom thetraditional, 30 year-oldIntel architecture used ondesktop to the Datacenterand the Cloud.- Perlow, 2012

=

FIGURE 27: Collaborative Consumption or Empty Seats

FIGURE 29: Future technology trends: Cloud based services

FIGURE 26: Dont own, but share

DONT OWN, BUT SHARE

FIGURE 28: Current Car-sharing options

is whether there are any reason or owning anyentity when what we only need is the thing itprovides, in this case it is the hole, not the drill.(Figure 26)

This thesis experiments with the notion o Col-laborative Consumption with the three emptyseats in single-occupant vehicles on the road(Figure 27)

5.3 Mobile Application: KiwiGo Mock-up

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5.3.1 Login Page 5.3.2 Driver Interace

As part o the bigger intention, this the-sis begins by designing a mobile applica-tion in which envisions to undamentallychange the way people perceive personalcars. KiwiGo is a smart car-sharing appthat takes advantage o the sea o cars andallows drivers to actively rent out theirvacant seats to others heading in similardirections. The user will be prompted tolog into the service when opening this ap-plication (Figure 30)

Ater the log in, users will be greeted withthree interaces to choose rom depend-ing on their needs. The driver interacewill ask drivers to input their destinations

while KiwiGo nds their best matcheswith nearby riders near their route alongthe way (Figure 31).

FIGURE 30: KiwiGo Login Page FIGURE 31: KiwiGo Driver Interace

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5.3.3 Rider Interace 5.3.4 Proile Page

The riders interace will prompt users toinput the destination they wish to catcha ride to. Any drivers route that bypassesthem will reveal on the map or riders tochoose rom, depending on their specicneeds. For instance at some point, a largervan would be more suitable i the riderhas large amount o groceries.

So security measure, users must be regis-tered with their legitimate identications.This application will be a comment basedcommunity. Everyone can comment on

each others perormance based on theirpersonal experience. Through construc-tive comments can everyone take part inbuilding a much saer and insightul com-munity.

FIGURE 32: KiwiGo Rider Interace FIGURE 33: KiwiGo Prole Page

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By live updating the status on social mediasuch as Facebook or Twitter, it adds more reli-able security (Figure 34).

KiwiGo will also create a weekly or monthlysummary o how much money or carbon emis-sion saved by using this service. Deep integra-tion with social media gives KiwiGo the bestmarketing tools available (Figure 35).

KiwiGo users will operate with a credit

system in which they will need to pur-chase to use. However, KiwiGo will alsocalculate the recommended are or riders,depending on the distance shared. Thesecredits will be the currency transerredbetween users. Ultimately, this will incen-tivize users to keep using this service bykeeping their travel cost down.

5.3.5 Recommended Fare 5.3.6 Social Media Integration

FIGURE 34: Social Integration or KiwiGo

FIGURE 35: Weekly Summary o KiwiGo

5.4 Future Implementation

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FIGURE 36: Christchurch: A Multimodal Travelling City5.4.1 Public Transport (Metro)

5.4.2 Shared leet o cars/scooter/bike rental service

KiwiGo aims to be implemented with the localpublic transport (Metro) in the uture may thisapplication succeed and become mainstream.

This will give users a next step in providingmore commuting choice.

Providing feets o shared cars, scooters orbikes scattered around the city abric will bethe next phase o KiwiGo. Users can then lo-

cate and make reservation to them all throughthis mobile application.

5.5 Catalyst or Change

This thesis proposes this idea based on theact that it requires not extra inrastructural in-

vestment. Given the right procedures o imple-mentation, this application has the potential tospread virally amongst this car-cultured popu-lation and act as a catalyst to change the urbanabric o Christchurch

FIGURE 37: KiwiGo: Catalyst or Change

Bibliography

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Botsman, R. (2010). Whats Mine Is Yours: TheRise o Collaborative Consumption: Harper-Business.

Cambridge Systematics Inc, & Economic De-velopment Research Group. (1999). PublicTransportation and the Nations Economy:A Quantitative Analysis o Public Transpor-tations Economic Impact: American PublicTransit Association.

Canterbury Regional Transport Commitee.(2012). Canterbury Regional Land TransportStrategy 2012-2042. Christchurch, New Zea-land.

Conder, T. (2009). Development and Appli-cation o a New Zealand Car Ownership andTrac Forecasting Model: Booz & Co (NewZealand) Ltd.

Dravitzki, V., & Lester, T. (2006). The Rise andDecline o Public Transport in New Zealandand Some Lessons or its Recovery. Paper pre-sented at the Australian Transport Research

Forum, Surers Paradise. http://www.suc-cessulcities.co.nz/publications/Public%20Transport/Dravtizki-Lester-2006-TheRise-AndDeclineOPublicTransportInNZAnd-SomeLessonsForItsRecovery.pd

Dravitzki, V., & Lester, T. (2007). Can WeLive by Public Transport Alone? Paper pre-sented at the Transport: The Next 50 Years,Christchurch, New Zealand. http://www.suc-

cessulcities.co.nz/publications/Public%20Transport/Dravitzki-Lester-2007-Canwelive-bypublictransportalone.pd

GCTDM. (2009). Greater Christchurch TravelDemand Management Strategy and ActionPlan.

Ministry or the Environment. (2011, April 1,2012). New Zealand Greenhouse Gas Inven-tory 1990 - 2009, rom http://www.me.govt.nz/publications/climate/greenhouse-gas-invento-ry-2011-snapshot/index.html

Newman, P. (2000). Sustainable Transporta-tion and Global Cities Retrieved 20th March2012, 2012, rom http://www.istp.murdoch.edu.au/ISTP/casestudies/Case_Studies_Asia/sus-trans/sustrans.html

Newman, P., & Jennings, I. (2008). Cities assustainable ecosystems : principles and prac-tices. Washington, D.C.: Island Press.

Newman, P., & Kenworthy, J. R. (1999). Sustain-ability and cities : overcoming automobile de-pendence. Washington, D.C.: Island Press.

NZ Parliamentary Library. (2006). Road Fund-

ing by Region, rom http://www.parliament.nz/NR/rdonlyres/88A145EA-3D26-48B3-9D08-CB5542CAE335/36373/063RoadFundingbyRegion1.pd

Perlow, J. (2012). Post-PC era means mass ex-tinction or personal computer OEMs, 2012,rom http://www.zdnet.com/blog/perlow/post-pc-era-means-mass-extinction-or-per-sonal-computer-oems/20514

Topolsky, J. (2011, March 3rd 2011). Its Applespost-PC world - Were all just living in it, 2012,rom http://www.engadget.com/2011/03/03/

editorial-its-apples-post-pc-world-were-all-just-living/

UDS Partnership. (2009). Focus on Transport,2012, rom http://www.greaterchristchurch.org.nz/News/PDF/UDSNewsletterMarch2009.pd

Weisbrod, G., & Reno, A. (2009). Economic Im-pact o Public Transport Investment: Ameri-can Public Transportation Association.

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6.0 Urban Strategy 6.1 Road Area

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As my emphasis lay heavily on personal auto-mobiles, an extensive research on the existingroad network is needed to understand the ex-isting inrastructure in Christchurch.

The urban strategy begins by calculating theexisting road areas in relation to the land areao Christchurch.

FIGURE 38: Road area percentage

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FIGURE 39: Road area percentage extruded map

6.2 Top 10 Area Units by Road Area Percentage

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Road Area %Building Footprint %Top Ten Area UnitsArea Units Border

FIGURE 40: Top 10 Area Units

FIGURE 41: Area Units road area catalogue

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1. Cathedral Square 3. Richmond South 5. Waltham

6. Riccarton South4. Sydenham2. Avonloop

23.1% 40.2% 20.7% 19.2% 20.2% 30.8%

20.1% 19.5%20.7% 26.2%20.8% 25.6%

FIGURE 41: Area Units road area catalogue

7. Opawa 9. Papanui

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10. Riccarton West8. Belast South

19.9% 16.8% 19.4% 20.0%

19.3% 16.5%19.8% 7.1%

FIGURE 42: Road area percentage table

Bryndwr 15.7%

Merrin 15.7%

36

37

Barrington South 12.6%

Waimari Beach 12.3%

74

75

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FIGURE 42: Road area percentage table

Cathedral Square 23.1%

Avonloop 20.8%

Richmond South 20.7%

Sydenham 20.7%

Waltham 20.2%Riccarton South 20.1%

Opawa 19.9%

Belfast South 19.8%

Papanui 19.4%

Riccarton West 19.3%

Hagley Park 19.0%

Bishopdale 18.7%

Addington 18.6%

St Albans West 18.5%Richmond North 18.4%

Holmwood 18.2%

Mona Vale 18.1%

Mairehau 17.8%

Styx Mill 17.5%

Hoon Hay South 17.4%

St Martins 17.4%

Linwood 17.3%

Wairarapa 17.2%Westburn 17.1%

Spreydon 16.9%

Riccarton 16.7%

Jellie Park 16.5%

St Albans East 16.4%

Aranui 16.4%

Phillipstown 16.2%

Dallington 16.1%

Linwood East 16.0%

Avonside 16.0%

Rutland 15.9%

Casebrook 15.7%

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

Woolston South 15.7%

Barrington 15.7%

Linwood North 15.6%

Merivale 15.4%

Shirley West 15.2%

Beckenham 15.0%Ilam 14.9%

Hilmorton 14.9%

Masham 14.8%

Avonhead 14.7%

Parklands 14.7%

Burwood 14.7%

Hoon Hay 14.6%

Edgeware 14.6%

North Beach 14.4%Burnside 14.4%

Strowan 14.3%

Ensors 14.3%

Redwood North 14.3%

Fendalton 14.1%

Deans Bush 14.1%

Upper Riccarton 14.1%

Halswell Domain 14.1%

Avondale 13.9%

Shirley East 13.9%

Hornby South 13.8%

Oaklands West 13.7%

Ferrymead 13.6%

Somerfield 13.6%

Sockburn 13.3%

Aorangi 13.3%

Oaklands East 13.1%

Travis 13.1%

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

55

56

57

58

59

60

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

Wharenui 11.9%

Northcote 11.6%

Chisnall 11.4%

Russley 10.7%

Westmorland 10.5%

Travis Wetlands 10.5%Halswell South 10.2%

Rawhiti 10.1%

Middleton 10.1%

Aidenfield 9.7%

Harewood 9.6%

Mt Pleasant 9.6%

Kaimahi 9.0%

Bexley 8.9%

Hawthorden 8.6%Redwood South 7.8%

Sumner 7.6%

Cashmere East 7.4%

Heathcote 7.4%

Broomfield 7.0%

South Brighton 6.4%

Wigram 6.3%

Moncks Bay 6.2%

Sawyers 5.8%

Islington 5.7%

Rapaki 5.2%

Bromley 4.7%

Cashmere West 4.2%

Halswell West 3.2%

Belfast 3.1%

Yaldhurst 2.9%

Henderson Basin 2.2%

Templeton 2.1%

Mcleans Island 1.5%

76

77

78

79

80

81

82

83

84

85

86

87

88

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

96

97

98

99

100

101

102

103

104

105

106

107

108

109

FIGURE 43: Cathedral Square space devoted to carpark(Google Earth Image)

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6.2 Reclaiming the city Cathedral Square Avonloop

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Assuming car-use is controlled, or better yet,decreased , the need or road widening or de-mand or car park can be considerably dimin-ished, allowing vacant space or other uses.

Below are a catalogue o the key activity cen-ters. These centers oten consists o strip mallsthat have high demands on open car parkingspaces. The ollowing examines these car parkspaces and the possibilities o reclaiming themback or other uses.

MEDIUM DENSITY HOUSING

SINGLE DETACHED HOUSE

180 m2

600 m2

RETAIL STORES

CITY PARKS

400 m2

20,000 m2

FIGURE 44: Typical areas o diferent uses

Land Area: 2,196,000 m2

23.1%

40.2%

59.8%

4.7%

32%

702,720 m2

Road:

Car Park:

Building Footprint:

Non-Building:

Social Recreational:

1,171 X

1,756 X35 X

3,904 X

Land Area: 1,413,000 m2

20.8%

25.6%

74.4%

7.3%

10%

361,728 m2

Road:

Car Park:

Building Footprint:

Non-Building:


600 X

900 X18 X

2,000 X

Riccarton Riccarton South Spreydon

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Land Area: 1,085,000 m2

16.7%

25.9%

74.1%

14.7%

8.5%

92,225 m2

Road:

Car Park:

Building Footprint:

Non-Building:


Land Area: 793,500 m2

20.1%

19.5%

80.8%

5.2%

9.2%

73,002 m2

Road:

Car Park:

Building Footprint:

Non-Building:


Land Area: 1,193,850 m2

16.9%

19.2%

80.8%

5.8%

2.9%

34,621 m2

Road:

Car Park:

Building Footprint:

Non-Building:


150 X 120 X 58 X

230 X 180 X 87 X

4.6 X 3.7 X 1.7 X

512 X 730 X 192 X

Linwood/Eastgate Papanui Hornby

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128 X 62 X 205 X

193 X 93 X 309 X

3.9 X 1.9 X 6.2 X

428 X 206 X 686 X

Land Area: 1,750,000 m2

15.8%

18.9%

81.1%

4.4%

77,000 m2

Road:

Car Park:

Building Footprint:

Non-Building:

Land Area: 1,484,300 m2

19.4%

22.3%

87.7%

2.5%

37,110 m2

Road:

Car Park:

Building Footprint:

Non-Building:

Land Area: 2,939,340 m2

13.0%

23.4%

76.6%

4.2%

123,450 m2

Road:

Car Park:

Building Footprint:

Non-Building:

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